THE 



WORLD'S PROGRESS 



Dictionary of Dates 



CHRONOLOGICAL AND ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF ALL ESSENTIAL FACTS 

IN THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, FROM THE CREATION OF 

THE WORLD TO THE PRESENT TIME 

WITH A CHART 

Edited by GEO. P. PUTNAM, A.M. 

REVISED AND CONTINUED TO AUGUST, 1877 

BY 

F. B. PERKINS 



TWENTY-FIRST EDITION 



'- 






NEW YORK 
G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

182 Fifth Avenue 

1877 




t^ 






Copyright bt 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 

1877. 



-v i 






i 




NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION OF 1877. 



In this edition the Synchronistical Tables and the alphabetical 
avrangeme. t of Historical and Statistical Facts have been brought 
down to Ju y, 1877 ; and the short chapter of " Statistics from the 
XL S. Treasury Department " has been enlarged by the addition of 
similar statistics from authoritative so'urces, covering, so far as 

was practicable, the time since those tables were compiled. 

i 

New York, August 20, 1877. 



i 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

I. SUPPLEMENT TO THE WORLD'S PROGRESS (1867 to 1877), .... 1 

II. BUREAU OP STATISTICS 65 

III. SUPPLEMENT, 1851 to 1867 69 

IV. DICTIONARY OP DATES 201 

V. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY, 665 

VI. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c 704 

VII. TABULAR VIEWS OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 713 

I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Period I. — The Antediluvian (1656 years) . . . . . .715 

Period II. — Dispersion of Mankind (427 years). — The Deluge to Abraham . 716 

Period III. — The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years). — Abraham to Moses . 718 

Period IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years). — Moses to Saul . . 720 

Period V. — The Monarchical (488 years).— Saul to Cyrus .... 726 

Period VI. — The Persian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander . . . 733 

Period VII. —The Grecian (184 years).— Alexander to the Fall of Greece . . 738 

Period VIII. — The Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 750 

II. MODERN HISTORY. 

Period I. — (306 years.) — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine . 760 

Period II. — (170 years.) — Constantine to Odoacer ..... 770 

Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet ..... 774 

Period IV. — (178 years.) — Mahomet to Charlemagne .... 780 

Period V. — (266 years.) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . . 784 

Period VI. — (233 years.) — William the Conqueror to Othman I. . . . 798 

Period VII.— (154 years.) — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . . 814 

Period VIII. —(145 years.)— Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes . 824 

Period IX.— (120 years. )— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII. of Sweden. 834 

Period X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon . . 846 

Period XL— (52 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1867 ..... £58 

Period XII.— (10 years.)— 1S67 to 1877 906 

VIII.— BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OR INDEX . . . .919 

XL— SCHOOLS OF PAINTING 1019 



EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OF HISTORY, 

Representing, in a Chronological Series, the Rtie, Revolutions, and Fall cf Uu 
principal Empires oj the World. 

OS THE PLAN OV BR. J. PBIESTLEY. 

It is necessary to notice, that the space allotted .o each country is rather according to its restive 
political importance, than to its geographical extent. 

The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen- 
»ury or 100 years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are 
expressed at the end of the chart. 

By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at 
the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming is 
Greece ; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy- 
rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but their 
history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a 
greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued 
by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under 
barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African 
provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek 
Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modem states of 
Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. 

On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking 
along the chart Horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that 
of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls 
in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. — The 
Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the Judges about 1300; under 
Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians 
restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac 
cabees, 150 ■, conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. d. 622; afterwards by the cru- 
saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- 
tury; relinquished by them, a. d. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the 
Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280; with 
Scotland, 1600.— Italy in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300—200 
B. o. to 480 a. d., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern 
times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about 
IdOO. and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c. ;h« 
Pope, and the King of Naples. 

" They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to 
excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are 
marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in 
what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part ot 
&air species ! "—Priestley. 



PREFACE. 



While revising a chronological manual, in compiling wliicn I Lad) 
at the age of fifteen.* employed many midnight hours, I have found 
material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. 
Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford 
Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the 
comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been 
incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United 
States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations 
to the present year. 

The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had 
cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating 
them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only 
were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for 
the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- 
ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent 
reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; 
and showing also what was going on at the same time in different 
countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, 
many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they 
are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. 

To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- 
rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while 
the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and 



* Chrr/iiclogv — An Index to Universal History. &c. 12mo. Leavitt, Ncw- 
l'ork ; IG33. The volume has been. long out of print. 



others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they 
are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason 
that they contain too much for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- 
ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. 

What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- 
tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the 
governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to 
recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and 
to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. 

The alphabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more 
full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the 
whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- 
ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the 
largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible 
compass. 

There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names 
and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances 
the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not 
numerous or important. 

The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, 
it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously 
useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it 
the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will 
show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- 
sons lived during the life-time of that individual. 

It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That 
such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be 
supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all 
reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the 
World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in 
Politics and Government. G. P. P. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



BEING AN ALPHABETICAL BECOBD OF IMPOETANT PACTS AND OCCUBBENCES DUEING THOSE 
TEAKS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FOKMEB EDITIONS. 



ABATTOIR. December 28, 1871, was opened at Deptford, a market and 
slaughter-house, where all foreign cattle for London consumption must 
be landed and slaughtered. Cost, more than £194,000. 

ABYSSES"! A. Theodore, the native King of Abyssinia, having imprisoned 
several English subjects, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier invaded 
the country, and on April 13, 1868, stormed Magdala, the king's strong- 
hold, on which he killed himself. Cost of the war to England, £8,300,000. 
Napier was created Baron Napier of Magdala, with a pension of £2,000 
a year/ King John, or Johanni, a successor of Theodore, has, since his 
death, maintained a defensive war against the Khedive of Egypt, whose 
troops entered Abyssinia, but were surprised and defeated with much 
slaughter, in 1874 or 1875. In 1876, however, John was totally defeated, 
and treated for peace ; was again defeated after breaking truce ; but the 
later results of the war have been indecisive. 

AC CAD. Accad or Akkad, and Sumer or Sumir, are the names given to 
two pre-historic countries, whose people, called Accadians and Sumerians, 
. are supposed to have used two differing dialects, found in the cuneiform 
inscriptions of Assyria. No dates are ascertained about tbem, but the 
former were in the southeast of Babylonia, while the Surner were in the 
northeast. 

ACCIDENTS. (See also Collisions, Earthquakes, Explosions, Fires, Floods, 
Railroad Accidents, Shipwrecks, Storms. ) From 1864 to 1874 inclusive, 
about 11,000 deaths by accident took place in England and Wales, a large 
proportion of them from coal-mine casualties. January 15, 1867, the ice 
broke under the skaters on the lake in the Regent's Park, London, letting 
several hundred persons into the water. Forty were drowned. July 31, 1868, 
a false alarm of fire was raised in Lang's Victoria Music Hall, at Manches- 
ter, England, and in the panic rush to escape, between twenty and thirty 
were killed. July 27, 1869, Rev. J. M. Elliott, an Englishman, lost his 
foothold, and fell from near the- summit of the Schreskhorn, in Switzer- 
land, a distance of 1,000 feet or more, and was killed. October 1, 1869, a 
firework dealer's shop, in Bayswater, London, blew up, killing seven out 
of thirteen persons then asleep in the house. August 2, 1S70, on Mont 
Blanc, an English lady, Mrs. Marke, and her guide fell into a crevasse, 
and were killed. August 11, 1871, at Stowmarket, England, an explosion of 
gun-cotton stored there killed 24 and wounded 72 persons. December 30, 
1 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



1871, at Glasgow, a road locomotive, known as Yuille's Traction Engine, 
used to drag heavy machinery for shipping, exploded its boiler, killing five 
persons and wounding some 40 more, mostly children, who had gathered 
round it out of curiosity. 

ADMINISTRATIONS. England. (See pp. 3, 152. 153. ) Disraeli resigns, 
and Gladstone becomes premier, December 2, 18(58 ; Robert Lowe, John 
Bright. G. J. Goschen, W. E. Forster, and others becoming members of 
the Government. This ministry carried the disestablishment of the 
Irish Church, in 1869, and the ballot in 1872. Mr. Gladstone, having 
lost his majority at the election of February, 1874, resigned, February 14, 
and Mr. Disraeli resumed the premiership, his cabinet consisting of the Earl 
of Derby, the Marquis of Salisbury, etc. 

ADMINISTRATIONS. United States. (See pp. 2, 149.) 

Gbant's First Administration. 



Ulysses S. Grant, 


Illinois, 


March 4, 


1869 


President. 


Schuyler Colfax, 


Indiana, 


March 4, 


1869 


Vice-President. 


Hamilton Fish, 


New York, 


March, 


1869 


Secretary of State. 


Geo. S. Bontwell, 


Massachusetts, 


March, 


1869 


Secretary of the 
Treasury. 


A. E. Borie, 
Geo. M. Robeson, 


Pennsylvania, 
New Jersey, 


March. 
June 25, 


1869) 
1869 ( 


Secretaries of Navy. 


Gen. Schofield, 




March, 


1869 ) 




Gen. J. A. Rawlins, 


Illinois, 


March, 


1869 V 


Secretaries of War. 


Gen. W. W. Belknap, 


Iowa, 


Sept., 


1869 ) 




James Harlan, 


Iowa, 


March, 


1869 ) 


Secretaries of Inte- 


Gen. J. D. Cox, 


Ohio, 




1870 y 
1870 \ 




Columbus Delano, 


Ohio, 


June, 


rior. 


J. A. J. Creswe.ll, 


Maryland, 


March, 


1869 


Postmaster General. 


E. R. Hoar, 


Massachusetts, 




1869 ) 




A. T. Akerman, 


Georgia, 




1871V 


■ Attorneys-General. 


G. H. Williams, 


Oregon, 




1871 J 




i 


Grant's Second Administeation. 






Ulysses S. Grant, 


Illinois, 


March 4, 


,1873 


President. 


Henry Wilson, 


Massachusetts, 


March 4. 


, 1873 


Vice-President. 


Thos. W. Ferry, 


Michigan, 






President of Senate 
pro tern. 


Hamilton Fish, 


New York, 


March 4 


, 1869 


Secretary of State. 


Wm. A. Richardson, 


Massachusetts, 






(Secretaries of Treas 


Benj. J. Bristow, 


Kentucky, 






tj ury. 


Lot M. Morrill, 


Vermont, 






Wm. W. Belknap, 


Iowa, 






> Secretaries of War. 


J. D. Cameron, 


Pennsylvania, 






Geo. M. Robeson, 


New Jersey, 






Secretary of Navy. 


Columbus Delano, 


Ohio, 






(Secretaries of lute- 
s' rior. 


Zach. Chandler. 


Michigan, 






Geo. H. Williams, 


Oregon, 






) 


Edwards Pierrepoint, 


New York, 






> Attorneys-General. 


Alphonso Taft, 


Ohio, 






J 


John A. J. Creswell, 


Maryland, 








Marshall Jewell, 


Connecticut, 






> Postmasters-General. 


James N. Tyner, 


Indiana, 






) 




Hates' Administbation. 






Rutherford B . Hayes, 


Ohio, 


Maroh 4, 1877 


President. 


Wm. A. Wheeler, 


New York, 


March 4. 1877 


Vice-President. 


Wm. M. Evarts, 


New York, 






Secretary of State. 


John Sherman, 


Ohio, 






Secretary of Treas- 
ury. 
Secretary of War. 


Geo. W. McCrary, 


Iowa, 






Richard W. Thompson, 


, Indiana, 






Secretary of Navy. 


Carl Schurz, 


Missouri, 






Secretary of Interior. 


Charles Devens, 


Massachusetts, 






Attorney-General. 


David M. Key, 


Tennessee, 






Postmaster-General. 



supplement, 1867-77.- 3 

AFGHANISTAN. (See p. 157.) Runjeet Singh, a Sikh by race, and King 
of Lahore, conquered most of Afghanistan about 1818 ; Dost Mohammed 
became ruler of it, 1829 ; took Herat May 26, 1863 ; succeeded by his son, 
Shere Ali, June 9, 1863 ; who has had much trouble and warfare with 
divers of his fifteen brothers and his other relatives, and has only been 
maintained by English aid. 

AFRICA. (See pp. 4, 157.) Zambesi River explored by Livingstone, 1851-6 
and 1858-64 ; his book published November, 1865. Stanley, sent by 
Bennett of the New York Herald, reported having met Livingstone at 
Ujiji. November 10, 1871, and having remained with him until March 14, 
1872. Livingstone died at Itala, in Central Africa, May 1, 1873 ; his 
remains were brought to England and buried in Westminster Abbey, 
April 18, 1874; his last journals published December, 1874. Lieut. 
" Cameron crossed Africa from Zanzibar westward to the Portuguese settle- 
ments on the west coast, arriving November 21, 1875. Stanley's second 
expedition for the New York Herald and London Telegraph, 1875-6. 

AGRICULTURE. (See pp. 5, 15S.) Farm products of the United States, 
exclusive of live stock, year ending June 1, 1870, $2,445,000,000. A 
_" Union" of English agricultural laborers to secure better wages and 
social amelioration generally, was established mainly by the efforts of 
Joseph Arch, himself formerly a laborer, at Leamington, Warwickshire, 
March 29, 1872, and has attained some influence. 

ALABAMA CLAIMS. The Alabama rebel armed steamer, Raphael Semmes 
commander, was built by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, England, for the 
Rebel States of America, and launched May 15, 1862, and sailed July 28, 
1862, one day before the English government telegraphed to detain her. 
She was destroyed and sunk .in a sea-fight off Cherbourg by the U. S. 
steamer-of-war Kearsarge, Capt. Winslow, June 19, 1884, after having 
done immense damage to American commerce. During 1865 the United 
States and English governments discussed the question of English respon- 
sibility for this damage ; a convention was agreed upon on the subject 
November 10, 1868, which came to nothing ; another, signed by Lord 
Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, January 14, 1869, was rejected by 
the United States Senate April 13, 1869 ; a joint convention on this and 
other matters signed a treaty at Washington, May 8, 1871, providing 
a mode of settlement by arbitration ; Arbitration Commission met 
formally at Geneva, December 18, 1871, and the American and British 
cases were presented December 20. Indirect claims and the whole 
attitude of the English Government caused much excitement in England ; 
indirect claims mutually resigned by supplementary treaty, approved by 
Senate May '25, 1872. The arbitration tribunal, composed of Count 
Frederic Sclopis, for Italy, President ; Baron Staempfli, for Switzer- 
land ; Viscount d'ltajuba, for Brazil ; Sir Alexander E. Cockburn, for 
England; Mr. C. F. Adams, for the United States, met at Geneva and 
opened business June 15, 1872. After presentation of cases and argu- 
ment, the final meeting was held September 14, 1872, and damages 
awarded to the United States, unanimously for injuries by the Alabama, 
by four arbitrators for those by the Florida, and by three for those by 
the Shenandoah. Total of award, $15,000,000. The total of the United 
States claims, after dropping the indirect claims, was about three times 
as much. The English arbitrator, Sir A. E. Cockburn, refused to sign 
the judgment, mainly on the ground that the Florid.a and Shenandoah 



4 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

claims were improperly allowed. A large proportion of this sum remained 
after all the awards of the Court of Claims established by the United 
States to decide who should receive the money, which as yet (August, 
1877), remains in the U. S. Treasury. 

ALASKA. Bought from Russia by the United States by treaty of March 
13, 1867, for $7,200,000, which was paid August 1, 1868. Principal 
settlement, Sitka. The United States military occupation discontinued 
in 1877. 

>ALSACE. Alsace (German, Blsass), was anciently part of Austrasia ; joined 
to the German empire in tenth century ; part recovered by France, 1648 ; 
the rest, 1697 ; conquered and occupied by the Germans, 1870-1 ; ceded 
by France to Germany by treaty of May 10, 1871 ; the law completing 
the annexation passed June 9, 1871. The people allowed to choose their 
nationality, and those preferring France to emigrate with their property 
before September 30, 1872. Many did so. Part of Lorraine (which see) 
including Metz and Thionville, was ceded and annexed with Alsace. 

ANILINE. Discovered by Unverdorben in 1826, in distilling indigo; ob- 
tained from benzole by Bechamp, 1856; "mauve" applied in dyeing by 
W. A. Perkin, 1856 ; since used to produce red, blue, violet, and green 
colors. 

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. (See p. 8.) The establishment of societies for 
preventing cruelty to animals in England and Europe was followed by the 
organization of a similar one, chiefly by the efforts of Mr. Henry Bergh, in 
New York City, incorporated April 10, 1866, and of one in Boston, incor- 
porated March 23, 1868, which have been efficient. 

ARCH. The arch was long supposed a Roman invention ; but very ancient 
arches have been found in bridges in China, and in temples and other 
structures in Egypt and Assyria. The arching in the Cloaca Maxima at 
Rome is thought the oldest in Europe, and dates to about 588 B.C.; and 
those found in the ruins of Assyrian cities are considered the oldest in the 
world. 

ARCHAEOLOGY. (See Curium; Mycelial ; Olympia ; Pre-Tiistorie Man ; 
Troy.) 

ARCH^30PTERYX. ("Primeval bird.") Fossil remains found at Sol- 
enhofen in Bavaria, in 1861, by H. Von Meyer and Dr. Haberlein. It had 
some reptilian traits in its structure — teeth in its jaws, and a tail with 
feathers radiating from it. It was described by Owen in 1863. 

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. (See pp. 10, 173.) Captain C. F, Hall's first 
voyage of discovery was 1880-62 ; he ascertained that Frobisher's so- 
called strait is a bay, and gained experience of Eskimo life. His second 
voyage, in the MonticeMo, began June 30, 1864 ; results not remarkable. 
His third, in the Polaris, began July 3, 1871, and he took his ship to 82 3 
16' north latitude, the northernmost point so far. He died in the Arctio 
regions, November 8, 1871. Polaris wintered at northernmost point so 
far, 81° 38' ; set out to return under Budington, August 12, 1872; in a 
panic in the ice, October 15, Tyson and nineteen more were left on a floe, 
and were rescued April 30, 1873, after a remarkable drift. The ship re- 
mained with the other fourteen persons a second winter ; they left in 
boats built from her materials, June 3, 1873, and were picked up by a 
whaler. The " first German expedition," under Capt. Karl Koldewey, of 
eleven men only, in the Germania, to the east coast of Greenland and 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77.. 5 

Spitzbergen, set out September 30, 1868. The "second German expedi- 
tion," in the Germcmia and Hansa, under Koldewey, sailed from Bremer- 
haven, June 15, 1869. Hansa was lost in the ice, crew escaping - ; coal 
discovered in east Greenland ; Germania wintered at Sabine Island ; 
sledge parties reached 77° 1' N. L. Expedition reached home September 
11, 1870.. The "Austrian expedition" in the T'egetthoff, under Wey- 
precht and Payer, by way of the seas between Spitzbergen and No- 
vaia Zemlia (Nova Zembla), left Tromsoe in Norway, July 14, 1872 ; dis- 
covered Franz Josef Land, in 79° 43' N., August 30, 1873 ; reached 79° 
58' N. ; left the Tegettliojf in the ice, May 20, 1874, and escaped in boats, 
reaching Europe early in September, 1874. Captain (afterwards Sir George) 
Nares's expedition, in the Alert and Discovery, left Portsmouth, May 29, 

1875. September 1st, she reached 82° 24', and wintered in 82° 27' north, 
the furthest point reached by any ship. That winter was noted the 
severest cold ever known in Arctic regions, reaching to 73-7 below 
zero ; a mean for seven days of 58'17 ; for thirteen days of 58'9 ; and 
for five days of 66 "29 degrees below zero. Ascertained that there is no 
" open Polar sea." but instead, a " palseocrystic sea," or " sea of ancient 
ice," which is, it was found, almost impossible to traverse. Sledge parties 
explored the coast eastward and westward, and another reached the 
northernmost point yet attained by man, being 83° 20' 26", within 400 
miles of the North Pole. The expedition returned to England in October, 

1876. A sharp controversy followed as to the proper victualling of the 
expedition, and the responsibility for the severe attacks of scurvy which 
had been suffered by most of the party. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. (Seep. 11.) Don Domingo P. Sarmiento was 
elected President for six years, October 12, 1868 ; Dr. Avellaneda was in- 
augurated for six years, October 12, 1874 ; an insurrection under Mitre at 
Buenos Ayres was ended by his submission, December 2, 1874 ; the Na- 
tional Bank stopped and the government suspended specie payments, 
May 16, 1876. 

ARMY, English. (See p. 176.) In 1869, it was stated in the English 
Parliament that each regular soldier cost per year in Prussia, £33 ; in 
Prance, £37; in England, £100; being nearly $165, $185, and $500. By 
Order in Council, 1870, Queen Victoria surrendered the royal prerogative 
of governing the army, and the General-in-Chief, instead of continuing an 
agent of the crown, was formally declared subordinate to the Minister of 
War. November 1, 1871, the practice of buying and selling commissions 
in the British army was stopped by royal warrant, dated July 20, 1871. 
Appointment and promotion by examination, merit, and seniority were 
substituted. 
The English military force in 1876 was thus constituted : 

Army in United Kingdom f>6,275 

" in India 62,850 

Militia 274,175 

Yeoman cavalry 15,078 

Volunteers 16S,750 

Enrolled pensioners and army reserve 31,000 

Total men 648,128 

The sum voted for-military purposes for the year 1876-7, was £15,282,- 
000 ; that for 1855-6 (Russian war), £32,006,603 ; and that for 1815 (last 
year of war with Napoleon), £39,150,000. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



ARMY, European. Estimated total of European armies in 1863. 
lion men, one million horses, 11,000 cannon. European armies 
were nearly as follows : 

Wab 

FOOTING. 

838. TOO 

lOOlOOO 

48,936 

1,750,000 

2,800.000 

748,128 



Peace 
footing. 
Austro-Hungary. . . . 278,470 

Belgium 40,000 

Denmark 35,057 

France 430,703 

Germany 419,738 

Great Britain ...... 288,781 

Gieece (nominal).. . 14,001 

Italy 199,557 

Netherlands 97, 859 

Portugal IS, 195 



750.000 

208,359 

68,450 



Peace 
footing. 

Russia 705,872 

Spain 151,668 

Sweden 132,775 

(Norway) 12,750 

Switzerland 

Turkey 170,376 

Roumania 34,647 

Servia 4.000 



Totals 3,094,609 



six mil- 
in 1876, 

Wab 

footing. 
3,300,000 



201,257 
459,360 

74,000 

11,377,190 



Peace footings not carried forward 345,891 

Total war armies of Europe more than 11,723,081 

ARMY, U. S. (See p. 11.) Expenses of the War Department for 



1872 §35.372,157.20 

1873 46,323,138.31 

1874 42,313,927.22 

1875 41,120,645.9S 

1876 38,070,S8S.64 



1867 $95,224,415.63 

1868 1 23.246,648.(32 

1869 78,501,990.61 

1870 57,655,675.40 

1871 35,799,991.82 

Regular army in 1877 about 25,000 men, and this toti-1 in process of re- 
duction. 

ARTILLERY. (See Ordnance.) 

ASHANTEE. The Ashantees defeated Sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, 
January 21, 1824, and carried off his skull as a trophy. Col. Purdon 
totally defeated them August 7, 1826. War was begun against them 
again by the English in 1863, but suspended from sickness of troops. 
Expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley sailed from England September 
12, 1873 ; English force, after a severe campaign, entered Coomassie, 
the Ashantee capital, February 4, 1874 ; the king, Koffee Kalcalli, re- 
fusing proposals, his palace and city burned February 6th ; a treaty, 
prohibiting human sacrifices, and providing for 50,000 ounces of gold 
indemnity to the English, signed February 13th. The expedition cost 
about £900,000. 

ASSASSINATIONS. June 6, 1867, one Berezowski, a Pole, fired two 
shots at the Czar of Russia, then in Paris, but missed. He was trans- 
ported for life. Michael Obrenovitch, Prince of Servia, was assassinated 
at Belgrade, June 10, 1868, as was believed in consequence of a con- 
spiracy to place Prince Karageorgewictz on the throne. March 12, 1868. 
in New South Wales, at a public picnic, one O'Farrell shot the Duke of 
Edinburgh in the back, intending to kill him. O'Farrell, who avowed 
himself a Fenian, was hanged. April 7, 1868, Hon. Thomas DArcy M'Gee 
was shot dead from behind at his own door, by one Whelan, a Fenian, in 
consequence of his opposition to the Fenians. December 28, 1870, 
Marshal Prim was shot by night in the streets of Madrid, the assassin 
escaping, and died in two days. September 20, 1871, at Calcutta, Mr. 
Justice Norman, acting Chief Justice, was murdered, being stabbed by 
a native. February 8, 1872, Lord Mayo, Governor-General of India, 
assassinated at Port Blair, on the Andaman Islands, by a Mohammedan 
convict named Shere Ali. 

ASSYRIA. (See pp. 178-179.) The results of Mr. Layard's investigations 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 7 

at Nineveh were published in his " Nineveh and its Remains," 184S, and 
in his "Discoveries," 1853. Botta's explorations at Khorsabacl began 
1843; his "Monuments de Ninive " appeared 1849-50. Mr. George 
Smith's "Assyrian Discoveries" appeared 1875, and his "Chaldean 
Account of G-enesis" in 1876. Mr. Smith died at Aleppo, August 19, 
1876, while pushing further investigations. An Assyrian grammar (of 
the language of the cuneiform or arrow-headed inscriptions) was pub- 
lished by Mr. A. H. Sayce in 1875; an Assyrian dictionary by Norris, in 
1868 ; and eight volumes of (translated) Assyrian Texts, by Birch, in 
1874-77. 

ASTRONOMY. (See pp. 13, 179.) The planet Neptune was discovered 
September 23, 1846 ; the moon was photographed by Bond, 1851 ; spec- 
trum analysis first used in astronomy in 1861 ; Warren De la Rue's first 
large photograph of the moon was made in 1883. The transit of Venus 
of December 9 (astronomical day, December 8), 1874, was extensively 
observed at the expense of several governments, with good results. From 
April, 1868, to August 29, 1876, were discovered Nos. 98 to 167 of the 
asteroids. 

ATCHINESE "WAR. Atchin or Acheen, a native state of Sumatra. The 
Dutch hostilities against it took place from April, 1873 to 1876, ending in 
victory by the Dutch. 

ATHANASIAN CREED. (Seep. 180.) It is' asserted in Lumby's "His- 
tory of the Creeds " (1874), that this creed was not composed by Athana- 
sius, but consists of two distinct parts ; was put into its present form 
between A.D. 813 and 850, first imputed to Athanasius by any respect- 
able authority 809, and accepted by the Greek Church about 1200. Much 
opposition to the use of this creed in England, and efforts to stop com- 
pulsory reading of it in public, 1870 to 1873. 

ATOMIC THEORY. Dalton's system of atomic weights assumes hydrogen 
as 1 ; that of Berzelius assumes oxygen as 100, and is that used on the 
continent of Europe. 

ATOMS. The number of ultimate atoms in one drop of water has been 
recently computed by Sir William Thomson, at 100,000,000,000,000,000,- 
000,090,000, or one hundred trillions of quadrillions. 

AUSTRIA. (See pp. 14, 184.) Francis Joseph, October 20, 1860, issued a 
"diploma," which gave legislative power to the assemblies of the provin- 
cial states, constituting Austria, and also to the Reichsrath or Council of 
the Empire. Hungary was granted self-government February 17, 1867. 
By decree of November 14, 1868, Austria assumed the official name of 
"The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy." The population of Austria, Decem- 
ber 31, 1869, was: 

Gis-Leithan provinces 20,394,980 

Trans-Leithan provinces 15,509,455 

35,904,435 
The Cis-Leithan provinces (viz., those reckoned on the hither side of 
the river Leithe), are : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, the two 
Austrias (Upper and Lower), Styria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Salzburg, 
Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste and Istria> Dalmatia, the Bukovina. The 
Trans-Leithan are : Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and the 
city of Fiume. The Reichsrath became a national representative assem- 
bly by reform bill of March 10, 1873. 



THE WORLD S PROCRESS. 



B. 



BABISM. A Persian religious doctrine, first promulgated, 1843, at Shiraz, 
by Mirza Ali Mahommed, who called himself the Bab (gate) of knowl- 
edge, gave a new exposition of the Koran, and claimed to be an incarna- 
tion of the Holy Spirit. The " Babis" were tolerated by Shah Mahom- 
med, but were nearly all killed by his successor, the present Shah, in 
1848-9, the Bab himself being exeouted, July 15, 1849. The sect is said 
to be now (1877) quite numerous again. 

BABY FARMING. September 23, 1870, in England, Margaret Waters was 
convicted of the wilful murder of a child entrusted to her. She had been 
in the baby farming business four years, and confessed to having received 
some forty children. She was condemned to death, and hanged October 
11, after having confessed that five others of the children in her care had 
died. 

BALLOONS. (See pp. 15, 187. ) Used with a good deal of success during the 
siege of Paris by the Germans, September and October, 1870, for carrying 
mail matter out of the city, and for escapes by individuals. Up to April, 
1867, Mr. Coxwell is said to have made 550 successful ascents ; and Charles 
Green, who died March 27, 1870, aged 84, had made 600. In an ascent 
from near Paris, April 15, 1875J by Messrs. Tissandier, Croce, Spinelli, 
and Sivel, after having reached a height of 26,160 feet (nearly five miles), 
Croce threw out ballast and they ascended rapidly to an unknown height. 
But the latter two men died there of suffocation, and Tissandier only got 
down alive. Glaisher and Coxwell, at Wolverhampton, July 17, 1S62, 
had ascended about 7 miles, but at 5f miles Glaisher became insensible, 
and Coxwell lost the use of his hands, and only escaped death by opening 
the valve with his teeth and thus bringing down the balloon. 

BALLOT. (Seep. 15.) Secret ballot was adopted in Victoria (Australia), 
1856 ; employed in electing school-board in nine districts in London, No- 
vember 29, 1870 ; recommended for general use in the Queen's speech, 
February 9, 1871, and bill for it passed the Commons and rejected in the 
Lords, 97 to 48, August 10, 1871. Bill providing for its use until Decem- 
ber 31, 1880, became a law July 13, 187'2 ; Mr. H. E. Childers was chosen 
member of Parliament for Pontefract by ballot August 15, 1872, with no 
difficulty ; the method has worked well enough since. 

BAMPTON LECTURES. Delivered annually at Oxford, on theological 
subjects, and paid for by funds left for the purpose by Rev. John Bamp- 
ton, who died 1751. The first lecture was by Rev. Dr. Bandinel, in 1780. 

BANKRUPTCY. (See pp. 16,189.) Bankrupt peers decided incompetent 
to sit in English House of Lords, February 10, 1871, and a law expressly 
so providing was passed July 13, 1871. In the United States and Canada 
there were failures and liabilities as follows : 

FAILURES. • LIABILITIES. 

Year ending June 30, 1S7H. 8,7TB $233,082,516 

Year ending June 30, 1877. fl,241 182,S0S,435 

BATHOMETER, for deep-sea sounding without lead and line, invented and 
improved 1861-76, by Dr. C. W„ Siemens. It operates by registering the 
lessening of the earth's attraction of gravitation on the surface of the 
ocean from what it would be on solid ground, in consequence of the less 
density of water. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 



BATHYBIUS HAECKELII, found at the bottom of the sea in recent deep- 
sea soundings, and so named by Huxley ; a gelatinous substance, supposed 
the lowest form of animal life. Since believed te have been proved a 
mineral. 

BATTLES. (See pp. 16, 192.) 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



2, 1870 

4, 1870 
6, 1870 
6, 1870 
14, 1870 



Saarbruck, French victorious.Au 
Wissembourg, Germans '* An, 
Woerth, " " Aui 

Saarbruck or Forbach, Germans, An 
Courcelles or Pange, " An; 

Strasburg, Germans victorious,Aug. 16, 1870 
Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, Ger's, Aug. 10, 1S70 
Gravelotte, Germans victorious, Aug. 18, 1870 
Beaumont, " " Aug. 30, 1870 

Carigh'an, " " Aug. 31, 1S70 



Oroqnieta. Spain, Carlists defeated, May 4, 1872 
Elmina, British defeat Ashantees, 

June 13, 1873 
Elqueta, Spain, Carlists claim victory, 

Aug. 5-6, 1873 
Maileru, Spain, indecisive, Oct. 6, 1873 

Abrakampra, Ashantees defeated Nov.5-6,1873 



Metz, Germans victorious, Aug. 31, 

SEDAN, " Aug. 31-Sep. 1, 

Before Paris, " victorious, Sept. 30, 
Thoury, French " Oct. 5, 

St. Remy, Germans " Oct. 5, 

Chateaudun, " " Oct 18, 

Coulmiers.near Orleans, French.Nov.9-10. 
Before Orleans, Ger's victorious, Dec. 4, 
St. Quentin, " " Jan. 19, 

Paris (Trochu's sortie), Germans, Jan. 19. 

OTHER BATTLES. 

Abyssinians defeat Egyptians in Nov., 
Iran, Spain, Lasema defeats Carlists, 

Nov. 10, 
Sorota, Peru, Pierota and insurgents 

deEeated Dec. 3, 

Toiosa, Spain, Carlists repulse Loma, 

Dec. 7-8, 
Khokand, Russians defeat Khan of 

Khiva Sep. 4-21, 

Assake, Russians defeat Khokand 

force Jan. 30, 

Servian-Turkish war begins July 1, 

Saitschar, Servians retreat . . . illy 2-3, 
Urbitza, Montenegrins defeat Turks, 

July 28, 



Jan. 29. 1874 

Jan. 31- 1874 

Feb. 1, 1874 

Feb. 2, 1874 

Feb. 4, 1874 

Concha 



1870 
1870 
1870 
1870 
1870 
1870 
1870 
18(0 
1871 
1871 

1874 

1874 

1S74 

1S74 

1875 

1876 
1876 
1876 

1876 



Borborassie, 

Amoaful, " " 

Bocquah, " " 

Fommanah, " " 

Ordahsa, " '■ 

Bilbao, Spain, several days; 

enters May 2, 1874 

Estella, Spain, Carlists retreat, but Con- 
cha lulled June 25-27, 1874 

BAYREUTH. The Wagner Festival, or Biihnenfestspiel. The perform- 
ance of Wagner's " Ring des Nibelungen," took place here on August 13, 
14, 16. and 17, 1876. The four successive portions of the work are: 1. 
Das Rheingold ; 2. Die Walkure; 3. Siegfried; 4. Gotterdammerung. 
Great difference of opinion as to the music by itself ; but the whole rep- 
resentation very magnificent. All deficiencies in receipts made up by the 
King of Bavaria. 

BEHISTUN. The trilingual inscriptions here were deciphered and trans- 
lated by Sir H. Rawlinson in 1844-6, the first great step being thus made 
towards interpreting the so-called cuneiform inscriptions. 

BELFORT. A strong fortified town in Alsace, invested by the Germans 
November 3, 1870 ; capitulated February 16, 1871 ; reserved to France at 
the cession of Alsace to Germany ; and the Germans left it in August, 1873. 

BESSEMER STEEL. (See Steel.) 

BIBLE. (See pp. 18, 201.) First meeting of the Convocation for Revising 
the English Bible, at Westminster, England, June 22, 1870. Among Bible 
Dictionaries should be mentioned McClintock and Strong's " Biblical and 
Theological Encyclopaedia." " The Codex Sinaiticus," a Greek MS. of the 
Bible, probably written in the fourth century, was found by Prof. Tis- 
chendorf at St. Catherine's monastery on Mt. Sinai in 1844 and 1S59, and 
procured by him for the Czar of Russia, who caused it to be printed in 
1862. The first version of the Bible (the Syriac), is supposed to have 
been made in the first or second century; the Old Latin, early in the 
second, and revised by Jerome in 384 ; Jerome's own version, the Vulgate, 
1* 



10 THE WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 

completed 405. First printed edition (Mazarin or Mentz Bible), about 
1455 or 1456, without date ; and a copy of this, at the Perkins sale in Eng- 
land, June, 1873, brought about $16,000, the largest price ever paid for one 
printed book. 

BOKHARA. Ancient Sogdiana. Murder of the English envoys, Stoddart 
and Conolly, by the Khan, 1843. A war with Russia began 1866, the 
Khan repeatedly beaten, and peace made July 11, 1887. There was more 
fighting in 1868 ; the Russians entered Samarcand May 26th ; and in 
November, 1868, annexed it by treaty. A new treaty between Bokhara 
and Russia was published December, 1873. 

BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. First mentioned by Samuel Andrews 
Peters, a tory Episcopalian clergyman, of Hebron, Conn. , in a " History of 
Connecticut," published at London, 1781. Peters built his story on the 
basis of the actual laws, but with great additions invented by him. The 
text-book on the subject, by J. H. Trumbull, Hartford, Conn., 1876. 

BOOKS, Book Trade. (See pp. 20, 208.) In Great Britain were pub- 
lished as follows : 

NEW BOOKS. NEW EDITIONS. 

1871 3,547 1,288 

1S72 3,419 1,100 

1874 3,351 961 

1S75 3,573 1,331 

The number of publishers and booksellers in Germany is (in 1876), 3,473, in 
786 towns. In Leipzig, the emporium of the German book trade, there 
are 105 commission agents, who act for 4,202 booksellers, of whom 1,143 
are in mistria, France, Russia, Holland, England, and America. Number 
of books published in the United States, about 2,500 a year. 

BOSTON. (See pp. 20, 212.) Annexations to the city of Boston were : 
Roxbury, September 9, 1867 ; Dorchester, June 22, 1869 ; Charlestown, 
Brighton, and West Roxbury, October 7, 1873. Great peace jubilee, with 
over 10,000 voices, and 1,094 instruments, June 15, 1869. International 
peace jubilee, with chorus of about 20,000 voices, and orchestra of 1,000 
instruments, June 17 to July 4, 1872. Great fire, burning about eighty 
acres of buildings in the thickest business part of the city, November 9, 
10, 11, 1872 ; 959 houses, of which 125 dwellings, were destroyed, and 35 
persons killed. Boston Public Library has, in 1877, about 320,000 vol- 
umes ; has six branches, and two " delivery agencies," besides the central 
collection, and circulates free of all expense about 1,300,000 Volumes a 
year ; staff, about 130 persons ; salaries, about $60,000 a year ; annual 
cost, about $130,000, of which all but about $6,000 is paid by the city 
of Boston by an annual appropriation, the rest coming from trust funds 
of about $105,000. 

BOSNIA. Incorporated with Turkey, 1463. A rebellion broke out in 1849, 
was put down by Omar Pasha in 1851. In September, 1875, the Bosni- 
ans joined the Herzegovinian insurgents. Its area is 23,100 square miles ; 
population, 1,357,984, of which about one-third only is Mohammedan. 

BRAZIL. (See pp. 21, 216.) The war with Paraguay was ended by the 
defeat and killing of Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, at Aquidaban, 
March 1, 1870; treaty of peace with Paraguay, June 20, 1870. Dom 
Pedro, the emperor, and his empress visit Europe June, 1871, and March, 
1872. Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the Brazilian senate, 
September 27-28, 1872. Dom Pedro and the empress were present at the 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 11 

opening of the Philadelphia Exhibition May 10, 1876, and afterwards 
travelled extensively in America and Europe. Population of Brazil, 1872 
(partly estimated), 9,448,233, besides about another million of savage 
natives. Number of slaves in May, 1874,. 1,016,262. 

BRIGANDS. (See also Molly Maguvr.es.) April 21, 1870, some English 
ladies and gentlemen, and an Italian, were taken near Athens by brigands, 
who demanded $125,000 ransom, which was ready ; but the Greek Gov- 
ernment, contrary to promise, sending troops against the robbers, the 
tourists were all murdered. In June, 1870, two Englishmen, of Gibral- 
tar, were seized by brigands, and made to pay £5,200 ransom, part of 
which was afterwards recovered, and some of the robbers killed, by the 
Spanish civic guard. The Mafia, an organized system of spying, murder, 
and brigandage got into possession of almost unlimited power in Sicily 
about 1860, and has since remained so. 

BRIDGES. (See pp. 21, 218.) The proposed New York and Brooklyn 
suspension bridge is to be 5,862 feet long, with a central span of 1,600 
feet, at 185 feet above high-water mark. The Victoria railway bridge 
over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, about two miles long, an iron tubular 
bridge, begun May 24, 1854, formally opened August 25, 1860, and cost 
£1,700,000. 

BURIAL. (See Cremation.) The " earth to earth " system of burial, ad- 
vocated by Mr. Seymour Haden, and wicker coffins, exhibited in 1875 afc 
London. 

C. 

CANADA. (See pp. 23, 232.) The act creating "the Dominion of Can- 
ada " was passed March 29, 1867. The Dominion contains Ontario, or 
Upper Canada, Quebec, or Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, and provision is 
made for admitting Newfoundland. Lord Monck, first Governor-General, 
opened the first session of the Dominion Parliament, at the capital, 
Ottawa, Nov. 7, 1867. Population by census of 1871 : Ontario, 1,620,- 
851; Quebec, 1,191,516; Nova Scotia, 387,800; New Brunswick, 285,- 
594; Manitoba, 11,953 ; British Columbia, 10,586 ; Prince Edward Island, 
94,021 ; total, 3,602,321. 

CANALS. (See Suez Canal.) Recent surveys have shown that the ques- 
tion of a canal across the Isthmus of Darien, or that of Tehuantepec, is 
only one of cost, not of practicability. In April, 1870, a French company 
was empowered to cut a canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, to be done 
in six years. 

CANDIA, the Ancient Crete. (See pp. 232, 283.) Insurrections against 
Turkish oppression, 1841«; again, and quieted by conciliation, 1858. 
Christians persecuted, 1859 ; a general assembly rejects Turkish authori- 
ty and declares union with Greece, September 2, 1866 ; after obstinate 
contests the insurgents yield from exhaustion, and Turkish authority re- 
established March 8, 1869. 

CANOPUS. An ancient city of Egypt, on the sea-coast, east of Alexan- 
dria. The " Decree of Canopus" was put forth B. c. 238, by Ptolemy 
Euergetes, to constitute his deceased daughter, Berenice, a goddess, and 
to establish an annual festival and a service of priests in her honor. A 
copy of this, in hieroglyphics and Greek, was discovered at Tanis, 1866. 



12 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. (See Death, Punishment of, pp. 40, 288.) Abol- 
ished in Saxony, April 1, 1868 ; abolition of it refused in Belgium, Janu- 
ary 18, 1867 ; in English House of Commons, by 127 to 23, April 21, 
1868 ; by 118 to 58, July 29, 1869 ; by 167 to 54, July 24, 1872 ; refused 
by French Senate, June 21, 1876. It was prohibited in Michigan, 1846 ; 
Ehode Island, 1852 ; Wisconsin, 1853; Iowa, 1872; Maine, February 18, 
1876, and is practically disused in some other States. The effect of such 
disuse on crime is undetermined. In thirteen years next after the repeal 
of the law inflicting it in Michigan, there were 30 convictions for mur- 
der, and in the next fourteen years, with a population 50 per cent, greater, 
only 26. But in New York City, during 1871-6, only seven murderers were 
hanged, while there were 281 murders. And in 1871 there were no hang- 
ings, but in the next year the murders increased from 41 to 55, and when 
in 1873, two murderers were hanged, the murders decreased in like man- 
ner from 53 to 39. 

CATHOLICS. (See Concordat; Infallibility ; Old Catholics; Romanism; 
Vatican Council.'} 

CENSUS. (See pp. 26, 243.) The English census, taken April 2, 1871, 
showed a population in the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, 
and Ireland), of 31,465,480. For Census of United States, 1870, see 
United States. 

CENTENNIAL. An immense number of Centennial celebrations took place 
in the United States during 1875 and 1876, beginning with that of June 
19, 1875, for the battle of Lexington. The Centennial International Ex- 
hibition at Philadelphia was opened by President Grant, May 10, 1876, 
and closed November 10. 

Of the growth of the United States in the first century, the following 
figures show a few illustrations : 

1776. 1S76. 

Population 2,750,000 44,675,000 

Area square miles 800.000 3,603,844 

Annual manufactures $20,000,000 $4,200,000,000 

Banks " 6,066 

Colleges 9 374 

CHARITIES. (See pp. 27, 246.) George Peabody's public charities were 
as follows : 



$2,500,000 for the poor of London. 

$2,000,000 for education in the South- 
ern States. 

$.300,000 for museums at Yale and Har- 
vard Colleges. 

$50,000 for a free museum at Salem, 
Mass. 



$20,000 to Kenyon College. 

$250,000 to the State of Mars-land. 

$500,000 for a free library and educa- 
tional institute at Danvers (afterwards 
named Peabody), Mass. 

$1,000,000 for the Peabody Institute, 
at Baltimore, Md. 



December 2, 1871, was opened at Dublin the Brown Institution, endowed 
by a bequest left for the purpose by a Mr. Brown, of Dublin, as a hospital 
for the study and treatment of the diseases of quadrupeds and birds useful 
to men. Mr. Vanderbilt had, during his life, endowed a college in Ten- 
nessee, with about $1,000,000, and supported the " Church of the Stran- 
gers," in New York. Daniel Drew, a leading New York stock operator, 
endowed (nominally) Drew Theological Seminary in New Jersey, but 
afterwards losing his money, the funds were never paid over. A. T. 
Stewart left at his death, unfinished, a great hotel for working- women in 
New York, which was completed by his widow. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 13 

CHICAGO. (See p. 27.) Gheat Fire, October 8-11, 1871. About 250 
persons perished, about 98,500 were rendered destitute, and the loss was 
estimated at $290,000,000. Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed. 
Large contributions were made in American and English cities towards 
relieving the sufferers, and great energy was shown in rebuilding. 

CHILDREN. Under eight years old, forbidden to be employed in agricul- 
ture in England, by act of August 5, 1873. 

CHINA. (See pp. 27, 249.) Chinese embassy, with Anson Burlingame (of 
Massachusetts) at its head, received at Washington, June 5, 1868 ; at 
Paris, January 24, 1869; Mr. Burlingame died at St. Petersburg, Feb- 1 
ruary 22, 1870. Massacre of French priests and about fifty others by al 
mob at Tientsin, June 21, 1870; the leaders were executed October 28, 
1870. Emperor Tsai tien (altered to Kwang-Sii), son of Chun and nephew 
of Prince Kung, succeeds Toung-Chi, February 4, 1875. First railway in, 
eleven miles long, from Shanghae to Oussoon, publicly opened June 30, 
1876. Chinese emigration to America began in 1850 ; and there are now 
(1877) supposed to be nearly 50,000 Chinese in San Francisco, and from 
125,000 to 150,000 in California, mostly males. In California this emi- 
gration, and the Chinese, after coining, are chiefly controlled by the " Six 
Companies," which are a kind of corporations, and whose names are Sam 
Yup, Yung Wo, Kong Chow, Ning Yeung, Yan Wo, and Hop Wo. 

CHURCH OF IRELAND. (See p. 254.) Royal assent to Mr. Gladstone's 
bill disestablishing it, July 26, 1869, took effect January 1, 1871. 

CHURCH-RATES. (Seep. 29.) Compulsory church-rates in England were 
abolished by act of Parliament, introduced by Mr. Gladstone, and passed 
July 31, 1868. 

CIVIL SERVICE, English. August 31, 1870, went into operation an 
English Order in Council that all entrance appointments to civil service 
except the Foreign Office and posts requiring professional knowledge, 
should be filled by open competition. Persons in the English Civil Service 
(treasury, home, foreign, colonial, post, revenue, etc., officers), about 
17,000; cost of same yearly, estimated for 1877 at £13,309,100. 

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM, United States. Measure to secure, in- 
troduced into Congress by T. A. Jenckes, of Rhode Island, January 20, 
1867. Act for rules to be prescribed by the President for civil service 
examinations, passed March 3, 1871. Commissioners to prepare rules 
appointed by President, June 4th, met and G. W. Curtis chosen chairman, 
June 28, 1871. Rules prepared, but less was accomplished by them than 
was expected. In the summer of 1877, President Hayes ordered that all 
national office-holders should resign any situations they might hold as party 
political managers, or else resign their offices, his purpose being "to take 
the office-holder out of politics." This order was promptly obeyed. 

CLOCKS AND WATCHES. (See pp. 29, 258, 590.) Imported into Great 
Britain in 1 870, 258,628 clocks, 372,420 watches. The Boston Watch Com- 
pany, the first factory for making watches by machinery, was founded by 
Mr. Dennison in 1854 ; it failed 1858, and was bought by Mr. Bobbins, who 
changed the name to American Watch Company, often called the Waltham 
Watch Co. In 1876 there were eleven such watch factories. That at 
Waltham, with 900 workmen, turns out about 425 movements a day; the 
next largest, at Elgin, 111., about 300 movements. The effect of ' the 
American watch business on the importation of Swiss watches is shown 



14 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

as follows : Swiss watches imported into the United States in 1872, 
366,000; 1873, 204,000; 1874, 187,000; 1875, 134,000; 1876, 75,000. 

CLUBS. (See p. 29.) Recent London clubs were formed at following 
dates : Cobden Club (free trade), 1866 ; Scientific, Wanderers (travellers), 
Devonshire (Liberal political), Verulam (literary and scientific), 1874 ; 
Byron, 1875 ; Hanover Square (new Liberal), 1876. 

COAL. (See pp. 30, 259.) Consumption of anthracite from the Pennsyl- 
vania coal fields began with 365 tons, in 1820, and was in 1875, 18,082,294 
tons. By periods of ten years the production was as follows, inclusively : 

1820-29. . tons £59,190 11850-59 tons 58,333,469 

1830-39 " 5,210,085 1800-69 " 106,883,48s 

1840-49 " 18,954,678 | 1870-75 " 105.627,240 

The anthracite east of the Mississippi is all in seven counties in Pennsyl- 
vania, viz : Schuylkill, Carbon, Luzerne, Columbia, Northumberland, 
Dauphin, and Lebanon, and mostly in the first three of these. Estimates 
of the time when these anthracite deposits will be exhausted vary from 
77 years to 650 years. Tons of coal raised in Great Britain and the 
United States in 1870 and 1874 : 

GBEAT BRITAIN. UNITED STATES. 

1870 113,000,000 32,000,000 

1874.' .'.'.'...' 125,000,000 v 50,000,000 

Area of all coal fields in the United States estimated at 196,000 square 
miles. Proportions of anthracite and bituminous coal mined in the 
United States in 1870 and 1875 : 

1870. 1S75. 

Anthracite, tons 13,985.960 20,654,509 

Bituminous," 15,231,668 26,031,726 

COINAGE. (See pp. 31, 263.) Total coinage of United States to and 
including 1 876 : 

In 1876. 

Gold $945,477,022.30 $38,178,962.50 

Silver. . . 180,322,356.40 19,126,502.50 

Cents, etc 12.822,538.55 260.350.00 

Total $1,138,621,917.25 $57,565,815.00 

COLLEGES in United States in 1875, 355; schools of science (and 
collegiate departments), 75 ; theological schools (and departments), 123; 
law schools (and departments), 43 ; medical, dental, etc., schools (and 
departments), 106. 

COLOMBIA. (See p. 263.) General Salgar, President, 1871 ; M. M. Toro, 
April 1, 1872; S. Perez, April 1, 1874. Population in 1864, 2,794,473 ; 
in 1870, 2,910,329. 

COLONIES. (See pp. 31, 264.) Great Britain has sixty-nine colonies and 
foreign possessions, whose population was estimated in 1861 at 142,952,- 
243, all but about 7,500,000 being in the East Indies. Their revenue in 
1865 was about £51.497,000, and expenditures, £59,353,000. All slaves 
in all British colonies emancipated August 1, 1834. In recent times the 
English home policy towards the colonies has steadily become more com- 
plying and indulgent. The earliest acquired of the present colonies was 
Newfoundland, about A.D. 1500 ; the latest, the Fiji Islands, October 25, 
1874. 

COLORADO proclaimed a State August 1, 1876. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. • 15 

COMETS. (See pp. 32, 265.) 17,500,000 comets estimated to be in the 
solar system. More than 600 recorded as having been seen. Schiapareili 
of Milan has discovered that the August meteors move round the sun in 
an orbit almost identical with that of the second comet of 1862-6. The 
great comet of 1861 had a nucleus of about 400 miles diameter, a long, 
bushy tail, and moved about ten million miles a day. On June 30, 1861, 
it was suggested that the earth was in this tail, as there was seen a 
" phosphorescent auroral glare." 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. General Sherman appointed, 1869. 

COMMERCE OF UNITED STATES. (See also Cotton, Failures, etc.) 

Exports. Imports. 

1869 $394,644,335 $414,256,243 

1870 392.771,17s 452,875,665 

1871 460,331,614 572.509,314 

1872 444,177,568 626,595,077 

1873 522,479,317 692,136,210 

1S74 633,339,368 567,406,342 

1875 658,691,291 553,906,153 

Of the years 1874 and 1875, nearly half this commerce was with Great 
Britain, viz. : 

Exports to G. B. Imports from (,'. B. 

1874 $341.021,049 $180,042,S'3 

1875 366,799,869 157,047,827 

Chambers of Commerce now exist in the chief commercial cities of Chris- 
tendom. Twenty-seven of the English ones met for consultation, Febru- 
ary 21, 1865 ; the meeting became annual ; in 1873 (February 18th), 46 
met. 

COMMUNE OF PARIS. Proclaimed March 28, 1871 ; ended at the cap- 
ture of the city by the government forces, May 28th, following. 

CONCORDANCE. (See pp. 32,268.) The first concordance to the Bible 
on which was based that of St. Caro, seems to have been made by An- 
thony of Padua. Cruden's (the best), first published in London, 1737. 
Mrs. Furness's Concordance to Shakespeare's poems, 1874. Todd's Verbal 
Index to Milton, 1809, and Cleaveland's Concordance to Milton, 1867. 
Brightwell's Concordance to Tennyson, 1869 ; Abbott's to Pope, 1875. 

CONCORDAT. (See p. 268.) The Concordat between Rome and Austria, 
August 18, 1855, gave the former much authority over the Austrian 
Church, and thus excited great dissatisfaction in Austria. In 1868 the 
Austrian and Hungarian legislatures practically abolished it, and it was 
formally declared suspended, July 30, 1870, in consequence of the procla- 
mation of papal infallibility. 

CONFESSION, Auricular. (See p. 269.) Introduced in England by the 
Puseyites, Tractarians, or Ritualists. Rev. A. Poole suspended for prac- 
ticing it, June, 1858 ; Rev. T. West tried to introduce it, causing much 
excitement, September, 1858; 483 Anglican clergymen petitioned convo- 
cation for its establishment, May, 1873, but the bishops were strongly 
opposed to it ; Archdeacon Denison's letter against all who oppose it, 
August 22, 1873. A secret book used by the English ritualists, with 
shameful questions to be put to married women and young persons, dis- 
covered June, 1877, and great indignation aroused. 

CONSTELLATIONS. (See p. 271.) Now reckoned as 29 northern, 45 
southern, 12 zodiacal. 



16 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES. (See pp. 34, 272.) The 
dates and subjects of the fifteen amendments were as follows : 1. Pro- 
posed 1789, Freedom of religion, press, assembling, and petition. 2. 1789, 
Right to bear arms. 3. 1789, Quartering soldiers on people. 4. 1789, 
Searches and seizures of persons, houses, etc. 5. 1789, Indictment, mar- 
tial law, legal process, eminent domain. 6. 1789, Criminal prosecutions 
to be speedy; privileges of accused. 7. 1789, Jury trial for anything over 
$20, in common-law suits. 8. 1789, Bail, fines, cruel and unusual punish- 
ments. 9. 1789, Enumeration of rights in Constitution does not impair 
others. 10. 1789, State rights. 11. 1794, Judicial power of United 
States as against States. 12. 1803-5, Election of President. 13. Ratified 
December 18, 1885, abolishes slavery. 14. Ratified July 28, 1868, civil 
rights, representative basis, rebel disfranchisement, public and rebel debt. 
15. Ratified March 30, 1870, negro suffrage. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. Providing for periodical medical examina- 
tions of women's persons at military and naval stations, passed in English 
Parliament June, 1866. Great opposition has been made to it ; a royal 
commission to inquire into it reported July, 1871. Alterations have been 
proposed, and repeal has been attempted, but failed by 126 to 308 June, 
1875, and 102 to 224, July, 1876. 

CONVENTS (for nuns; " monasteries " are for monks). (See p. 272.) In 
1832 there were 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 233, besides 70 monas- 
teries. A large Church of England convent opened at Bournemouth, 
October 3, 1875. 

CONVOCATION. The English Convocation consists of the upper house (of 
bishops), and the lower (of the inferior clergy). It formerly possessed 
power over various church matters, but was deprived of these by a statute 
of Henry VIII., and again in 1716, when it ceased meeting. Formal 
meetings of the Anglican clergy have been held since 1 854, and attempts 
made in vain to regain power over church interests. In February, 1872, 
convocations were authorized to deliberate upon changes in the liturgy, 
and this was done in March following. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES (for economical supply of goods to members). 
Rochdale Equitable Pioneers' Society began 1844. In 1862 there were 
332 in England; on December 31, 1866, 749. Annual congresses have 
been held, the seventh at London, March 29, 1875. Similar organizations 
in the United States have not been very successful. There were in 
Massachusetts in 1875, however, fifteen such, of which eight had a member- 
ship of 1,650, share capital $50,000, assets $100,000, and selling $500,000 
of goods yearly. These were at Fall River (organized 1868), Worcester 
(1867), New Bedford (1867), Lynn (1870), Wakefield (1866), Holyoke 
(1873), Gardner (1874), Natick (1869 ?). On the continent of Europe such 
organizations are numerous and efficient. 

COPYRIGHT. (See pp. 34, 35, 274.) An international copyright bill 
brought into Congress, February 21, 1868, but could not pass. English 
House of Lords decided in Routiedge vs. Low, in favor of the copyright 
of a foreign author. The Copyright Association of England' was founded 
by leading London booksellers,' March 19, 1872. 

CORNELL UNIVERSITY. Founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868. 

CORONERS. (See p. 276.) In consequence of abuses and annoyances from 
the ignorance and incompetence of coroners, they were suppressed in 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 17 

Massachusetts by act of legislature, May 9, 1877, and "medical exami- 
ners" substituted, to be appointed by the Governor and Council, and to 
be "able and discreet men, learned in the science of medicine." 

COTTON MANUFACTURE IN UNITED STATES : 

Looms. In South. Spindles. In South. Mills 

1870. . ..; 153,5-34 .... 5,852 .... 7,114,000 .... 2(5-2,221 .... 956 

1874 180,975 .... 10,945 .... 9,415,383 .... 487,629 .... 847 

Cotton mill first in India, built 1863 ; and the number had increased in 
1876 to reach a consumption of 3,000 bales cotton per week. Estimated 
consumption of cotton for manufacturing purposes in the world, for 1860 
and 1876, in bales of 400 pounds : 

1860. 1876. Increase. 

Great Britain 2,817,000 3,187,000 370.000, 

Continent of Europe 1,794,000 2,362,000 568.000 

United States 1,088,000 1,441,000 353,000 

Bombay and rest of India 164,000 164,000 

This increase is about 13 per cent, for Great Britain, and 37i per cent. 
for the other manufacturing countries. 

COUNCILS, CHURCH. (See p. 279 ; also Vatican Council.) 

CREDIT FONCIER. Name given to organizations for advancing money to 
real estate owners on the security of their estates. Such a plan was set 
in operation by Frederick the Great in Prussia in 1763. Companies for 
the purpose have existed in Hamburg (1782). Prussia (1787), Belgium. 
(1841), France (1852), England (1863), and elsewhere. 

CREDIT MOBILIER. (See p. 36.) The original Credit Mobilier at Paris 
failed, and the capital was said to have "disappeared," October, 1867. 
The Pereires, and other directors held liable August 1, 1868. " Credit 
Mobilier of America," incorporated in Pennsylvania March 15, 1865 ; as- 
sumed a contract to build 100 miles of the Union Pacific R. R. westward 
from the Missouri River, in which Hoxie had failed. Improper distribution 
of its stock to members of Congress in December, 1867 and afterwards, was 
charged, and an investigation by a committee of the Hoiise of Representa- 
tives took place in 1872-73. 

CREMATION advocated, instead of burial, by Sir Henry Thompson and 
others in England, 1873. Societies for it established in London, Vienna, 
and Berlin in 1874. The body of Sir C. Dilke's wife, burned at Dresden 
October 10, 1874; the ashes of the body and coffin together being about 
six pounds. Baron de Palm's remains burnt in like manner in America 
in 1876, and Dr. Winslow's in 1877. 

CRETE. Now Candia, which see. 

CRIME. (See pp. 32, 287 ; also Ticket of Leave.) International Congress 
for Prevention and Repression of Crime, met at London, July 3, 1872. In 
England a great decrease in crimes of violence in proportion to the popu- 
lation has been observed from 1861 to 1871. 

CRISPINS. (See St. Crispin.) 

CROWN. (See p. 284.) The crown of England contains 1 large ruby, 1 
large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, 1,363 brilliants (dia- 
monds), 1,273 rose-diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, 
273 pearls. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. (See Animals.) 



18 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

CRYOLITE. A fluoride of aluminium and sodium, found in quantities in 
Greenland, and used to manufacture metallic aluminium. 

CUBA. (See pp. 38, 284.) Insurrection began soon after the Spanish revo- 
lution, September, 1868 ; checked, June, 1870 ; not suppressed, January, 
1872 ; still in full activity, August, 1877. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE. Under the English Reform Act of 1807, cumulative 
voting, to allow " minority representation," was allowed in London, Glas- 
gow, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds, and in such counties as returned 
three members each. In the counties, and in some of these cities, the 
result was to admit minority candidates. Used in electing members of the 
government of Harvard and Yale Colleges. 

CUNEIFORM LANGUAGES. (See Assyria.) 

CURIUM. General L. P. di Cesnola discovered in 1875, in the ruins of this 
very ancient city, in Cyprus, a treasure supposed to have been that of a 
temple, deposited in four subterranean rooms, and consisting of over 7,200 
ornaments, statues, and other articles of gold, silver, bronze, terra cotta, 
ivory, glass, etc., etc., which have been secured for the Metropolitan Art 
Museum in New York. 

CURRENCY, United States. National bank notes outstanding, De- 
cember 31, 1876, $319,860,304 ; greenbacks outstanding, same date, $366,- 
911,000. 

CYCLONE. A circular hurricane, common in the tropics. In a cyclone at 
Calcutta, October 5, 1864, about 100 ships lost, and 60,000 persons per- 
ished. One at Nassau, in the Bahamas, October 1 and 2, 1866, destroyed 
over 600 houses and other buildings, dismasted many ships, and killed 
from 60 to 70 persons. August 21, 1871, a cyclone devastated Antigua, 
St. Kitts, and other islands, inflicting enormous damages. In a flood and 
cyclone in the Backergunge district, in India, near the mouth of the Gan- 
ges, 5,000 persons are supposed to have perished, October 31, 1876. 

CYPRUS. (See Curium.) 

CZECHS. Name of the natives of Bohemia and Moravia. In Bohemia there 
is a violent opposition between the Czechs and Germans. 



D. 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. (See Boumania.) 

DARIEN CANAL. (See Canals.) 

DARWINISM. A " development " theory was put forth by Wolff, 1759 ; 
and one by Lamarck, 1809, and one in the " Vestiges of Creation," 1844. 
Origin of mammals from an esrg, not a hundredth part of an inch diameter, 
proved by von Baer, 1827. Mr. Darwin's doctrines are contained in his 
" Origin of Species," 1859, and " Descent of Man," 1871. His follower, 
Haeckel, published a " History of Creation," 1873, appeared in English, 
1875. Mr. A. R. Wallace's " Natural Selection" appeared 1870. 

DEACONESSES. Discontinued in the Western Church in the fifth and 
sixth centuries, and in the Eastern in the twelfth ; recently revived in 
Germany. Pastor Fliedner's Institution for training deaconesses at Kais- 
erswerth founded 1835. Advocated in England by the Bishop of Ely, 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 



19 



1853, and some appointed. Diocesan Deaconess Institution at London, 
established 1861. In 1866 the Kaiserswerth Institution had connected 
with it 139 stations and 491 sisters or deaconesses. 
DEATHS, noticeable, 1867-1877, in alphabetical order of names : 



Agassiz. L., naturalist, Dec. 15. 1873. 
Alford, Rev. H.,' critic, poet, and divine, Jan. 

12, 1871. 
Alison, Sir A., historian, May 23, 1867. 
Amberley, Viscount, Jan. 10, 1876. 
Antonelli, Cardinal, priest and statesman, 

Nov. 6, 1876. 
Applegath A., inventor of printing machinery, 

counterfeit-proof bank notes, etc., Feb. 14, 

1871. 
Aspinwall, Col. Thomas, Aug. 11, 1876. 
Auber, D. P. E., composer, May 13, 1871. 
Aubigne, Merle d', clergyman and historian, 

Oct. 19, 1872. 
Austin, Mrs. Sarah, authoress, Aug. 8, 1867. 
Babbage, C, mathematician, Oct. 18, 1871. 
Baird, James, Scotch iron master, June 21, 

1876. 
Bailey, Theodorus, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 10, 

1877. 
Bedford, Paul, actor, Jan. 11, 1871. 
Beutley, R., publisher, Sept. 10, 1871. 
Berryer, P. A., French advocate and orator, 

Nov; 29, 1868. 
Blair. F. P., senior, editor and politician, Oct. 

18, 1876. 
Blitz, Antonio, "magician," Jan. 28, 1877. 
Brag;?, B. L., rebel general, Sept. 27, 1876. 
Brewster, SirD., physicist, Feb. 10, 1868. 
Brongniart, A. T., scientist and author, Feb. 

20, 1876. 
Brooke, Sir J., Rajah of Sarawak, June 11, 

1868. 
Brougham, Lord, advocate, orator, writer,phil- 

anthropist. May 7. 186S. 
Broughton, Lord (Sir J. C. Hobhouse), author 

and official, June 3, 1869. 
Brownlovv, W. &., editor and politician, April 

29, 1877. 
Brownson, O. A., writer and jsurnalist, April 

17, 1876. 
Buchanan, J., ex-President, June 1, 1868. 
Burgoyne, Sir John, soldier, Oct. 7, 1871. 
Burns, Jabez, Methodist clergyman, Jan. 31, 

1876. 
Bushnell, Horace, clergyman and writer, Feb. 

17, 1876. 
Capponi, Marquis, author, Feb. 4, 1S76. 
Cardigan Lord, of Balaklava notoriety. March 

28, 1868. 
Chambers, Robert and William, publishers and 

authors, March 17 and 20, 1871. 
Clarendon, Earl of, diplomatist and statesman, 

June 27, 1870. 
Cousin, Victor, historian and philosopher, Jan. 

14, 1867. 
Cushman, Charlotte, actress, Feb. 18, 1876. 
Custer, Gen., July 2, 1876. 
Davies, C. mathematician, Sept. 17, 1876. 
Davis, C. H., admiral U.S. Navy, Feb. 18, 1877. 
Deak, Francis, Hungarian statesman, Jan. 29, 

1876. 
De Morgan, A., mathematician, March 18, 

1871. 



Derby, Earl of, statesman, Oct. 23, 1869. 
Dickens, Charles, novelist, June 9, 1870. 
Didot, A., publisher, Feb. 20, 1876. 
Dumas, Alexandre, novelist and dramatist, 

Dec. 5, 1870. 
Durbin, J. P., Methodist clergyman, Oct. 19, 

1876. 
Ellenborough, Earl of, statesman and admin- 
istrator, Dec, 1871. 
Ellet, Mrs. Elizabeth F., authoress, 1877. 
Emerson-Tennent, Sir J., author and official, 

March 6, 1869. 
Evans, Sir De Lacy, soldier. Jan. 9, 1870. 
Exeter, Bisttop of (Henry Phillpotts), Sept. S, 

1869. 
Faraday, M., physicist, Aug. 25, 1867. 
Forrest, Edwin, actor, Dec. 12, 1872. 
Forster, John, author, Jan. 31. 1876. 
Freiligrath, F., poet, March 19, 1S76. 
Galliera, Duke of, wealthy Italian nobleman, 

Nov. 24, 1876. 
Gough, Lord, soldier, March 2, 1S69. 
Greenfield, Elizabeth T., the " black swan,*' 

colored singer, March 31, 1876. 
Grisi, Giulia, singer, Nov. 25, 1869. 
Grote G., historian of Greece, June 18, 1871. 
Guizot, F., statesman and historian, Sept. 12, 

1873. 
Hall, W. W., medical writer and editor. May 

10, 1876. 
Harper, Fletcher, last of four brothers, pub- 
Ushers, May 29, 1877. 
Hemmenway, A., merchant and capitalist, 

June 16, 1876. 
Herschel, Sir J. F. W., astronomer, May 11, 

1871. 
Howe, Dr. S. G., physician and philanthro- 
pist, Jan. 9, 1876. 
Hudson. George, the " Railway King," Dec. 

14, 1871. 
Johnson, Andrew, ex-President, January 10, 

1876. 
Johnson, Reverdy, lawyer and statesman, Feb. 

10, 1876. 
Johnston, Keith, geographer, July 9. 1871. 
Jones, Ernest, chartist, Jan. 26, 1869. 
Juarez, B., ex-president of Mexico, July 18, 

1573. 
Kean, Charles, Jr.. actor, Jan. 22, 1S6S. 
Kerr, Michael C, politician, Aug. 19, 1376. 
Kock, Paul de, French novelist, Aug., 1871. 
Lahrbush, Frederick A., soldier, claiming to 

be 111 years and 25 days old, April 3, 1877. 
Lamartine, A. de, poet, historian, and states- 
man, Feb. 28, 1869. 
Landseer, SirE., painter. Oct. 1, T873. 
Lane. E. W., Arabic scholar, Aug. 10, 1876. 
Lee, R. E., rebel general, Oct. 13, 1870. 
Lick, James, capitalist, Oct. 1, 1S76. 
Lowenthal, J. J., chess-player, July 21, 1876 
Lytton, Lord, novelist, Jan. IS, 1873. 
Lemaitre, F., actor, Jan. 27, 1876. 
Lemon, Mark, editor, May 23, 1S70. 
Maclise, Daniel, painter, April 25, 1870. 



20 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Mansel, H. L., divine and metaphysician, July 
81, 1871. 

Marochetti, Baron, sculptor, Dec. 29, 1867. 

Martineau, Harriet, writer, June 27, 1876. 

Mayo, Lord. gov. gen. of India, assassinated, 
Feb. 8, 1872. 

Mayo, Dr. Thomas, physician and medical 
writer, Jan. 13, 1871. 

Maximilian I., Emperor of Mexico, June 19, 
1867. 

Maxwell, Lady (Mrs. Caroline Norton), June 
14, 1877. 

Mazzini, G-., Italian, republican agitator and 
conspirator, March 10. 1872. 

Melvill, Rev. Henry, divine, Feb. 9, 1871. 

Michael III., Prince of Servia, assassinated 
June 10, 1868. 

Milman, Dr. H. H., author and divine, Sept. 
27, 1S68. 

Montalembert, Count de, author and states- 
man, March 13, 1870. 

Mnrchison, Sir R. I., geologist, Oct. 22, 1871. 

Napoleon III., ex-Emperor, Jan. 9. 1873. 

Narvaez, Spanish soldier and ruler, April 23, 
1868. 

Neal, John, writer, June 20, J 876. 

Omar Pasha, soldier, April 18, 1871. 

Patteson, J. C, missionary, Bishop of Melan- 
esia, Sept. 20, 1871. 

Peabody, George, banker and public benefac- 
tor, Nov. 4, 1869. 

Perier, Casimir, French statesman, July 6, 
1876. 

Poggendorff, J. C, physicist, 1877. 

Pollock, Sir Frederick, judge, Aug. 23. 1870. 

Prevost-Paradol, M., author, July 19, 1870. 

Prim, J., Spanish soldier and statesman, as- 
sassinated Dec. 28, 1870. 

Pugh, George E., lawyer and politician, July 
19, 1876. 

Putnam, George P., publisher, Dec. 19, 1872. 

Randall, H. S., agricultural and educational 
writer, Aug. 19, 1876. 

Rhett, R. B., politician, Sept. 14, 1876. , 

DEVELOPMENT. (See Darwinism.) 

DIAMONDS. The Kohinoor, reduced by its first unskilful cutting from 
nearly 800 carats to 279 carats, was recut in 1852 down to 102^ carats. 
The " Star of the South," brought from Brazil 1855, weighed 204^- carats, 
of which half was lost in cutting. Diamonds were found in Cape Colony, 
South Africa, in March. 1867, and one, the " Star of South Africa," 
found in 1869, weighed 46£ carats, and was valued in June, 1870, at 
£25,000. Other diamond fields discovered near Vaal and Orange Eivers, 
September, 1870 ; a great rush of diggers, November, 1870. The value of 
141 diamonds found in Africa, 1869, was £7,405; of 5,661 in 1870, 
£124,910. Diamond drill for piercing stone, patented by Hermann in 
France, 1854 ; a subsequent improvement by setting the diamond in the 
rim of a tube to turn, and thus cut out a core, used in Mt. Cenis tunnel 
and at Hellgate mine. 

DISESTABLISHMENT. (See also Church of Ireland.) A conference was 
held at Birmingham, October 1, 1872, to promote immediate action for 
the disestablishment of the English and Scotch national churches. 

DRAMA. January 28, 1869, the Lord Chamberlain of England sent an offi- 



Robertson, T. W., dramatist, Feb., 1871. 

Robinson, W. S., journalist, March 11, 1876. 

Rosas, Manuel, ex-dictator of Buenos Ayres, 
March 14, 1877. 

Rosse, Earl of, astronomer, Oct. 31, 1867. 

Rossini, G. A., composer, Nov. 13, 1868. 

Rothschild, Sir Anthony, capitalist, Jan. 4, 
1S76. 

Ryves, Mrs., daughter of the self-styled " Prin- 
cess Olive, of Cumberland," Deo. 7, 1871. 

Sainte-Beuve, 0. A. literary critic, Oct., 1869. ' 

Saldanha, field marshal, Portuguese, soldier 
and statesman, Nov. 21, 1876. 

Salt, Sir Titus, manufacturer, Dec. 29, 1876. 

Sand, George (Mme. Dudevant), June 8, 1876. 

Santa Anna, Antonio L., Mexican general and 
ruler, June 20, 1876. 

Schamyl, Circassian chief, April, 1871. 

Smart, Sir George, musician, Feb. 23, 1867. 

Smith, Alexander, poet, Jan. 5, 1867. 

Smith, F. O. J., telegraph capitalist, Oct. 14, 
1S76. 

Smith, Geo., Assyrian scholar, Sept. 5, 1876. 

Smith, Henry B., presbyterian clergyman, pro- 
fessor, editor, and author, Feb. 7, 1877. 

Smith, William, connoisseur and antiquary in 
engravings, Sept. 13, 1S76. 

Smirke, SirR., architect, April 18, 1867. 

Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter, May 18, 
1867. 

Stewart, A. T., merchant, April 10, 1876. 

Strangford, Viscount, diplomatist, Jan. 9, 1S69. 

Strauss, F., theologian, Feb. 8. 1873. 

Sumner, C, statesman, March 11, 1873. 

Thompson, Jeff., rebel general, Sept. 5, 1S76. 

Tischendorf, O, biblical scholar, Dec. 7, 1873. 

Vanderbilt, O, railroad owner and capitalist, 
Jan. 4, 1877. 

Whittingham, C, printer, Aoril 21, 1S76. 

Wilkes, Charles, admiral, U. S. N., Feb. 8, 
1877. 

Wilson, Henry, vice-president, Jan. 20, 1876. 

Winship, G. B., strong man, Sept. 12, 1876. 

Wise, H. A., politician, Sept. 11, 1876. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 21 

cial warning to all the London managers against " the impropriety of cos- 
tume of the ladies in the pantomimes, burlesques, etc.," usual on the stage. 
Dramatic College, for distressed actors and their children, founded at May- 
bury, near Woking, in England, June 1, 1860, and seven persons installed 
as beneficiaries, September 29, 1862. A somewhat similar institution was 
directed to be established by Edwin Forrest, the American actor, in his 
house at Philadelphia, but there appeared to be none to apply for the 
benefit of the asylum. 

DUALIISr. (See Explosives.) 

DUELS. March 12, 1870, the Duke de Montpensier challenged Don Enri- 
que de Bourbon, for personalities having reference to the throne of Spain, 
and at the third shot killed him. The Duke was tried by court-martial, 
and sentenced to one month's banishment from Madrid and $6,000 fine, 
to be paid to Don Enrique's family. Duels are still (1877) frequent in 
France, but have become rare in England and America. A clumsy and 
unsuccessful one took place in 1877, between J. G-. Bennett, the owner of 
the New York Herald, and one May, of New York ; neither was damaged, 
and Bennett went off to Europe, where he remained a number of months. 

DZOUNGARIA, or SOONGARIA. A country north of China, inhabited 
by about two million warlike and fanatical Mohammedans. They were 
tributary to China, rebelled 1864, making Abel Oghlan sultan. In conse- 
quence of their depredations Russia attacked them, April, 1871, the Sultan 
surrendered himself July 4, and the country was annexed to Russia. 



E. 

EARTH. The estimated average density, 5^ that of water ; weight, 
6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. 

EARTHQUAKES. (See pp. 44, 302.) August 13-15, 1868, terrible earth- 
quakes totally destroyed Arica, Arequipa, Islay, Iquique, Pisco, and 
many other towns of Peru and Ecuador. Estimated lives lost, 20,000 ; 
estimated loss of property, £60,000,000, including many ships along the 
coast and at the Chincha Islands. It was believed that more than 300,000 
persons were deprived of shelter and food. An earthquake on the Sind 
frontier of India, December 14 and 15, 1872, killed about 500 persons. May 
16-18, 1875, one on the Colombia frontier, near Santander, is said to have 
killed 14,000. From 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, out of a 
population of about six million, over 1,000 persons a year, in all 110,000. 
About 255 earthquakes, all slight, are known to have occurred in the Brit- 
ish Islands. 

EAST INDIA COMPANY. Its government of India ceased October 1, 
1858. Finally abolished June 1, 1874. 

ECLIPSES. August 17 and 18, 1868, there was an eclipse of the sun, visi- 
ble in many parts of the East, and very important for study, because its 
obscuration was for the longest period ever observed, reaching on the east 
coast of Bengal 5 minutes 49 seconds, and owing to the sun's great dis- 
tance and the moon's small distance from the earth, the obscuration was 
also very complete. Very important observations were made, especially 
spectroscopic ones, as to the material structure of the sun. August 7, 



22 the world's progress. 

1869. solar eclipse generally observed in North America. There is a sort 
of series of about 70 eclipses that comes round once every 18 years 10+ 
days. Except on August 12, 1889, no total eclipse of the sun will be visi- 
ble in England for 230 years from July, 1871. 

ECUADOR. Presidents: Gen. Franco, August 21, 1859; Dr. G. G. 
Moreno, January, 18G1 ; G. Carrion, August 4, 1865 ; resigns December, 
1867 ; Dr. X. Espinosa, September 13, 1867 ; Dr. G. G. Moreno, end of 
1872 ; assassinated August 6, 1872 ; X. Leon, Vice-President, September, 
1875. Population estimated at about 1,500,000. 

EDUCATION IN U. S. (See pp. 45, 306.) A Department of Education 
created by Act of Congress, approved March 2, 1867 ; afterwards made 
a Bureau in the Department of the Interior. Commissioner, Henry 
Barnard; succeeded in 1870 by Gen. John Eaton. In 1870, in the 
United States, were persons over 10 years old unable to read, 4,528,084 ; 
unable to write, 5,658,144; school children, 7,209,938 ; schools, 141,629; 
teachers (127,713 female), 221,042; income of schools, $95,402,726, of 
which public money, $61,746,039. The census of 1870 showed that the 
wealth of the country was owned where the education was highest, and 
that poverty and illiteracy go together. Compulsory free schools, and 
disfranchisement of all who cannot read and write English, by Federal 
authority, recommended by President Grant in his message, December 5, 
1876. 

EDUCATION in ENGLAND. (See p. 306.) National Education Leagues 
(for compulsory education) first met October 12 and 13, 1869 ; Metropolitan 
School Board (for London), elected November 29, 1870, Miss Garrett, M.D., 
being chosen member by a large majority. Elementary Education Bill of 
Mr. W. E.Forster became law August 9, 1870; amended 1872, 1873, 1876 ; 
Compulsory Attendance Bill of Mr. Dixon rejected, 320 to 156. July 1, 
1874, and again, 281 to 260, April, 1876. Primary schools in Great 
Britain in 1855, 4,8C0 ; in 1860, 7,272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; annual parlia- 
mentary grant for same, in 1870, about $4,500,000. 

EGYPT. (See pp. 45, 306.) See also Suez Canal. June 6, 1867, the 
Khedive (viceroy) of Egypt arrived in London ; his visit lasted until the 
18th. He made a second visit in 1869, landing June 22, and remaining 
eight days. A controversy with the Sultan was adjusted December 18, 
1869 ; a firman makes the Khedive practically independent June 8, 1873 ; 
but he must not coin money, make treaties, or build iron-clad ships. The 
succession of the Khedives is : Mehemet Ali Pacha, abdicated September, 
1848 ; dies August 2, 1849 ; Ibrahim, his adopted son, September, 1848 ; 
dies November 9 or 10, 1848 ; Abbas, his son, succeeds ; dies July 14, 
1854; Said, Abbas's brother, dies January 18, 1863; Ismail, Said's 
nephew, succeeds. Mr. Cave's report to English Government (April, 
1876), calls Ismail "intelligent, industrious, hospitable, and frugal." 
The principal points as to ancient Egyptian history settled thus far are : 
1. Hieroglyphics are partly pictorial (and of these some are special and 
some general or determinative) and partly alphabetic. 2. Menes was 
believed by the ancient Egyptians to be historical, the first known king of 
Egypt ; and there is more evidence for his existence than for that of 
King Arthur. 3. The great pyramid dates from the 4th dynasty, say 300 
or 400 years after Menes. 4. Manetho's dynasties were mostly consecu- 
tive, not contemporary. 5. Roving tribes from the East (the Hyksos) con- 
quered Lower Egypt and ruled in the Delta for centuries ; they were 



SUPPLEMENT. 1S67-77. 



23 



expelled by Aahmes, or Amasis I. Under the 18th dynasty, which began 
with this king, Egypt was greatest. Thotmes III. was the greatest of its 
kings. Ramses II., or Sesostris, of the 19th dynasty, was, however, as 
great. 6. Important synchronisms have been determined of the later 
period of Egyptian empire, with Syrian and Persian history. — (Bev. J. P. 
Thompson. ) 

ELECTORAL COMMISSION. The votes of Florida, Lonisana, and South 
Carolina in the Presidential election of November, 1876, were disputed, 
and were finally referred for adjudication to an Electoral Commission by 
Act approved January 29, 1877. The commission consisted of Justices 
Clifford. Strong, Miller, Field, and Bradley, of the United States Supreme 
Court; United States Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thur- 
man, Bayard ; United States Representatives Payne. Hunton, Abbott, 
Garfield, Hoar. The Commission began operations February 7, 1877; 
acted on the three votes above named, the critical questions being mostly 
determined by a vote of eight to seven, corresponding nearly with the 
known political opinions of the members of the commission, and the 
deciding vote being usually that of Justice Bradley. The result of the 
Commission was the crediting of the votes in question to Hayes and 
Wheeler, who were in consequence elected President and Vice-President 
of the United States by one electoral vote majority, viz. , by 185 votes to 
184. 

ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES. The elementary substances now known 
are sixty-five in number, as follows; those after sulphur being in the 
order of their discovery from antimony, 1490 down to 1877. 



Gold, 


Platinum, 


Tungsten, 


Lithium, 


Silver, 


Nickel, 


Tellurium, 


Selenium, 


Mercury, 


Sodium, 


Uranium, 


Cadmium, 


Copper, 


Potassium, 


Zirconium, 


Bromine, 


Iron, 


Lime (calcium), 


Titanium, 


Thormum, 


Tin, 


Silex, 


Strontium, 


Vanadium, 


Lead, 


Alumina, 


Yttrium, 


Lanthanum, 


Carbon, 


Magnesia, 


Chromium, 


Didyminm, 


Sulphur, 


Hydrogen, 


Glucinnm, 


Erbium, 


Antimony, 


Fluorine, 


Tantalum, 


Ruthenium, 


Bismuth, 


Nitrogen, 


Cerium, 


Niobium, 


Zinc, 


Chlorine, 


Palladium, 


Caesium, 


Phosphorus, 


Oxygen, 


Rhodium, 


Rubidium, 


Borax, * 


Manganese, 


Iridium, 


Thallium, 


Arsenic, 


Barium, 


Osmium, 


Indium, 


Cobalt, 


Molybdenum, 


Iodine, 


Jargon ium, 



Gallium, 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The electric telegraphs of the world are (in 
1877) 391,360 miles long. Of these, the United States contain 79,000 
miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 75,000; Russia, 31,459; France, 
28,784; Austro-Hungary, 28,148; Germany, only 19,152. 

EMIGRATION and IMMIGRATION. Immigration into United States 
since 1861 (by Government fiscal years) : 

1S61 89,720 

1862 89,005 

1803 174.523 

1864 193,191 



1867 293,601 

1868 2S9,145 

1869 385,287 

1870 356,303 

1S71 346,938 



1872 437,750 

1873 422,545 

1874 260,814 

1875 191,231 

1876 237,991 



1865 248,394 

1866 314,840 

Total in sixteen years, 4.331,278. Whole emigration into United States 
to end of 1875, including the estimated total of 250,000 before 1820, 
9,526,966. For Chinese immigration to California, see China. 



24 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



Emigration from Great Britain and Ireland for Ten Years. 





To North Ameri- 
can Colonies. 


To United States. 


To Australia. 


Total. 


1806 


13,255 


161.000 


24,097 


204,882 


1867 


15,503 


159,275 


14,466 


195,953 


1868 


21,062 


155,532 


12,809 


196,325 


1869 


33,891 


203,001 


14,901 


258.027 , 


1870 


35,295 


196,075 


17,065 


256.940 


1871 


S2.671 


198,843 


12 227 


252 485 


1S72 


32.205 


233.747 


15,876 


295,213 


1S73 


37,208 


233,073 


26,428 


310,612 


1874 


25.450 


148,161 


53,958 


241,014 


1875 


17,378 


105,046 


35,525 


173,809 



ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, to provide for disposal of encumbered 
real estate in Ireland, passed July, 1849 ; proceedings under it October, 
1849, to July, 1858: 2,380 estates sold, and brought £22,000,000. The 
Irish Land Bill, passed 1870, further recognized the Irish customs as to 
tenure of land, and gave the tenant a right in his improvements, and 
damages for being wrongfully evicted. 

EOZOON CANADENSE. A foraminifer found by J. W. Dawson, of Mont- 
real, in the Laurentian limestone in 1858; asserted to be the earliest 
known form of animal life. 

EPHESUS. Mr. Wood's search for the ruins of the temple of Diana began 
1863 ; he ascertained the site 1870, and shipped 60 tons of marble to the 
British Museum in 1872. 

EUROPE. Population (census years 1860 to 1875 in different countries), 
265,374,470; an estimate for 1872, for all these countries, gives 301,700,- 
000. 

EVOLUTION theory ; includes the nebular theory, and the Darwinian theory 
of the descent of man and natural selection. 

EXECUTION. (See also Capital Punisliment.) The execution of Michael 
Barrett, for being concerned in the plot to blow up Clerkenwell Prison, 
December 13, 1867, at Newgate. London, May 26, 1888, was the last 
public execution in England. On September 8th following, the first 
private execution took place, inside of Newgate, being that of one 
Mackay, for murder. 

EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. London (South Kensington), opened 
May 1, closed November 1, 1867; visitors, 6,117,450. Paris, opened April 
1, closed November 3, 1867. Vienna, opened May 1, closed November 2, 
1873. Philadelphia, opened May 10, closed November 10, 1876. The 
Philadelphia Exhibition (most single admissions, 274,919, on September 
28, 1876) compares with the other chief similar ones as follows : 



Place. 


Year. 


Days open. 


Admissions . 


Receipts. 




1851 
1862 

1855 
1867 
1873 
1876 


141 

172 • 

200 

217 

186 

159 


6.039,191 
6,211,103 

5,162,330 
8,805,969 
6.740.500 
9,789,392 


$2,530,500 

2.042,650 

'640.495 




2.103,675 




l',032,385 




3,813,749.75 



Exhibitors at Philadelphia, 30,864, from 50 countries ; whole outlay about 
$8,830,000. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. • 25 

EXPLOSIONS. (See HeUgate.) Explosion of steam on the ironclad Thun- 
derer, at Portsmouth, England, kills 77 persons. One Thomas, Thomas- 
sen, or Thomson, said also to be in fact named Alexander Keith, Jr., and 
a native of Halifax, N. S., sent a cask of dynamite to be shipped by the 
steamer Mosel, at Bremerhaven, and with it a clock-train set to run eight 
days and then explode the dynamite and destroy the ship, which would 
then be well out at sea. The machine, however, exploded on the dock 
December 11, 1875, killing over 80 persons and wounding about 200. 
Thomassen killed himself, after confessing that his object had been 
merely to obtain a small insurance. 

EXPLOSIVE BULLET TREATY, adopted in November 1868, at St. Peters- 
burg, by Bavaria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Greece, Holland, 
Italy, Persia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, 
Turkey, and Wiirtemberg, agreed not to use in any war amongst them- 
selves, by land or sea, any explosive missiles of any kind of less than 400 
grammes weight, viz. , about 13 cz. avoirdupois. 

EXPLOSIVES. Dynamite (or giant powder), looks like rather fine brown 
sugar, and is made of powdered silex, silicious ashes or infusorial earth, 
mixed with three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. Dualin, made 
known by Carl Ditmar, a Prussian, in 1870, consists of cellulose, nitro- 
starch, nitro-mannite, and nitro-cellulose ; and the dualin invented by 
Nobel is composed of ammonia and sawdust, treated with nitro-sulphuric 
acid. Nitro-glycerine, an amber-colored flaid, discovered by Sobrero, 
1847 ; made by gradually adding glycerine to a mixture of one part nitric 
and two parts sulphuric acid. It explodes with thirteen times the force 
of gunpowder, besides a great gain in its speed of action. Gun-cotton, 
invented by Schonbein, and made known 1848 ; it is made by steeping 
cotton in mixed nitric and sulphuric acids (equal parts). Lithofracteur is 
a modification of dynamite, invented by Engels, of Cologne, 1869. Gly- 
oxyline, invented by F. A. Abel, in England, in 1867, is a mixture of gun- 
cotton, saltpetre, nitro-glycerine, and pulp. It was superseded by com- 
pressed gun-cotton. 

EXTRADITION TREATY between England and the United States, negoti- 
ated 1842 ; abrogated May 2, 1876, in consequence of England's refusing, 
April 18, 1876, to surrender the forger Winslow, and of a disagreement 
about trying one Lawrence, delivered by England under the treaty, the Eng- 
lish position being that there were improper efforts to try him for offences 
other than that for which he was delivered ; while the United States 
claimed that England had wrongly applied a home English statute of 1870, 
defining extradition offences, to this treaty, which was international. An 
extradition treaty between the United States and Spain was proclaimed 
Feb. 21, 1877. 

EXPORTS and IMPORTS. (See pp. 49, 317.) See Commerce. 



F. 

FAILURES (See Commercial Failures, W. P. , p. 32,) in the United States, 
for the ten years 1867-76, were as follows : 
9 





Average 


wnoie Amount. 


Indebtedness. 


$86,21S,000 


$36,134 


63,774,000 


24.452 


75,054,000 


26.S14 


88,24-2.000 


24,849 


85,252,000 


29,245 


121,056,000 


29,750 


228,499,000 


44,085 


155,239,000 


26.627 


201,060,353 


25,978 


191,117,786 


21,020 



26 the world's progress. 



Number. 

1867 2,386 

1868 2.608 

1869 2,799 

1870 3,551 

1871 2,915 

1872 4,069 

1873 5,183 

1874 5,830 

1875 7,740 

1876 9,092 

FAMINE. (See p. 319.) In Orissa, 750,000 persons perished of famine, 
1865-6 ; -very severe in Persia, 1871-2 ; in Bengal, from drought, 1874 ; 
in Asia Minor, 1874-5 ; in several parts of India, 1876-7. 

FENIANS. October 10, 1869, Edward Martin, a Fenian official, was buried 
in London, with a Fenian demonstration consisting of a funeral procession 
of various organized bodies, in all about 6,000 men. In 1870, Parliament 
amnestied the Fenian prisoners at Portland, but on condition of banish- 
ment for life from the United Kingdom. A Fenian force of some 2,000 
strong, under O'Neill, entered Canada from Vermont, May 25, 1870, but 
remained beyond the lines only ninety minutes, being repulsed and driven 
back by a few English and Canadian troops. Another company crossed 
the line at Malone, N. Y. , on the 27th, and were driven back in a similar 
manner. One Fenian killed at each place was the whole loss on both 
sides. July 13, 1871, Head Constable Talbot, of Dublin, who had been 
vigorous and successful in breaking up the plans of the Fenians, was 
assassinated by a pistol-shot, dying on the 16th. One Kelly, who was sup- 
posed to have shot him, was acquitted, to the great joy of the Fenians. 

FIJI ISLANDS. Ceded to England, September 30, 1873 ; Sir A. H. Gordon 
first Governor, 1875. 

FILIOQUE. A word adopted into the Western creeds, in the Council of 
Toledo, 589 ; rejected by the Eastern churches since 662. It implies that 
the Holy Ghost proceeds both from the Father " and from the Son." The 
old Catholic Conference, Bonn, August, 1875, debated its omission, but did 
not omit it. 

FIRES. (See pp. 52, 321.) December 6, 1867, Her Majesty's Theatre, Lon- 
don, was burned down. It was reckoned the best existing building of its 
class for hearing music in. June 5, 1870, a great fire in Pera, one of the 
suburbs of Constantinople, destroyed many houses, immense quantities of 
property of Armenian merchants, the English Embassy buildings, and (by 
estimate) 2,000 lives. January 12, 1870, the Star and Garter Hotel at 
Richmond, near London, for many years a favorite resort of pleasure- 
parties, was totally burnt ; the manager, Mr. Lever, being burnt also. 
May 24, 1870, at Quebec, a fire in the suburb of St. Roch destroyed 400 
houses, left 8,000 persons homeless, and consumed $1,000,000 worth of 
property. March 10, 1871, a fire at Holker Hall, Devonshire, a seat of 
the Duke of Devonshire, destroyed, among many other valuable and 
curious articles, seventy-two very fine paintings, by some of the best 
masters, ancient and modem. June 17, 1871, the steam in an immense 
boiler, some thirty feet long, in the Trinity Works in Sheffield, was found 
to continue to fill the boiler at night after the fires were withdrawn. On 
examination it was found that the boiler, which had been noticed to be 
sinking for some time, was kept hot by the slow burning of a seam of 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 27 

shale and coal extending immediately under the building. The fire must 
have been long burning, perhaps for years, and was quietly at work under 
the street and under the houses opposite. It took a considerable time 
and a large force of men to put it out. December 3, 1871, a fire at War- 
wick Castle consumed the whole of the east wing and the centre, the 
west wing being saved with great difficulty. Many valuable works and 
historic pictures and relics were destroyed. December 14, 1871, a fire 
at Rotherhithe, near London, in Bennett & Co. 's granaries, among the 
largest in England, destroyed to the value of £150,000. November 24, 
1876, fire at Tokio, Japan, destroys some 5,000 homes; about fifty per- 
sons killed; loss of property about $10,000,000. December 5, 1876, 
Brooklyn Theatre burned; 315 lives lost. For Boston and Chicago fires, 
see Boston, Chicago. 

FLOGGING-. Abolished in the English army (in time of peace) in the 
annual mutiny bills of 1868. The Act provides that "no court-martial 
shall have power to senter ce any soldier or marine on shore to corporal 
punishment in time of peace." 

FLOODS. (See Inundations, pp. 64, 370.) Great floods in France in Sep- 
tember, 1866 ; in North of England, November 16 and 17, 1866 ; at Rome, 
December 28 and 29, 1870 ; in Northern Italy, October, 1872 ; at Toulouse, 
in France (1,000 lives lost), June 23, 1875 ; in midland and western coun- 
ties of England, July, October and NoveuJjer, 1875 ; in India, September 
22-24, 1875 ; in Holland and France, March, 1876. Reservoir at Mill 
River, Mass., burst, destroying several villages and about 150 lives, May 
16, 1874. A flood in the rivers of Western Pennsylvania, July, 1874, 
drowns about 220 persons. The Worcester, Mass., reservoir burst March 
30, 1876, but having been expected, no lives were lost, though great 
damage was done. 

FLORENCE, or FIRENZE. (See p. 322.) People vote for annexation to 
Sardinia, March 11 and 12, 1860, and on April 7, the King enters Flor- 
ence : it is made the capital of Italy until Rome shall be acquired, De- 
cember 11, 1864, and the King and Court established there May 13, 1865. 
600th anniversary of Dante's birth celebrated May 14, 1865; first Italian 
parliament November 18, 1865 ; government removes to Rome, July, 1871. 
400th anniversary of Michael Angelo, September 12, 1875. 

FLUORESCENCE. The luminousness which takes place in uranium -glass, 
and in solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
when the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum are 
sent through them. Discovered and named by Stokes, 1852. 

FRANCE. (See, for events, etc. , in the Chronological Tables, following the 
" Dictionary of Dates.") 

G. 

GAMLNG. Gaming-houses licensed in Paris until 1838. Betting-houses 
suppressed in London, 1830. Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wie-s- 
baden, Hamburg, and other European watering-places, leaving Monaco 
the only such place of resort, December 31, 1872. Pool-selling forbidden 
by law in New York, 1876. 

GATLING GUN. Invented in America; patents 1861-1865 ; exhibited at 
Paris 1867 ; rejected in England as inferior to a field-gun firing shrapnel ; 



28 the world's progress. 

a similar machine, the mitrailleuse, tried at Vincennes, 1869, and used by 
the French in the war of 1870-1871. 
GENEVA. (See p. 332.) The ex-Duke of Brunswick dies here August 
18, 1873, and leaves all his property (over £7(54,000) to the city. 

GENEVA CONVENTION, on care of wounded, etc. , in war, of delegates 
from fourteen governments, met October 20, 1863; their code adopted by 
all civilized powers except the United States, August, 1864. The Inter- 
national or "Red Cross" Society, established in consequence, did much 
in relieving the sick and wounded in the Franco-Prussia war, 1870-1871, 
some 13,000 volunteers attending them at a time. 

GERMANY. (See pp. 56, 335.) The Germanic Confederation, succeeding 
Napoleon's " Confederation of the Rhine," was formed June 8, 1815 ; its 
first diet was at Frankfort, November 16, 1816 ; announced dissolved by 
Prussia, June 14, 1866, but continued ; was, however, given up by Austria 
at the peace of Nikolsburg, after Sadowa, July 26, and the last meeting 
of the diet, August 24, 1866. Instead was established the North German 
Confederation, without Austria and the other South German States, Au- 
gust 18, 1866. North German Parliament met at Berlin, February 24, 
1867 ; the confederation ceased on the re-establishment of the German 
Empire, January 1, 1871. Population of the Empire, December 1, 1875, 
42,726,844. 

GOLD. (See pp. 57, 339.) Of 98,000,000 sovereigns coined in England 
from 1850 to 1869, 44,000,000 had in the latter year disappeared from 
circulation; and it was computed that in 1869 31^ per cent, of the sov- 
ereigns and 40 per cent, of the half-sovereigns circulating were of light 
weight. Estimated value of gold extant in the world, in 1848, about 
$2,800,000,000 ; in 1875, about $5,000,000,000. 

GOOD TEMPLARS. A secret society of total abstinent*. The first Eng- 
lish lodge formed ac Birmingham, May, 1868 ; in 1874 said to be 3,743 
lodges and 210,255 members in the United Kingdom. 

GOTHENBURG SYSTEM. Introduced with excellent results at Gothen- 
burg, Sweden, for controlling the use of intoxicating liquors. It consists 
of a monopoly of the sale by a company of reputable citizens, under care- 
ful restrictions, and without any gain beyond usual wages, to the sellers, 
who must live by their other business as victuallers, etc. 

GRANGERS. (See Patrons of Husbandry.) 

GREAT BRITAIN. (For principal occurrences, see in Chronological 
Tables, following the Dictionary of Dates. ) 

GREEK CHURCH. Patriarch of Constantinople declines the Pope's invita- 
tion to an oecumenical council, October, 1868. A Greek church at Liver- 
pool consecrated by an archbishop, January 16, 1S70. 

GRETNA GREEN. Here Scotch marriages (an acknowledgment before 
witnesses was a valid marriage in Scotland) used to be celebrated for run- 
aways. An Act of Parliament in 1856, however, destroyed the business, 
by providing that one party to such marriage must have lived in Scotland 
twenty-one days. 

GUATEMALA. (See p. 58.) Recent Presidents : Vincent Cema, succeeded 
Carrera, May 3, 1865, to 1869 ; M. G. Granedos, December, 1872 ; R. Bar- 
rios, May 7, 1873. Population, about 1,180,000. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 29 

GYPSIES. Esther Faa crowned Queen of the Gypsies at Blyth, in York- 
shire, November 18, 1860. 



H. 

HAYTI, OE St. Domingo. (See pp. 59, 350.) Hayti and St. Domingo are 
used as names for the whole island. Hayti is the western or French 
part, and- San Domingo (which see) the eastern or Spanish part. Gef- 
frard became President of Hayti, January 23, 1859 ; a military insurrection 
against him, under Salnave, broke out May, 1865 ; Geffrard beaten and 
banished. Salnave President, March 27, 1867 ; after one or two risings 
are put down, Salnave proclaims himself Emperor, August, 1868, but is 
defeated by insurgents, taken, tried, and shot, January 15, 1870. General 
Nissage Saget elected President, March 19, 1870; lives out his term. M. 
Domingue elected June 14, 1874; an insurrection expels him, April, 1876, 
and Boisrond Canal elected July, 1876. Population (estimated) 572,000. 

HEAT. Count Rumford, about the beginning of this century, asserted that 
heat consists in motion among the particles of matter. Tyndall's book 
on the same theme appeared February, 1863, and this is at present the 
received doctrine. 

HELLGATE. The reef at Hallett's Point, which was the principal obstruc- 
tion at Hellgate, in East River, near New York, was mined during seven 
years under the management of General Newton, of United States 
Engineers, by a system of galleries and pillars between, to an extent of 
4,857 feet of tunnelling and 2,568 feet of galleries, covering two and 
three-quarter acres of ground, leaving ten feet of rock above, supported 
by 173 piers of about ten feet diameter each, and the whole system 
radiating fanwise outward from the entrance-shaft at the shore. All 
these pillars were then drilled and charged with a total number of 3,680 
charges of dynamite, vulcanite, or rend-rock powder, and the whole were 
connected with a battery on shore by wires, so as to insure simultaneous 
discharge. This took place on September 24, 1876, with complete suc- 
cess, the final connection which exploded the whole mass being made by 
the finger of General Newton's baby daughter pressing a battery-key. A 
smaller explosion was the blowing up of Blossom Rock, in the Golden 
Gate (San Francisco harbor), April 23, 1870, in which 43,000 pounds of 
gunpowder were used, packed in one large chamber in the rock. 

HEPTARCHY. Seven Saxon kingdoms in England, about A.D. 450-850, 
viz.: Kent; South Saxons (Sussex and Surrey); West Saxons (Berks, 
Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon, part of Cornwall) ; East 
Saxons (Essex, Middlesex, part of Herts) ; Northumbria (Lancaster, York, 
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Northumberland) ; East Angles 
(Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.) ; and Mercia (Gloucester, Hereford, 
Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, 
part of Herts). 

HERAT. A strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, near the Persian 
frontier. The Persians failed to take it, 1838 ; took it, October 25, 1856, 
contrary to the treaty of 1853 ; were forced to restore it by the English, 
July 27, 1857. 



30 the world's progress. 

HERZEGOVINA. An insurrection against the Turks broke out December, 
1861 ; subdued September, 1862. Another broke out July 1, 1875, and 
the country has been in an unsettled state ever since (1877), sympathizing 
with its neighbors Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. (See p. 353; see also Egypt.) The researches of 
Champollion and others, greatly assisted by the discovery of the Rosetta 
Stone (see p. 103), have now made the Egyptian hieroglyphic language a 
reasonably well understood one, with dictionaries and grammars. 

HOLLAND. (See p. 354.) William III. succeeded his father, William II., 
March 17, 1849. A. Roman Catholic hierarchy re-introduced, 1853. 
Slavery abolished in Dutch West Indies (to take place July 1, 1863), 
August 6, 1862. Canals begun to connect Amsterdam and Rotterdam 
with the North Sea, 1865. Population (December 31, 1875), 3,809,527, of 
which over 1,200,000 is in cities having more than 20,000 inhabitants. 
The town population of Holland is proportionately larger than in any 
other European country. 

HOME RULE (for Ireland). The Home Government Association, estab- 
lished at Dublin, 1870, with both Catholic and Protestant members ; Mr. 
Isaac Butt, a leader, elected to Parliament from Limerick. September 20, 
1871 ; agitation in and out of parliament from that time, without much 
result ; parliamentary " filibustering," with much inconvenience to busi- 
ness, carried on by Home Rule members, July, 1877. 

HORSE. (See p. 357.) Rarey's mode of training horses shown by him 
in England with great success, 1858-9-60. Horseflesh used as food in 
Paris, 1866, and since. Goodenough's American machiue-made horse- 
shoes (patented I860), to put on cold, adopted by the London General 
Omnibus Co., 1870. A horse epidemic, called the epizootic, coming from 
Canada, caused much inconvenience in Northern States, October, 1872. 

HUNGARY. (See pp. 61, 358. ) The Emperor and Empress of Austria were 
crowned king and queen of Hungary, at Pesth, June 8, 1867. The 
" Act of Grace " issued on the occasion annulled all sentences and stopped 
all proceedings for political offences, restored forfeited estates, and al- 
lowed the banished to return. Croatia united with Hungary, May 27, 
1868. 

HURRICANE. (See also Cyclone.) Oct. 29, 1867, a violent hurricane 
struck St. Thomas (W. I. ) and vicinity. At St. Thomas alone, some 80 
vessels were sunk or driven ashore, 100 lives lost on the island by fall of 
houses, etc., and several times as many on the shipping. March 11, 
1868, a hurricane at Mauritius drove ashore 20 ships, destroyed or un- 
roofed many buildings, destroyed immense quantities of growing sugar, 
cane and stored sugar, blew down a railroad bridge, etc. 

I. 

ICE-MACHINE. Machines for making ice act either : 1, by rapid evapora- 
tion, as in Carre's, Harrison's, Twining's, etc., patents; or 2, by lique- 
faction of a freezing mixture, as in the common way of making ice-cream 
with ice and salt ; or 3, by use of vacuum and absorption of heat in conse- 
quence from the article to be frozen. Several of these machines have 
been commercially successful. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. . 31 

ICELAND. (See p. 361.) A new constitution, granted and put in opera- 
tion at King Christian's visit, Aug. 1, 1874, when the 1000th anniversary 
of the settlement was celebrated at Reykjavik. Cleasby's Icelandic-Eng- 
lish dictionary, published 1869-74. A volcanic eruption March 29, 1875, 
devastated much pasture-land. 

IMPEACHMENT. The House of Representatives voted (126 to 41) to im- 
peach President Johnson, Feb. 24, 1868, of high crimes and misdemean- 
ors, in having violated the Tenure of Office Act, and in other doings. 
After trial before the Senate, he was on May 16th acquitted on one ar- 
ticle (the 11th), only 35 Senators voting for conviction (one less than the 
two-thirds requisite), to 19 for acquittal. On the 26th he was acquitted 
on the remaining articles. 

INCOME TAX, United States. Expired by limitation, end of 1871. 
Receipts from it, 1867, $27,418,000 ; 1868, $23,390,000 ; 1869, $27,353,000; 
1870, $26,150,000. 

INDIA. (See pp. 63, 366.) Order of the Star of India established June 25, 
1861. Growth of cotton greatly increased in consequence of American 
civil war stopping the supply, 1862. Government support of heathen 
religion stopped December, 1863. Indo-European telegraph opened, 
March 1, 1865. About 1,500,000 persons die of famine in Orissa, August 
to November, 1866. The Brahmo Somaj, a sect holding tenets much 
like the Unitarian, appear in 1869, and open a house of worship August 
24. Their leader, Keshub Chunder Sen, afterwards (1870) visits London, 
and preaches in a Unitarian chapel. Mr. Dall, a Unitarian missionary to 
India, joins the Brahmo Somaj. Much distress from famine in Bengal, 
spring of 1874, but only a few lives lost. Estimated expense of relief 
operations £6,500,000. Prince of Wales's visit; he sails from England 
October 11, 1875, reaches Bombay, November 8 ; grand reception of Indian 
rulers, December 24 ; sails from Bombay to return, March 13, 1876. Queen 
Victoria proclaimed Empress of India in London, May 1, 1876 ; at Delhi, 
January 1, 1877. British India (immediate and feudatory states inclusive) 
contains about 1,500,000 square miles, and population (census 1871-2) 
about 240,000,000. 

INDIANS. (See pp. 63, 366; also Modocs.) Gen. Custer ambushed, de- 
feated and killed, and his command of 17 officers and 315 rank and file 
utterly exterminated by the Indians under Sitting Bull, at Little Horn 
River, July 2, 1876. Hostilities continue against the Indians, who, under 
Sitting Bull, flee into British territory at end of campaign of 1876. In 
the summer of 1877 Joseph, an Idaho chief, and a small band commence 
hostilities in that State. 

INFALLIBILITY of the Pope alone, voted by the Vatican Council, July 18, 
1870. Dr. von Dollinger excommunicated for opposing it. April 18, 1871 ; 
and chosen rector of the University of Munich, July 29, 1871. The Bava- 
rian government protests against the doctrine, September 27, 1871 ; an 
"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, in September, 1871. 

INSOLVENCY. (See Bankruptcy.) 

INSURANCE. First fire insurance company in United States, the Phila- 
delphia Contributionship, 1752. First state insurance department in 
Massachusetts, 1854 ; next in New York, 1860. Capital in fire insurance 



32 the world's progress. 

business in United States in 1860, $32,358,000; in 1866, $44,410,000; in 
1876, $55,883,000. Lost by the great fires of 1871 and 1872, over $15,- 
000,000. Comparison of the business in years 1865 and 1875 : 

1S65. 1875. 

Property insured $3,428,000,000 $6,273,000,000 

Premium receipts 29,529,00u 6< 900, 000 

Losses paid over. 17,205.000 31,960,000 

Whole losses by fire in United States in 1875, $78,000,000, of which In- 
sured, $39,000,000. 

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. (See Copyright.) 

INTERNATIONALISTS. An organization of a communist or socialist 
nature, first established by some G-erman socialists in London, 1847 ; 
definitely organized at London, September 28, 1864, George Odger first 
president. Professes to operate for the emancipation of labor from the 
tyranny of capitalists. It has had congresses, sometimes ludicrously dis- 
orderly, at Geneva, September, 1866 ; Lausanne, September, 1867 ; Brus- 
sels, September, 1868; Basle, September, 1869; Barcelona, June, 1870; 
Hague, Se23tember, 1872. This last was particularly quarrelsome, and 
the political part seceded from the trade part, and adjourned to New 
York. At this time the society reported failing in England. Geneva 
meeting September, 1873, and at Brussels again, September, 1874. Has 
claimed the absurd number of 2,500,000 members, and to be affiliated 
with the Fenians and other secret societies. 

INTEREST. (See pp. 64, 370.) In England was 8 per cent, by law of 
1623; 6 per cent., 1651; 5 per cent., 1713; and law totally repealed 1854, 
leaving interest a matter of agreement. 

INUNDATIONS. (See Floods.) 

IONIAN ISLANDS. (See pp. 65, 371.) Declare for annexation to Greece, 
in March, 1861, and April, 1862. England acquiescing, annexation takes 
place accordingly, May 28, 1864, and the British troops leave June 2. 
Population about 200,000. 

IRELAND. (Seep. 372; see also Church of Ireland; Encumbered Es- 
tates Act ; Fenians; Home Mule.) Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Au- 
gust, 1849 ; again, August, 1853. Agitation against national school 
system, 1859. Agricultural distress and agrarian murders, 1862 and i860 ; 
emigration very extensive, 1860-1864. Prince and Princess of Wales 
visit Ireland, April, 1868. Agrarian murders, 1869 and 1870. 

IRON. (See pp. 65, 372.) The iron and steel production of the United 
States for three years, 1874-5-6, was as follows : 

1874. 1875. 1876. 

Pig iron, tons (of 2,000 lbs.) 2.689,413 2,206,581 8,093,236 

All rolled iron, tons 1,839,560 1,890,379 1,921,730 

Rails, all kinds, tons 729,413 792,512 879,029 

Rails, Bessemer steel, tons 144,944 290,803 412,461 

Cut nails and spikes (included in " rolled iron ") kegs 4,912,180 4,726,881 4,157,814 

Iron produced in Great Britain in 1875, tons, 6,566,451. 

IRON SHIPBUILDING. (See also Navies.) This industry began in the 
United States in 1868, and up to 1877 have been built 251 iron vessels of 
a total capacity of 197,500 tons. Present annual value (1877) of iron 
v.essels built in United States, from twelve to fifteen million dollars. In 
1876 were built 25 vessels as follows : 



supplement, 1867-77. ■ 33 

Place. Number. Total Tonnage 

about. 

Buffalo 2 140 

Burlington, N. J 1 13 

Delaware (State) 9 8,298 

New Orleans 2 915 

Philadelphia 11 11,981 

Besides 9 other large vessels and a considerable number of smaller ones 
building-. 
ITALY. (See pp. 65, 874.) September 23, 1867, Garibaldi, persisting in his 
march upon Rome, was arrested by the Italian authorities at Sinalunga, 
near Sienna, as he \yas about entering the Papal territory. He was im- 
prisoned in Alessandria, but afterwards sent to his island of Caprera and 
watched by ships of war. He escaped, however, resumed his enterprise, 
and was at Monte Rotondo, near Rome, in the end of October, and on the 
point of advancing, when (October 28) a French fleet reached Civita Vec- 
chia, and October 30, a French force occupied Rome, to prevent the pro- 
posed revolution. November 3, Garibaldi was decisively beaten at Mentana 
by the French, and he was again arrested and imprisoned. In September, 
1870, the Italian troops marched upon Rome, under Gen. Cadorna, and 
on the 20th, after four hours' carmonade, entered and occupied the city. 
October 2, a popular vote was held in the States of the Church, on the 
question of uniting them and Rome with Italy, and making Rome the 
capital. The vote was 133,681 affirmative, and, 1,507 negative. Decem- 
ber 5, the Italian Parliament at Florence voted 192 to 18 to remove the 
capital to Rome. Victor Emanuel made a formal public entrance into 
Rome, December 31, 1870. 



JAMAICA. (See p. 375.) Negro rising, October 11, 1865, put down with 
much bloodshed and many punishments, by Gov. Eyre, October and No- 
vember, 1865. Gov. Eyre suspended ; a government commission reported, 
April 9, that great, wanton and unnecessary cruelty and violence had been 
used. Eyre was afterwards indicted in England, and sued for damages ; 
but the grand jury threw out the bills, and an act of indemnity gave him 
the suit. In 1878 the island was reported more prosperous. Population, 
1871, 506,154. 

JAPAN. (See pp. 66, 376.) Jeddo (now called Tokio) and other places 
opened to trade according to treaty, April 25, 1867 ; Osaka and Hiogo the 
same, January 1, 1868. Insurrection of the daimios, or provincial princes, 
1868, ending in their overthrow in 1869. This left the government sub- 
stantially an absolute monarchy under the Mikado, who, however, had 
first to overcome also the Tycoon, or spiritual sovereign. This was accom- 
plished December, 1809. An embassy of distinguished Japanese reached 
Washington March 4, and London, August 17, 1872. First railway in 
Japan opened October, 1872. New constitution, arranging a form of 
government somewhat like the imperial French Government, April 14, 
1875. The present Mikado, or Emperor. Moutsu or Mutsu Hito, born 
1852, succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. Population in 1875 
(estimated), 32,794,897. 

JERUSALEM. (Seep. 377.) Population estimated (in 1877) as follows: 
Jews, 10,600; Christians, 5,300 ; Mohammedans, 5,000; total, 20,900. A 
Protestant bishopric was established here under protection of England and 
2* 



34 the world's progress. 

Prussia, 1846 ; Wilson and Warren's excavations, ascertaining many points 
of interest about the ancient city, 1867-71. 

JESUITS. (See pp. 66, 377.) Expelled from Belgium, 1818; Russia 
1820; Spain, 1820 and 1835; France, 1831 and 1845; Portugal, 1834 
Sardinia and Austria, and some other States, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily, 1860 
Empire of Germany, 1872 ; Italy again, 1873. In 1866 whole number 
of Jesuits reported to be 8,167, of which in France 2,422. 

JEWS. (See pp. 66, 378.) Oppressive Austrian laws against them annulled 
January, 1860 ; Hungary emancipates, 1867 ; Disraeli, a Jew, English 
premier, 1868; Jews admitted into Spain, 1868; Sir G. Jessel, a Jew, 
English solicitor -general, 1871 ; master of the rolls, 1873. Jews in 
Great Britain (estimated) in 1876, 51,520, and in London, 39,833. Jews 
in the world, 1869, estimated at 7,000,000. 

JTJTE. Fibre from two plants cultivated in Bengal (viz., chonch, or cor- 
chorus olitorius, and isbund, or C. capsularis). Used for mats, gunny- 
cloth, and other coarse textile fabrics. Imported into the United King- 
dom in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; 1874, 4,270,164 cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 
cwt. ,■ 

K. 

KARAITE JEWS. A kind of Protestant sect, who adhere to the Hebrew 
Scriptures alone, rejecting the Talmud and Rabbinical tradition. They 
are found mostly in Turkey, Poland, and the Crimea. 

KEET, Rev. Mr. (See Reverend.) 

KHEDIVE. (See Egypt.) The title is supposed to mean something more 
than vali or viceroy. It was given to the ruler of Egypt, May 14, 1867. 

KHIVA. The Czar Nicholas sent an expedition against it, which perished 
in the cold of the winter of 1840. Another, 1873, took Khiva after de- 
feating the Khan, who became subordinate to the Czar. The country has 
since been pretty much made a Russian province. 

KHOKAND entered by Russian troops, February, 1876, and the khanate 
annexed to Russia by the name of Ferghana. 

KINEMATICS. A recent subdivision of physical science, being the science 
of motion. Professor Reuleaux's Kinematics of- machinery, an important 
work on the application of this science, published in Germany ; a transla- 
tion appeared in London, 1876. 

KU-KLUX KLAN. A secret organization in the Southern States to oppose 
the ruling party, or Republicans, by threats and violence, particularly 
against such colored persons as should vote the Republican ticket. Their 
operations were very efficacious, 1868-1871, when, under the pressure of 
legal and military measures, they disappeared, other forms of the same 
kind of activity being adopted. 



LABOR. (See Internationalists ; Strikes; Workingmen.) 
LAMBESSA. An island on the coast of Algeria, used as a prisoD for some 
of the victims of Napoleon III., of December 2, 1851, and for other po- 
litical exiles. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 35 

LATIN UNION, to maintain a uniform coinage, 1865 to 1880, consists of 

France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland. 
LEONINE CITY. That part of Borne assigned to the Pope at the entrance 

of the Italian troops, in Sept., 1870. It includes the castle of SanAngelo, 

the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican palace and gardens, and St. 

Peter's. 

LIBERIA. (See pp. 68, 395.) Presidents : D. B. Warner, 1864 ; J. S. 
Payne, 1868; E. J. Roy, 1870 (deposed Oct., 1871); J. J. Roberts (the 
first President), 1872 and 1874; he died 1876. Population about 720,000, 
of which about 19,000 are of American birth or descent. In July, 1877, 
it was reported that 30,000 negroes in South Carolina were enrolled to go 
to Liberia, in consequence of apprehensions from the white supremacy in 
that State. 

LIBRARIES. (See pp. 68, 395.) The great Report of the Education 
Bureau on Public Libraries in the United States for 1876, gives a list of 
3,469 public libraries in the United States having over 300 volumes (not 
including coinmon or district school, parish, and Sunday-school libraries). 
In these were reported in all : 

Volumes 12,276,964 

In common school, etc., libraries, additional, more than 1.365,407 

Total volumes 13,642,371 

Add pamphlets, only part reported, up to about 1,500,000 

Of these, 1,510 libraries report 434,339 volumes annually added ; 742 re- 
port 8,879,869 volumes, annual use ; 1,722 report $0,105,501 permanent 
funds; 830 report $1,398,756 total yearly income ; 769 report $562,407, 
annually spent for books, and 643 report $682,166 annually spent for 
salaries and incidentals. The Boston Free Public Library, the largest on 
the American continent, contained, July 1, 1877, about 333,000 volumes, 
besides about 150,000 pamphlets. 

LIFE-SAVING APPARATUS, Patent for life-boat to Wm. Lukin, 1785 ; 
H. Greathead, 1788, obtained reward of a South Shields committee for 
best life-boat ; also £1,200 from parliament. It first put to sea January 
30, 1790. Up to 1804, 31 life-boats built and 300 lives saved. Richard- 
son's tubular life-boat, Challenger, patented 1852, in England. English 
National Life-boat Institution, founded 1824 ; in 1876 had 2,541 life- 
boats in operation, and lives saved, 1824-1875, inclusive, 23,789. An 
American ' ' life-raft " of cylinders, filled with air and lashed together, 
navigated from New York to Southampton, June 4 to July 25, 1867. 
Manby's apparatus for throwing a shot from a mortar over vessels in dis- 
tress, and thus getting a line to them, put in use February, 1808 ; in 20 
years it saved 58 vessels and 410 persons. Boyton's life -preserving 
dress and signalling apparatus exhibited in America and Europe, 1874- 
1877 ; he crossed the English Channel in it in 23^ hours, May 28 and 29, 
1875. The United States Life-saving Service, as organized 1871, is in li 
districts on the ocean and great lakes. It has 108 stations, with mortar, 
shot-line, life-car, and ample equipments, and 24 of them with a life- 
boat besides. There is a superintendent for each district, and a keeper 
and six surfrnen for each station. In five years, ending June 30, 1876, 
there were on these coasts 273 wrecks ; property saved by the Life-sav- 
ing Service, $5,254,300 ; lives saved, 3.189 ; lost, 41. Ottinger's shot- 
line gun will carry 631 yards. 



36 the world's progress. 

LIGHT. Velocity nearly 200, 000 miles per second. Comes from the sun 
to the earth, therefore, in a little over eight minutes. The greatest prog- 
ress in the science of optics since Newton has been in this century, in- 
cluding the development of the undulatory theory, polarization, actinism 
or chemical action of light, spectroscopic investigations, etc. 

LOANS. (See pp. 69, 400.) French loan for Crimean war, for $150,000,- 
000, authorized by law, July 9, 1855 ; on the 30th, nearly five times the 
required amount had been taken in France, besides nearly the whole 
amount in foreign subscriptions. French loan of $100,000,000, for the 
Italian campaign of 1859, raised without difficulty ; for that of $400,000,- 
000, in 1871, for German indemnity, and for subsequent one of $600,000,- 
000, to close out the same and end the German occupation, twice the 
required amount was promptly subscribed within France. The success 
of these French loans arises from the small sums receivable, and the con- 
firmed habit of the people to hoard specie. 

LONDON. (See pp. 69, 402.) Estimated area in 1860, 121 square miles, or 
eleven miles square. Total population, 1871, 8,885,641 ; in 1877, probably 
considerably over 4,000,000. The first charter of London, given by William 
the Conqueror, is still preserved in the city archives. It is on a slip of parch- 
ment six inches long and one broad, beautifully written in Saxon, and is in 
English as follows : "William the King greeteth William the bishop and 
Godfrey the portreve and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I 
acquaint you that I will that ye be all there law-worthy as ye were in 
King Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir 
after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any 
wrong. God preserve you." 

LONGEVITY. (See Old Age.) 

LORRAINE. Anciently, Lotharingia ; German, Lothringen. United to 
France, 1766 ; about one-fifth of it, including Metz and Thionville, an- 
nexed to Germany, along with Alsace, at end of Franco-Prussian war, 
February 26, 1871. 

LUXEMBURG. According to treaty at London, by the great powers, May, 
1867, the Prussian garrison left the fortress, November, 1867 ; fortifica- 
tions dismantled. August, 1870, and transformed for civil purposes, 1874. 
The grand duchy was declared neutral by the treaty of 1867 ; its popula- 
tion, December 1, 1871, was 197,528; area, 1,592 square miles. 

M. 

MAFIA or MAFFIA. (See Brigands.) 

MAGDALA. A very strong Abyssinian mountain fastness, stormed by the 
British under Sir R. Napier (afterwards Lord Napier of Magdala), April 
13, 1868, when Theodore, the Abyssinian king, killed himself. The 
place was burned, April 17th. 

MAGNESIUM. The metal first obtained from magnesia, by Davy, 1808 ; 
produced in large quantities by Sonstadt, 1862-4. It burns easily, with 
a singularly brilliant flame, by which photographs can be taken, as was 
done in the interior of the Pyramids, 1875. 

MAN, Antiquity of. (See Prs-Mstoric Man.) 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. • 37 

MANITOBA. Rupert's Land made a province, and named Manitoba, 1870. 
One Riel and others (Catholics) resisted annexation to the Dominion of 
Canada, in January, 1870 ; proclaimed the "Red River Republic," and 
murdered one Scott, who opposed them. On the appearance of a mili- 
tary force from Canada, however, in July, Riel yielded without resistance, 
and ran away. The annexation was accomplished, and A. G-. Archibald, 
the first Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, arrived in September. An in- 
tended Fenian raid on this colony suppressed by United States troops, 
October, 1871 . The Red River settlement is in the geographical centre of 
North America. 

MELANESIA. The South-west Pacific Islands. Their missionary bishop, 
Patteson, and his chaplain, Atkin, murdered by the natives at Santa 
Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, September, 1871, as supposed in 
revenge for kidnapping, which the bishop had strenuously opposed. 

MENTANA. Garibaldi defeated, November 3, 1867. 

MERCURY. (See p. 421.) The new Almaden mine, in California, produced 
from July, 1850, to end of 1873, 351,897,055 pounds of quicksilver. From 
one to two pounds are lost for every ton of the ore that is worked with it. 

MERV. A miserable town in Turkistan, just north of the Persian frontier, 
of no importance except as a possible military station, on the line to India 
which might be followed by the Russians. 

METEOROLOGY. Meteorological Society established in England, 1850, 
chartered 18(56. A department for this science, of the English Board of 
Trade, under Admiral Fitzroy, organized 1855 ; it has done much to- 
wards foretelling the weather for commercial and scientific purposes. 
The United States Signal Service department sent and received in the 
year 1873-4, 529,958 letters and documents ; issued of all its publica- 
tions 4,494,320 copies, of which 3,491,046 were " farmers' bulletins." It 
had in that year 108 stations and 247 observers. It has been from the 
beginning under the able management of General Albert J. Myer, who or- 
ganized it. 

METEORS. The dates of the usual annual meteoric displays are : January 
2d, July 29th, August 3d and 9th to 12th, November 8th to 14th, Decem- 
ber 11th. Meteors are now supposed to be small bodies revolving around 
the sun in space, and the displays of them to be in consequence of the 
earth's passing through a belt or group of them, when the swiftness of 
their motion through the earth's atmosphere inflames them. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Based on the metre, one ten-millionth of a quarter 
of the earth's circumference in latitude (3.2808 English feet). Unit of 
surface is the centiare or square metre. The are is 100 square metres. 
Unit of solidity is the stere, a cubic metre. Unit of capacity, the litre, a 
cubic decimetre. Unit of weight, the gramme, a cubic centimetre of dis- 
tilled water. Unit of money, the franc, weighing 5 grammes. Prefix to 
either of these (except franc) deca- for ten times; hekato-, 100 times ; 
kilo-, 1,000 times; myria-, 10,000 times. Also, deci- for one -tenth ; centi-, 
one-lOOth; milli- for one-1, 000th. Adopted to more or less extent (be- 
sides being the only legal system in France) by convention, May 20, 1875, 
in the following countries : Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, United 
States of America, Argentine Republic, Brazil, Peru. 



38 the world's progress. 

METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OP AET, New York, chartered April, 1870; 
a site in the Central Park and $500,000 for a building granted by the 
State, April, 1871. First collection (of paintings) opened in temporary 
gallery, February 20, 1872. Greatly enlarged by the antiquities collected 
by General di Cesnola at Curium and elsewhere in Cyprus, 1873-5. 

METZ. Surrendered, October 27, 1870, by Bazaine, with 3 marshals, 66 
generals, 6,000 officers, 173,000 men, 400 guns, 100 mitrailleuses, 53 
eagles. 

MEXICO. (See pp. 74, 423.) French evacuated Mexico, March, 1867. 
Juarez (a full-blooded Indian), president until his death, July 18, 1872; 
Lerdo de Tejada, president ; his government overthrown by Porfirio Diaz, 
November 16, 1876. 

MILK. Condensed milk process invented by Gail Borden, 1849, since which 
time a great business has grown up in it, both as supplied in bulk in cities 
and put up in sealed cans for voyages and store purposes. 

MINES, MINING. (See pp, 75, 425.) Value of minerals and metals mined 
in the United Kingdom in 1874, £67,834,313; in 1875, £67,487,688. 
Coal, iron and lead were the three greatest mining products, coal being 
over two-thirds of the whole in value, and iron almost three-fourths' of 
the other third. Mining products of the United States in 1870, $152,' 
598,994, of which just about half were from Pennsylvania alone. 

MINORITY REPRESENTATION. {See Cumulative Vote.) 

MISSISSIPPI RIVER. (See pp. 76, 428.) Improvements to make the 
South Pass of the river navigable and to keep it so, by Capt. Eads's plan 
of jetties carried out from the natural mouth of the pass so as to keep the 
main river stream together and thus scour a passage out to deep water, 
were begun in 1875. In 1877 a twenty-foot channel is secured and main- 
tained by the river itself, where there was before only eight feet of water, 
and the jetty plan is considered successful. Humphreys' and Abbott's 
elaborate and valuable hydrographic and hydraulic survey of thje river, 
published 1861. 

MITRAILLEUSE. (See Galling Gun.) 

MOABITE STONE. Discovery announced January, 1870, having a Phoe- 
nician or ancient Hebrew inscription, said to be by order of Mesha, King 
of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii. , and to narrate his victories over Israel. 
Dr. Ginsburg has published an excellent monograph of it, second edition, 
1871. 

MODOCS defeated the United States troops, January, 1873 ; murdered Gen. 
Canby and about forty more by treachery, April 11 ; after long and des- 
perate fighting in almost impregnable volcanic ''lava-beds," the remaining 
Modocs were captured, and their chief, Captain Jack, was tried, and ex- 
ecuted October 3, 1873. 

MOLLY MAGUIRES. Said to be a branch of a secret society called the 
Ancient Order of Hibernians, but practically a murdering secret society 
among the miners of Eastern Pennsylvania. The name and the organiza- 
tion first came into notice about 1862, and for fourteen years they pur- 
sued a career of violence and murder in Carbon, Schuylkill, and the other 
neighboring mining counties. In December, 1862, they attacked Mr. 
Goyne's mine in Cass township, stopped the works and beat those who 
opposed them; June 14, 1862, they murdered F. W. S. Langdon, near 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 39 

Audenreid, and in November, 1883, George K. Smith, in the same vicinity ; 
attacked Mr. Northall's house, February 11, 1887, in order to kill him, he, 
however, being away ; July 5, 1875, shot and killed policeman Yost, of 
Tamaqua ; September 1, 1875, murdered Sanger and Uren, two miners, 
at Raven Run ; September 8, murdered John P. Jones at Lansford ; and 
there were many other cases of murder and violence, usually in the nature 
of revenge for some action about wages or employment of which the order 
chose to disapprove. By means of detectives, a number of them were, 
however, seized and tried, and June 21, 1877, ten of them were hanged. 

MONEY. (See p. 428. See also Coinage; Currency ; Cold; Silver.) 

MONT CENIS TUNNEL. (See Tunnels.) 

MONTENEGRO rebelled against the Turks early in 17th century ; inde- 
pendent ever since, though without the consent of Turkey, and in spite 
of repeated furious Turkish attacks. Several of these, however, would 
have overwhelmed the brave little principality, without the intervention 
of the great powers. Area, 1,770 square miles ; population in 1871, about 
195,600. 

MOODY AND SANKEY. (See Revivals.) 

MOORSOM' S METHOD of measuring the tonnage of merchant shipping 
was adopted in the English Merchant Shipjjing Act of 1854, and is the 
method used for ascertaining the tonnage on which dues are payable at 
the Suez Canal. 

MORMONS. (See pp. 77, 429.) One Lee, a Mormon bishop, tried and 
condemned to death in 1877, for having participated in the Mountain 
Meadows massacre, Sept. 18, 1858, of 136 emigrants, by order of the 

- Mormon leaders. 

MOUNTAIN. Mount Everest, in the Himalayas, 29,002 feet high, is the 
highest mountain known in the world. 

MURDERS in England and Wales for ten years : 

1865 226 

1S66 272 

1867 255 

1868 261 

MUSIC. (See pp. 78, 431.) Musical pitch fixed in France, 1880, the mid- 
dle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. Various different pitches have 
since been adopted, and " concert pitch " is now (1877) not a settled 
thing. Tonic sol-fa system invented by Miss Glover ; improved about 
1847 by Curwen. For Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen, see Bayreuth. 

MYCENAE. 1874 to 1876, Dr. Schliemann explored the site of the Acro- 
polis of ancient Mycenas, discovering five tombs, which he believes those 
of Agamemnon, Eurymedon, Cassandra, and their followers. In these was 
a great collection of golden and other precious articles of ornament and 
use, extremely ancient, interesting, valuable, and arohasologically impor- 
tant. They are deposited with the Greek authorities at Athens. 



N. 

NATIONAL DEBT of United States. (See pp. 79, 434.) Deducting 
cash in the Treasury, Dec. 1, 1876, was $2,089,336,099.42. Increase of 
the debt in the month preceding, $457,662.64. Decrease since June 30, 



1S69 265 

1870 222 

1871 226 



1872 257 

1873 223 

1S74 223 



40 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



1876, $10,103,245.57. Decrease since 1866, $683,900,074.27. State and 
territorial debts, June, 1876, estimated at $350,000,000. 

NATIONAL DEBTS. (See pp. 79, 434.) An estimate in the Westminster 
Review, of the national debts of the world in 1875, was as follows (at 
$5.00 to the pound sterling) : 



G-reat Britain. 

Europe 

America 

Asia 



§3,^75,000,000 

13,805.000,000 

3,870,000,000 

055,000,000 



Australasia . 
Africa 



200,000,000 
375,000,000 



:,S40,000,000 



European national debts are about as follows (at $5.00 to the pound 
sterling; : 



Austro-Hungary (1876) $1, 

Belgium (January 1, 1876). . . . 

Denmark (March 31, 1875) 

Prance (January 1, 1875) 4, 

German Empire, none, or a tri- 
fling one. 
But Prussia (January 1, 1876). . 
Bavaria (January 1, 1874). 
Wurtemberg (May 10, 1S74) 

Saxony (end of 1876) 

etc., etc. 
Great Britain (March. 31, 1S76). 



709,634,5:*) 
33,656,000 
51,620,005 

687,921,400 



229,852,375 

150,688,045 

73,496,020 

85,222,010 

8S4,852,720 



Greece (partly estimated, Jan., 

1, 1876) 106,800,515 

Italy (end of 1875, estimate) . . . 2,000,000,000 

Netherlands (beginning of 1875) 386,383,305 

Portugal (June 30, 1876) 395,308,900 

Russia (estimate, Jan. 1, 1876).. 1.254,S10.000 

Spain (estimate, end June, 1875) 2,650,000,000 

Sweden (January 1. 1876). . . . 38,929,680 

And Norway (end of 1875) 13 418,775 

Switzerland (beginning of 1876) 5,520,000 
Turkey ( June,1876 ; much more 

since) 927,000,000 



NATURAL SELECTION. (See Darwinism.) 

NATURALIZATION. (See pp. 79, 434.) In 1870 there were about 9,500 
Americans in England, and about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United 
States. Under English laws passed May 12, 1870, and July 25, 1872, the 
latter were empowered to renounce their allegiance; and by the conven- 
tion of Februarys, 1871, the nationality of British subjects was made 
dependent on choice, and not on birth. 

NAVIES. (See pp. 80, 439.) The English navy contains in all about 240 
vessels. Of iron-clad war-ships, there are, including those now (1877) 
building, about as follows in the world : 



Nation. 
England . . 
Prance . . . 
Russia. . . . 

Italy 

Turkey. . . 
Germany . 
Holland . . 



Ships. 
59 
53 
29 
16 
24 
13 
17 



Total tonnage. 
317,000 
184.000 

89,000 

89,000 

65,000 

61,000 

23,000 



Also, Austria, 14 ; Spain, 7 ; Denmark, 6 ; United States, 27 ; Sweden 
and Norway, 8; Portugal, 1; Greece, 2; Brazil, 17; Peru, 6; Chili, 2; 
Argentine Confederation, 2 ; Japan, 2. Whole number of iron-clad ships of 
war, 305 ; of these, England has 21 first-rates, thickest armor on any of 
them, 24 inches ; and France, 23 first-rates. The thickest armor used by 
any German ship is 10 inches ; Russia and Turkey, 12 inches ; Italy, 22 
inches (on the Duilio, launched May 8, 1876, and considered the most 
powerful war-ship ever built). The United States navy, besides 27 iron- 
clad ships, has 70 other steamers and 25 sail-vessels. 

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. Published by Sir William Herschel, 1811. In 
October, 1860, the " dumb-bell nebula" was reported by Lassell to show 
no signs of consisting of stars. In 1865, Huggins reported certain nebula3 
shown by the spectroscope to be entirely gaseous. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 41 

NEPTUNE (Planet). First observed by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, September 23, 
1846, where Le Verrier told him to look for it, having- calculated that the 
irregular motions of Uranus called for such a planet. Mr. J. C. Adams, 
of Cambridge, had made similar calculations about the same time. 

NETHERLANDS. (See Holland.) 

NEW CALEDONIA. Occupied by the French, September 20, 1853, and 
since used by them as a penal colony. 

NEWSPAPERS. (See pp. 81, 444.) Newsuapers in Great Britain, 1876, 
1,642. In the United States, 1875, 7.870 periodicals, of which 5,957 
weeklies. In British America, 1,478, being in America, north of Mexico, 
8,348 periodicals. Among the remarkable enterprises of newspaper con- 
cerns within the last few years, are: Stanley's expedition into Central 
Africa, for the New York Herald ; Mr. George Smith's explorations in 
Assyria, partly for the London Telegraph ; the destruction of the very 
powerful and wealthy criminal combination called the New York '"Ring," 
in consequence of revelations in the New York Times by Sheriff O'Brien. 
Works on the English periodical press : Andrews' British Journalism, 1855, 
and Hunt's Fourth Estate, 1850 ; on that of America, Hudson's Journalism 
in the United States, 1873, which supersedes in most respects the infor- 
mation in Buckingham's and Thomas's works. 

NEW YORK CITY. (See pp. 82, 443.) Bamum's old museum burnt, July 
13, 1S65 ; money panic in Wall Street, from the gold-buying operations of 
Fisk and Gould, September 22-26, 1869 ; revelations of the " Tweed 
Ring " corruptions in the city government, August and September, 1871 ; 
Fisk murdered by Stokes, January 7, 1872 ; the Erie railway administra- 
tion, controlled by Fisk and Gould, breaks down, March, 1872 ; trouble 
from epizootic, or horse disease, October, 1872 ; great panic in business 
throughout the country, begins with stoppage of Jay Cooke & Co., Sej>- 
tember, 1873 ; Tweed convicted of embezzlement, and sentenced to 
twelve years' imprisonment, November 19, 1873 ; escapes, December, 
1873 ; damages of $6,537,000 awarded against him in civd suit, March 8, 
1876 ; arrested at Vigo, in Spain, September 8, 1876, and returned to 
jail. 

NEW ZEALAND. Discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; recognized as belonging 
to Great Britain, 1814 ; first English governor lands, January 29, 1829 ; 
colony and bishopric established 1841 ; towns founded. : Auckland, 1840, 
Nelson and Turanaki, 1841, Otago, 1848, Canterbury, 1850; native insur- 
rection from land troubles, March, 1860 : suppressed, after much fighting 
and trouble, March, 1861 ; another native war, May, 1863, continued 
more or less until July, 1866. The New Zealand group is about 1,000 
miles long and 200 wide ; area of land, about 102,000 square miles ; white 
population, 1851, 26,707; December 31, 1876. about 375,856, besides 
about 45,470 natives or Maoris. 

NICSICS. A strong Turkish fortress standing at that narrow neck of land 
which joins the two main portions of Montenegro, and therefore an im- 
portant military position. 

NILE. (See p. 446.) From the time of Bruce's explorations in 1768 -70, no 
discovery of importance about the source of the Nile was made until 
Speke and Grant discovered the great lake Victoria Nyanza, 1863. Baker 
discovers the Albert Nyanza, March 14, 1864. Livingston's letter from 



42 the world's progress. 

Ujiji, dated November, 1871, to Mr. Bennett, says the Nile springs are 
about 600 miles south of the Victoria Nyanza. 

NITROGLYCERINE. Explosion of, June 30, 1869. Two cart-loads of 
nitro-glycerine exploded in the vale of Llanberris, on the road to a quarry 
there. Five persons were killed, they and the horses being so blown to 
pieces that only fragments were found, as a heart, a foot, a chin with the 
beard on it. Roofs, doors, and windows were destroyed everywhere for 
two miles around, and where each cart blew up was left a circular pit in 
the road, seven and a half feet across and seven feet deep. 

NORFOLK ISLAND. (See p. 447.) After the English penal colony was 
removed, the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty (198 souls) 
were in June, 1856, carried from Pitcairn's Island and established here. 
In December, 1875, the new colony was prosperiug. 

NORWAY. (See Sweden.) 

O. 

OCEAN EXPLORATION. Deep-sea soundings and dredgings have been 
made by Sars, off the coast of Norway ; by Carpenter and Thompson, near 
the Faroe Islands, 1868-9 ; by Carpenter, in the Mediterranean, 1870. 
The voyage of the Challenger, for ocean exploration, was December 21, 
1872, to May 25, 1876; she sailed about 80,000 miles. These investiga- 
tions have greatly added to knowledge. Deepest soundings thus far, 
8,875 fathoms (4 miles, 710 yards), in the Atlantic north of St. Thomas, 
March 24, 1878. Living creatures have been found at the depth of three 
miles. 

OLD AGE. (See Longevity, pp. 69, 402.) Sir G. C. Lewis, Prof. Owen, 
and W. J. Thorns (his "Human Longevity" published 1873,) have dis- 
proved many alleged cases of old age, and few of over 100 years can be 
believed in. A few recent ones are as follows : Anthony Beresford died 
in England, aged 101, March 3, 1874 — considered authentic ; Count Wal- 
deck, traveller and artist, died aged 109, at Paris, April 29, 1875 ; Captain 
Frederic Lahrbush, soldier, died aged 111 years, (age disputed), April 3, 
1877, at New York. 

OLD CATHOLICS organized September, 1871, at Munich. Third annual 
synod at Bonn, in summer of 1876, 50,000 members and adherents were 
reported, but action on the question of clerical celibacy was declined. 
The movement grew out of opposition to the new dogma of papal infalli- 
bility ; but it does not now (1877) show signs of great success. 

OLYMPIA. Explorations at Elis, on the site of the Olympian games, planned 
by Curtius, begun by Hirschfeld and Bottiger, October, 1875. The Ger- 
man Government pays expenses, and has casts of objects found, the orig- 
inals to be the property of the Greek Government. Many interesting 
discoveries of statues, parts of the pediments of the great temple of 
Jupiter Olympus, etc., have been made. 

ORDNANCE. (See Cannon, pp. 24, 234.) The Rodman gun, a smooth- 
bore, 20-inch calibre, weighing 58 tons, and throwing a 1,000-pound round 
shot, cast at Pittsburg, 1864 ; a stream of cold water was kept running 
through the core during casting and cooling, so as to chill and harden the 
inside of the gun. Trials of Armstrong, Whitworth, and Horsfall guns 
at Shoeburyness, England, in 1862-3, against various targets representing 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 43 

ironclad ships, up to an aggregate thickness of 15 inches (in three plates) 
of wrought iron. The Hercules target, 4 feet 2 inches thick, with ll-£ 
inches of iron. Palliser's patent for chilled metal shot (cast in cold iron 
moulds), dated May 27, 1827. More experiments at Shoeburyness, 1867-8, 
where a 10-inch English gun is found better than Prussian and American 
guns, and .a 23-ton gun, 12-inch bore, throwing Palliser shot, is resisted 
by a model fort defended by 15-inch iron plates. The "Woolwich In- 
fant," 35 tons, cast in 1870, 16 feet 3 inches long, to carry a 700-pound 
shot, with 120-pound charge. In 1875-6 an 81-ton gun tried, with a 1,250- 
pound shot and 190-pound charge. The shot penetrated 50 feet of sand. 
A charge of 370 pounds afterwards used. The Uchatius guns of "steel 
bronze," used in the Austrian army, first made at Vienna, 1875. Suc- 
cessful trials of 100-ton Armstrong gun, throwing a 2,000-pound shot, at 
Spezzia, in Italy. The gun is for the Italian iron-clad Duilio. Rifled 
guns first used for siege purposes, Sebastopol, 1854-5. The Armstrong 
breech- loading rifled gun first used in China campaign, 1860. The Ger- 
man army is now supplied with breech-loading artillery. 

ORIGIN op SPECIES. (See Darwinism.) Book by Darwin published 
November, 1869. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. Total income of the University, 21 colleges and 
5 halls, in 1871, £483,842, 16s. 6d. 

OXYGEN. The most abundant substance, being one-third ■ of the earth, 
nine-tenths of the water, and one-fifth of the air. 

OZONE. (See p. 85.) In 1872 Brodie showed that Odling's suggestion 
was correct, viz. : that ozone is oxygen condensed into two-thirds the 
space it would naturally occupy. 



PACIFIC RAILWAY, 1,700 miles long, from Omaha to San Francisco, 
opened for traffic May 12, 1868. 

PALESTINE EXPLORATION. Fund established 1865 ; explorations under 
it began in 1 866 ; a systematic trigonometrical survey begun December, 
1871 ; a similar fund established at New York, same year. 

PAMIR. A region sometimes called the roof of the world, being a very lofty 
water-shed in Central Asia, north of the Himalayas, at the west end of Lit- 
tle Thibet, and constituting a kind of focus from which diverge the chief 
Asiatic mountain ranges. It is the source of the Oxus and other rivers. 

PAN-ANGLICAN Conference of seventy-five bishops, English, Colonial, 
and American, met at Lambeth, September 24, 1867, and issued an address 
and resolutions of a pretty general and safe character. Another is pro- 
posed for July, 1878. 

PANTECHNICON. A building in London used for storage. Burned Feb- 
ruary 13 and 14, 1874, when many valuable paintings and other costly 
articles were destroyed. 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. (See Infallibility.) 

PARAGUAY. (See p. 87.) Francis S. Lopez succeeded his father as dic- 
tator, September, 1862. Brazil attacked Paraguay, December, 1864, in 
consequence of seizure of a Brazilian steamer, on November 11, 1864; de- 
feated Lopez in several battles, and he was killed at Aquidaban. March 1, 



44 the world's progress. 

1870. Peace signed June 20, 1870. S. Jovellanos chosen president for 
three years, December 12, 1871, and J. B. Gil for three years, November 
25, 1874. Population in 1857 returned at 1,337,439, and another return 
in 1873 indicated the devastation of the war by showing only 221,079 souls, 
of which men over 15 only 28,746, and women 106,254, the other 86,079 
being children. 

PASSION PLAY. A drama representing the passion of Christ, represented 
from time time at Oberammergau, in Bavaria ; said to have been so rep- 
resented there ever since 1633. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM. Introduced in the United States August 19, 1861, 
on account of the civil war. Abolished in Norway, 1809 ; Sweden, 1860; 
Italy, 1862 ; Portugal, 1863 ; in France, abolished as to British subjects, 
December 16, 1860 ; revived in the war, August 1, 1870 ; abolished again 
April 10, 1872. 

PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. Popularly known as Grangers. A secret 
society in the United States professing to be for the promotion of agri- 
cultural interests. Said to have been first organized by one Saunders, 
who established the national "grange" (or lodge) in December, 1867. 
Subordinate granges were established, 10 or 11, in 1868; 39 in 1869; 38 
in 1870 ; 125 in 1871 ; 1,105 in 1872 ; 8,400 in 1873 ; and for a year or 
two after this time the order had much x^olitical influence, and did some- 
thing to establish co-operative organizations for the supply of goods. Legis- 
lation in Iowa (1874) and elsewhere, at the requirement of the " Grangers," 
to fix transportation prices by railroad, has proved a mistake and a bad 
failure. 

PAUPERS. (See Poor Laws, p. 479.) Paupers and their cost in England 

and Wales for ten years (poor-rate only, and not including charity) : 

Paupers. Poor-rate. 

1866 916,152 £6,439,517 

1867 931.546 6.959,840 

1868 1,034,723 7,498,059 

1869 1.039,549 7,673.100 

1870 1,079,391 7,644.307 

1871 1,071,926 7;886,724 

1872 977,664 8 007,403 

1873 890.372 7,692,169 

1874 829,281 7,664,957 

1875 815,5S7 

PAUPERS in United States, 1870, 116,102. 

PEABODYFUND. {See Charities.) 

PEABODY MEMORIAL. A statue of Mr. George Peabody was publicly 
inaugurated in London, July 23, 186*). 

PEACE JUBILEE. (See Boston. ) 

PEERAGE. In 37 years, 1832-69, an average of 24 commoners a year were 
created peers in England. 

PERU. (See pp. 89, 467.) Presidents : Canseco succeeds Pezet, Novem- 
ber, 1865. Prado subsequently appointed dictator, and February 15, 
1S67, made president; resigns in consequence of an insurrection, and 
Gen. La Puerta succeeds him, January 18, 1868 ; Col. Balta next August 
1, 1868 ; Gutierrez dictator, July 22, 1872, but killed 26th ; Pardo 
elected, August 2, and Prado succeeds him, August, 1876. The Peru- 
vian railways, in establishing which the American, Henry Meiggs, has been 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 45 

prominent, at end of 1876 open for trade, or in course of completion, were 
22 lines, 2,030 miles in length. 

PESSIMISM. A gloomy system of philosophy and belief put forth by 
Arthur Schopenhauer in Germany, 1819 to 1851, and which has found some 
acceptance. Its most eminent expositor is Hartmann. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. (Seep. 477; also Norfolk Island.) 

PLANCHETTE. (See Spiritualism.) 

PLANETS. (See Astronomy.) 

POLAND. (Seep. 476.) The separate government of Poland abolished, 
and administrative union with Russia perfected February 29, 1868. 
Polish language prohibited in public places, July, 1868 ; in courts of law 
and public offices, June, 1876. These measures followed a severe mili- 
tary repression of hopeless but determined military efforts against Russia, 
which had continued most of the time since 1830. 

POOR. (See Paupers.) 

POPULATION. (See pp. 93, 481.) Total population of the world esti- 
mated at 1.377,000,000. Another estimate, by statistical authorities at 
Washington, 1874, made it 1,391,032,000. 

POSITIVISM. A philosophy put forth by Auguste Comte (born about 
1795, died 1852), which rejects metaphysics and claims to deal wholly 
with facts. Its chief historical principle is that there are three stages of 
human belief, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive, the 
former two being erroneous, and the last the only valid one, at which 
Europe is just now arriving. 

POST-OFFICE; Postal Affairs. Book-post established in England, 
1855. Money-order office established 1792 ; little used until 1840, but 
very largely since. English electric telegraphs purchased by government 
and run as part of post-office system, 1869. Postal cards first issued 
October 1, 1870. Post-office savings-banks (Government responsible to 
depositors) established 1861 ; deposits in them, December 31, 1874, 
£23,157,469 18s. lOd. An International Postal Congress met at Bern, 
Switzerland, January 27, 1874, and signed a convention, October 9, for a 
universal international postage rate of 25 centimes, or 2^ pence, or 5 cents 
for each half-ounce letter rate ; 1 penny, or 2 cents, or 10 centimes for 
each newspaper rate, etc. In the United States Post-office Department : 
Postage stamps issued, year ending June 30, 1876, 700,089,437, worth 
$19,718,708.75; stamped envelopes (not official) issued, 147,021,500, 
worth $4,359,907.04 ; newspaper wrappers, 18,498,750, worth $273,723.- 
50; postal cards, 150,815,000, worth $1,580,150 ; official postage stamps, 
17,682,665, worth $663,831.50, and official stamped envelopes and wrap- 
pers, 15,690,155, worth $429,110.93. Total numberof these issues, 1,049,- 
797,507, worth $26,953,421.72. 

PRAYER-GAUGE DEBATE originated in a proposition by Sir Henry 
Thompson, July, 1872, that some certain hospital ward or wards should 
be chosen, special prayers offered for the patients in them, and the result, 
as compared with other wards, to show whether prayer is efficacious to 
heal the sick. There was a long and energetic debate in print on this 
suggestion, 1872-3, but the experiment was not tried. 

PREHISTORIC MAN. Burnt bricks found in Egypt have been reckoned 
20,000 years old; human bones found in Florida 30, 000 years old. Recent 



46 the world's progress. 

discoveries of worked flints by Boucher de Perthes, near Abbeville, 1836, 
and similar ones and of various other articles in various parts of Europe, 
have led to the belief by many scientific men that human life has exetisd 
on the earth for many ages. The prehistoric period has been divided 
into the stone, iron, and bronze ages. See Lubbock's ■' Prehistoric 
Times" (1865), Dawkins's " Cave-Hunting," Evans's "Ancient Stone Im- 
plements " (1872), etc. An International Congress of Prehistoric Archse- 
ology meets annually and publishes transactions. 

PRE-RAPHAELITES. A. school of painters that arose in England about 
1850, including Millais, Hunt, Rossetti, etc. Their peculiarity was a 
purpose to pursue real art by representing nature as they saw it, instead 
of following the antique. With some extravagance, their influence on art 
has on the whole been good. 

PRINTING-PRESS. (See p. 96.) The Walter press, an English inven- 
tion, is said to print both sides of from 15,000 to 17,000 copies per hour 
of a newspaper. The Campbell press is said, however, to print 50.000 
such copies per hour. Copper-faced type introduced about 1850. Several 
machines for composing and distributing type invented, 1858-1875 ; some 
of them are in fact used for the more uniform kinds of work. A Caxton 
celebration, with exhibition of many rare and curious books, on fourth 
centennial of establishment of his press in England, at London, July, 
1877. 

PRUSSIA. (See pp. 97, 493.) North German Confederation (see Ger- 
many), formed August 1, 1866. King refuses to receive the French 
minister Benedetti in consequence of improper demands, July 13, 1870; 
French declaration of war delivered at Berlin, July 19 ; first hostilities 
at Niederbronn, July 26 ; first battle at SaarbriAck, July 30 (for events of 
the war see Ghronologioal Tables) ; capitulation of Napoleon and of McMa- 
hon's army at Sedan, September 2, 1870 ; surrender of Metz by Bazaine, 
October 27 ; Paris capitulates, January 28, 1871 ; treaty of peace signed, 
February 26 ; King of Prussia proclaimed Emperor of Germany at Ver- 
sailles, January 18 ; imperial diet opened, Berlin, March 21, 1871. 
Prussian nationality and administration remain substantially intact, while 
it is a member of the new empire of Germany. 

PURCHAS CASE. February 23, 1871, the judgment of the English Privy 
Council was given on the charges of heresy against Mr. Purchas, the 
ritualist. He was found guilty of violating the ecclesiastical law " by 
wearing the chasuble, alb, and tunicle during the communion service ; 
by using wine mixed with water, and wafer- bread in the administration 
of the communion ; and by standing with his back to the people, between 
the communion-table and the congregation, during the consecration prayer. " 
He was held to pay costs. 

PUSEYISM. (See Ritualism ; also Tractarianism, p. 123.) 

Q. 

QUEENSLAND. Made a separate colony, 1859. Governor, 1876, Sir A. 
E. Kennedy. Includes the northeast part of Australia and adjacent 
islands. Capital, Brisbane. First settlement (by convicts sent out), 1825. 
Population of European descent, May 31, 1876, 173,180, besides natives, 
Chinese, and South Sea Islanders. Area about 678,600 square miles, or 
one-fifth as much as all Europe. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 47 



R. 

RADIOMETER. A delicate vane with four fans, each black on one side, 
hung in a vacuum, usually in an hermetically sealed glass globe. In- 
vented by Wm. Crookes, 1873-6. When light falls on it the vane turns, 
and this movement was at first supposed to demonstrate the mechanical 
action of light. Further investigation indicated, however, that the 
motion was caused by heat acting on the small portion of air left in the 
approximate vacuum. 

RAGGED SCHOOLS. (See p. 99.) Average attendance at 226 Ragged 
Schools in London, in 1867, 26,000. The buildings exempted from rates, 
1869. At present the London School Board Schools are gradually repla- 
cing these. 

RAILWAYS. August 21, 1867, a locomotive and two carriages passed over 
the whole length of the Mount Cenis Railway, 48 miles. This road 
crosses the mountain nearly in the track of the road built by Napoleon I. 

Railways in the world, end of 1876 : 



Europe miles, 88,745 

North America " 79,519 

South. America " 3,701 



Africa miles, 1,451 

Asia " 7,643 

Australia " 1,752 

Central Am. and W. Indies . "- 559 

Total 183,370 

Another authority makes this total 194,836. 

Of the North American total, the United States contains 74,658 (another 
authority says 77,470) miles, Canada 4,484, Mexico 877. About one- 
fourth the railroads built in the United States in 1876 were narrow-gauge. 
Steam on street railroads was successfully introduced in Philadelphia in 
the spring of 1877. Railways of upper Italy to be bought by the govern- 
ment ; bill passed, 344 to 85, June 27, 1876. First narrow-gauge railway 
built as a tram-way for horse-power, at Festiniog, in Wales, 1832 ; loco- 
motives used on it, 1863. 

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. August 20, 1868, the Irish clay mail express 
train ran into a freight train with petroleum near Aberg-ele, in Wales, and 
the oil taking fire from the engines, thirty-three persons were burned 
alive in the cars, having (apparently) been smothered in the smoke, as not 
a scream nor a word was heard from one of them. June 21, 1870, by the 
collision of two trains on the Great Northern Railway, near Newark, Eng- 
land, in consequence of a defective axle, 18 persons were killed and 40 or 
50 more or less injured. December 29, 1876, disaster at Ashtabula, on 
the Lake Shore Railroad, Ohio, by breaking of a bridge; 60 persons 
burned or frozen, 60 or 70 others injured. In 1866-8, one traveller on 
railroads out of each 12,941,170 killed by accident not his own fault. 

RATTENING. Stealing and hiding a man's tools because he opposes 
trades-unions or does not pay dues to them. An English practice ; much 
of it proved before the Commission of Inquiry, Sheffield and Manchester, 
June and September, 1867. (See Sheffield.) 

RECONSTRUCTION. Immediately after the rebel surrender, 1865, the 
Southern States began to pass laws discriminating in social and political 
affairs against the negroes. In 1868 Arkansas was readmitted into the 
Union over President Johnson's veto, on condition that the State should 



48 the world's progress. 

never deprive negroes of their right to vote. Another bill, passed in like 
manner over the veto, readmitted North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, the provision being requisite 
in consequence of the discriminations aforesaid. July, 1868, President 
Johnson by proclamation pardoned all who had been in rebellion, except 
those actually under indictment for treason-felony. During President 
Grant's administration, the Republican State governments, in Louisiana 
and South Carolina especially, were supported by national troops. Presi- 
dent Hayes withdrew these, with the result that these States at once 
passed under democratic administrations. 

RED RIVER. (See Manitoba.) 

RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD. Estimating the population of the world 
at 1,377,000,000, the believers in its religions rank as follows in point of 
numbers : 1. Pagans ; 2. Christians ; 3. Mohammedans ; 4. Jews. Atheists 
not counted ; there are very few. The numbers of the above four classes 
are estimated as follows : 
Pagans, viz. : 

Buddhists ■ 455,000,000 

Others 425,000,000 880,600.000 



Christians, viz. : 

Roman Catholics 201.200.000 

Protestants 106,300^000 

Eastern Churches 81,900,000 389,400,000 



Mohammedans (some say 165 millions) 100,000,000 

Jews 7,000,000 



1,377,000,000 

REPUBLICAN PARTY. The following table of the popular and electoral 
votes for President will sbow the numerical history of the Republican 
party, 1856-1876 : 



Popular Electoral 

Vote. Vote. 

1856. Buchanan 1,838.169 174 

Fremont 1,341,264 114 

Fillmore 874,534 8 

1860. Lincoln 1,866,352 180 

Douglas 1.375,157 12 

Breckenridge 845, 763 72 

Bell 589,581 39 

1864. Lincoln 2,216.067 212 

McClellan 1, 808,725 21 

1865. Grant 3,015,071 214 

Seymour 2,709,613 71 



Popular Electoral 

Vote. Vote. 

1872. Grant 3,597,070 186 

Greeley (died be- 
fore the electoral 

vote) 2,834,079 3 

Hendricks 42 

Brown 18 

Jenkins 2 

Davis 1 

1876. Haves 4,033,295 185 

Tilden 4,284,265 184 

Cooper 81,737 

Smith 9,522 



By this table the successive proportions between the Republican party 
and its chief adversary, neglecting third parties and odd numbers, are as 
follows : 1856, 13 to 18 ; 1860, 18 to 13 ; 1864, 22 to 18 ; 1868, 30 to 27 ; 
1872, 35 to 28 ; 1876, 40 to 42 (Hayes having come in by a minority pop- 
ular vote). 

REPUDIATION. President Johnson, in his message of December 7, 1868, 
recommended a form of repudiation of the national debt, saying that 
"■ it would seem but just and equitable that the six per cent, interest now 
paid by the Government should be applied to the reduction of the princi- 
pal in semi-annual instalments." In reply, the House of Representatives 
voted by 154 to 6 that all forms of repudiation of the national debt were 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 49 

odious to the American people, and that nothing less than was agreed 
would be offered to the national creditor. The States of Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisi- 
ana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee, do not pay the interest on their 
debts. Some of them, and Minnesota also, have repudiated more or less 
of the principal of the same. Counties and towns in Missouri and Illi- 
nois have also repudiated. The debt of North Carolina is (1877) about 
$39,000,000, and in a conference in that year between the creditors and 
the authorities of the State, the latter offered to fund $6,000,000 of the 
debt, at three and sis per cent interest, to be in full. The creditors de- 
clined, but offered to accept half ; but nothing was done. The whole debt 
of South Carolina was, in 1873, stated at $25,770,611.44, and in this 
year a law was passed rejecting a part of this as illegal, and repudiating 
half of the rest by settling with the holders at 50 per cent. The payment, 
even at this rate, has not been made. Turkey repudiates all payments on 
account of public debt until times shall be better, July 9, 1876. Penn- 
sylvania, which used to be abused for repudiating, never did so, the only 
pretext being a delay upon certain payments, which were afterwards 
made in full. The United States has practically repudiated the French 
spoliation claims, having received, in 1803, the consideration paid by 
France for those claims, but having never paid the persons owning the 
claims. 

BESUMPTION. By Act of Congress, approved January 14, 1875, the 
Government of the United States is to resume specie payment January 
1, 1879. This purpose has been firmly adhered to notwithstanding vio- 
lent efforts in different parts of the country to rescind this action, which 
efforts are in more or less close connection with the attempt to keep up or 
enlarge the quantity of paper money, and even to keep the same irre- 
deemable. 

BEVENUB. Bevenue and expenditure of the United States for ten years 
1867-76 (items of total revenue other than customs and internal revenue 
are not specified, though included in " total.") 

Citstoms. Intern. Rev. Total. Expenditures. 

1867 §176,417,810.88 $266,027,537.43. . . 

1868 164,464.599.56 191,087,589.41... 

1869 1S0,04S,426.63 158,356,460.86... 

1870 194,538,374.44 1S4.899, 756.49. . . 

1S71 206,270.408.05 143,098,153.63... 

1872 216,370,2S6.77 130.642.177.72... 

1873 188,0S9,522.70 113,729,314.14... 

1S74 163,103,833.69 102,409,784.90... 

1S75 157,167.722,35 110,007,493.58... 

1876 148,071,984.61 116,700,732.03 283,758,493.36 25S, 459, 797.10 

BEVENUE and EXPENDITUBE of Great Britain (United Kingdom), 

years 1868 to 1876, ending March 31 : 

Revenue. Expenditure. Revenue. ExpendiUire. 

1868 £69,600,21S £71,236.242 I 1873 £76.608,770 £70,714,44S 

1869 72,591,991 74,971.816 1874 77.335,657 76,466.510 

1870 75,434.252 6S.864, 752 1875 74,921,873 74,328.040 

1871 69,945,220 69,54S,539 1876 77.131,693 76,621,773 

1872 74,70S,314 71,490,020 | 

BEVEREND. The Bishop of Lincoln, 1874, refused to Bev. Mr. Keet, a 
Wesleyan clergyman, permission to put the title " Beverend " on the grave- 
stone of a dissenter. The Archbishop of Canterbury allowed it. On trial 
in the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Chancellor of Lincoln decided against Mr. 
3 



52,846,679.92 $340,729,324.78 

376.434,453.82 370,339,133.82 

357.18S,255.64 321,190,597.75 

395,959.833.87 293,657,C05.70 

374,431.10 1.94. 283.160,393.51 

364,694,229.91 270,559.695,91 

322,177,673.78 285.239,325.34 

299,941,090.84 285,738,800.21 

284,020,771.41 272,093,573,84 



50 the world's progress. 

Keet ; on appeal, Sir R. Phillimore, in the Court of Arches, July 31, 1875, 
sustained the refusal ; but on appeal again, the Privy Council. January 2 1 , 
1876, reversed both decisions, and gave judgment that the title is lauda- 
tory only, and that no law restricts it to ministers of the Church of 
England. 

REVIVALS. Moody and Sankey's revival meetings in England, 1874-5. 
In March, 1875, in London, present about 15,000 persons ; farewell meet- 
ing, July 12, 1875. In New York city, February 7 to April 19, 1876 ; in 
Boston, March to June, 1877. Great results were asserted to have been 
obtained. ' 

RIOTS. (See pp. 102, 509.) Riots in various English towns, by Roman- 
ists, against the lectures of one Murphy, 1867-1871 ; at White Haven, 
April 20, 1871, he was cruelly beaten. Riots by artisans out of work at 
Greenwich and Deptford, England, Jan. 24 and 25, 1867 ; in November 
following, in the west of England, from dearness of provisions ; Oct. 30, 
1868, at Blackburn, between Liberals and Tories ; June 2, 1869, a furious 
riotous attack by 2,000 Welsh on military and police in charge of some 
colliers convicted of assault ; mob only dispersed by being fired on, from 
which 4 were killed and 26 badly wounded. August 7, and September 8, 
1871, much rioting at Dublin, in connection with a meeting in Phoenix 
Park to ask for relief of Fenian prisoners. April 20, 1876, agrarian riots 
break out, lasting some weeks, among the negroes in Barbadoes. Furioiis 
rioting by Romanists at Montreal, Sept. 1875, to prevent burial of one Gui- 
bord in a Romanist cemetery. The right to it being, however, proved at 
law, he was so buried under military protection, Nov. 16, 1875. 

RITUALISM. The Public Worship Regulation Act, for repressing ritualism 
in the Church of England, became a law August 7, 1874, to go into opera- 
tion July 1, 1875. The Pddsdale case was the first under the act, in 
which judgment was given in the ecclesiastical court against Rev. C. J. 
Ridsdale for ritualistic proceedings. In the cases of Rev. A. Tooth, and 
Rev. T. P. Dale, monitions issued to discontinue such practices. Rev. 
Arthur Tooth, vicar of St. James's at Hatcham, in England, was lawfully 
commanded to desist from processions, tolling the bell, singing certain 
music, and other ritualistic and unlawful practices. Disobeying, he was 
on Dec. 17, 1876, inhibited from performing divine service or otherwise 
officiating in the parish. Disobeying again, he was imprisoned. For a 
similar case before the act, see Purchas Case. 

ROMANISM. (See pp. 103, 510; see also Infallibility ; Old Catholics; 
Vatican Council.) The "emancipation" of the Romanists has steadily 
advanced in England during this century. Their priests might be chap- 
lains to gaols, by act July, 1863 ; Justice Shee, of the Queen's Bench, 
(Dec. 15, 1863) was the first Romanist judge in England since the Refor- 
mation. O'Hagan, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (Dec, 1868), was the first 
Romanist in that office since 1688 ; the first Romanist master of arts 
since the test acts were abolished, was made at Oxford, June 22, 1871 ; 
Ecclesiastical Titles Act repealed July 24, 1871. Meanwhile Romanist 
bishops (at Dublin, Oct. 17, 1867) adhere to the policy of separate educa- 
tion under priests ; refuse a Romanist university to be endowed by the 
State, because they cannot have entire control, March, 1868, and October, 
1871. In Germany, the " Falk laws," to subject ecclesiastical affairs to 
a royal tribunal, passed May 11, 1873, and an obstinate though not noisy 
struggle between the German Empire and the Romanist hierarchy sets in, 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 51 

which is still (1877) in full activity, the State having fined, imprisoned, 
and banished various prelates, and the Pope having cursed various offi- 
cials. In the United States there is a regular policy by the Romanists to 
obtain a share of public money for their sectarian schools, which has not 
thus far succeeded. For Romanist riots, see Riots. 

ROME. French enter, Oct. 30, 1867. They march out, August 21, 1870. 
Italian troops occupy, Sept. 20, 1870 ; united to kingdom of Italy along 
with Papal States, Oct. 9, 1870, and the Pope's authority restricted to 
the Leonine City (which see). The vote on union with Italy was as fol- 
lows : Out of 167,548 votes : for union, 183,681 ; against, 1,507 ; the rest 
did not vote. The Pope has hitherto (1877) wholly refused the restricted 
■ sovereignty and guaranties offered him. 

ROSICRUCIANS. There appears to have been a genuine society of this 
name in the thirteenth century, a religious organization of some kind. 
The Rosicrucians of the seveuteenth century, however, were a hoax, im- 
agined by one Andreas or Andreas, who published a solemn pretended 
account of them, 1615. 

ROUMANIA. Union of Wallachia and Moldavia under this name acknowl- 
edged by Turkey, December, 1861 ; Alexander Couza, hospodar ; he 
abdicates (by force) February 22, 1866; crown of Roumania declined by 
Prince of Flanders, February 8, and Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-Sig- 
maringen elected hospodar, April 20, and recognized hereditary hospodar 
by the Sultan, October 24, 1866. Declared independent of Turkey, and 
title of king assumed by the hospodar during Russian invasion, summer 
of 1877. 

RUSSIA. (See pp. 104, 514.) Imperial serfs emancipated in part, July 

2, 1858. Decree for emancipation of all Russian serfs (twenty-three 
million) in two years, March 3, 1861. 1000th anniversary of foundation 
of Russian empire by Rurik, at Novgorod, celebrated September 20, 1862. 
Circassian war declared ended, June 2, 1864. War with Bokhara begun, 
1866. Samarcand taken, May 26, 1868. Circular of Prince Gortscha- 
koff, repudiating treaty clauses of 1856 as to the Black Sea, October 31, 
1870; clauses abrogated by London Conference, March 13, 1871. Com- 
mercial panic from failure of Strousberg, November, 1875. Prosecution 
of the sect of Skoptzi, April, 1876. Khokand annexed as Ferghana, Feb- 
ruary 20, 1876. Southern Russian army mobilized by decree of Novem- 
ber 15, 1876 ; war with Turkey, having been declared, the Russians enter 
Roumania ; cross the Danube, June 27, 1877 ; Gen. Gourkha, with a 
strong advanced guard, passes the Balkans, July 4. Result of the paral- 
lel Russian campaign in Armenia, however, up to August 1, 1877, only 
an advance to within a few marches of Erzeroum, a defeat by Mukhtar 
Pasha, and a retreat to Russian territory. 

S. 

SADOWA, or Koniggratz, in' Bohemia. Decisive battle of the " Seven 
Weeks' War," or war of 1866, between Prussia and Austria, fought July 

3, 1866. About 400,000 men engaged ; the Austrians lost 174 guns, 
40,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The battle decided 
the war, gave Prussia the leadership in Germany, secured unity to the 
North German nations, gave Venetia to Italy, and led to the legislative 
independence of Hungary. 



52 the world's progress. 

ST. CRISPIN, Knights of. This trade union of boot and shoe making 
operatives was first formed in Milwaukee, about 1870, and quickly spread 
into other States, having in 1873, in Massachusetts alone, 40,000 mem- 
bers. They have operated by strikes and the like means, with the general 
object of keeping up wages of operatives as against employers. 

SAN DOMINGO. (See p. 107.) Present name of the Spanish part of the 
island of San Domingo, or Hayti. For the French part, see Hayti. 
Dominican Republic proclaimed, February, 1844, after the deposition of 
President Boyer. Baez was President, 1849-1853 ; Santana, 1853-6 ; 
Baez again, 1856-8 ; Valverde, March, 1858-May, 1861 ; reunion with 
Spain decreed by the Queen, May 20, 1861 ; insurrection against Spain, 
August, 1861 ; insurgents generally defeated, buj; Spain renounces the 
colony, May 5, 1865 ; Cabral President, September, 1865 ; Baez, Novem- 
ber, 1865 ; Cabral again, June, 1867 ; San Domingo City nearly destroyed 
by a hurricane, October 30, 1867 ; Baez President again, March, 1868 ; 
G-anier d'Aton, October, 1873 ; Gonzalez ; Baez, December 10, 1876. 
Population estimated at about 250,000. 

SAN JUAN Arbitration between Great Britain and the United States, 
for ownership of the island, which commands the strait between British 
Columbia and the United States territory. Decided by the Emperor of 
Germany, October, 1872, in favor of the United States, and the British 
troops left accordingly, November 22 following. 

SAN SALVADOR. One of the Central American republics, independent 
since its federal union with Honduras and Nicaragua was dissolved, 1853. 
Government, nominally republican ; but there is most frequently some 
revolution. Population, variously estimated at from about 430,000 to 
600,000, all Indian, or mixed, except about 10,000 whites. 

SARAWAK. A territory on the north-west coast of Borneo, about 300 
railed along the sea and reaching 100 miles inland, with about 300,000 
population. Was under government of Rajah Brooke, an Englishman, 

1841-1868. 

SAVINGS-BANKS. (See pp. 108, 519.) Deposits in savings-banks of Great 
Britain and Ireland, 1872, £40,088,348. For English postal savings, see 
Post- Office. In the savings-banks of New England, New York, New 
Jersey, and California together there were, in the year 1874-5, deposits 
amounting to $810,096,745, of which the bankers of New York held over 
$303,000,000, and those of Massachusetts over $217,000,000. 

SCHELDT DUES abolished for a compensation, 1867, and the navigation 
of the river made free. 

SEAMEN. On Mr. S. Plimsoll's motion, a commission of inquiry to investi- 
gate the practice of employing unseaworthy ships, appointed March 4, 
1873 ; reported July 2, 1874 ; a merchant shipping survey bill rejected, 
June 24, 1874 ; great excitement in and out of Parliament on the subject ; 
an act finally passed empowering the Board of Trade to stop unseaworthy 
ships, August 13, 1875, and a merchant shipping act, August 15, 1876. 

SECULARISM. A non-Christian, free-thinking system, " seeking morality 
in nature, and happiness in duty," and claiming to be " not against Chris- 
tianity, but independent of it. ' ' Advocated in England by Messrs. Hol- 
yoake about 1846 ; subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. A small number of 
secularists are to be found in the United States. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 53 

SEDAN. An ancient city, reckoned a very strong fortress in old times, on 
the Mense, in the north-east of Prance, and the seat of a little principal- 
ity held by the Dukes of Bouillon, who were Princes of Sedan. Ceded to 
the French crown, 1642. A Protestant university here abolished after re- 
vocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. Here was taken, destroyed, or 
surrendered, August 29th to September 2d, the whole of the French 
Army of the North, 150,000 strong, with Napoleon III. himself in com- 
mand. Men actually surrendered, 83,000, with 70 mitrailleuses, 400 field- 
pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 

SERVIA. (Seep. 110.) Alexander Karageorgevitch {i. e., son of Black 
George), the hospodar, forced to abdicate, and Milosch Obrenovitch (re- 
elected) prince in his stead, December 23, 1858 ; succeeded by his son, 
Michael Obrenovitch, September 26, 1860 ; movement begins about this 
time for independence of Turkey ; disputes at Belgrade ; Turkish Pasha 
bombards the city, and is dismissed, 1862 ; on a conference of the powers, 
at Constantinople, the Porte makes concessions to Servia, October, 1862. 
On further demands by Servia, Turkish garrisons withdrawn ; Prince Mi- 
chael assassinated, June 20, 1868, and his nephew Milan Obrenovitch suc- 
ceeds; war against Turkey breaks out, July, 1876 ; complete subjection 
of Servia by Turks only averted by interference of the powers, November 
1, 1876. Area of Servia, about 16,000 square miles, and population, by 
census December 31, 1874, 1,352,522. 

SHEFFIELD, England. An abominable practice of persecution by " rat- 
tening," or stealing tools, and other outrages, and even, in several in- 
stances, by murder and attempts to murder, at Sheffield and Manchester, 
all reduced to a system and paid for regularly, in order to punish oppo- 
nents of trade-unions, revealed before a parliamentary commission, June 
and July, 1867. The worst criminal was one William Broadhead, Secre- 
tary to the Saw-Grinders' Union, who planned these proceedings and paid 
for them. 

SHIPPING. (See also Navies.) Sail and steam vessels of Great Britain 
and Ireland, not including river steamers, in 1875 : 

Men 
Vessels. Tonnage. employed. 

Sail 17,221 4,044,504 126,240 

Steam 2,970 1,847,188 73,427 



20,191 5,S91,692 199,667 

On June 30, 1875, the shipping of the United States were as follows : 

Vessels. Tonnage. 

Sail 17.226 2,257,154,23 

Steam 3,958 1,116,425,42 

■Unrigged (barges, etc) 7,S03 890,858,07 

Canal-boats, etc 2,936 331.445,74 



31,923 4,595,S83,46 

June, 1876, the total tonnage was 4,853,752. 

SHIPWRECKS. (See Wrecks.) 

SIAMESE TWINS. (See p. 113.) . They were exhibited a second time in 
London, February, 1869. They died in January, 1874, one about two 
hours before the other. A post-mortem examination showed that there 
was an actual communication of their nervous and circulating systems 
through the band that connected them. 



54 the world's progress. 

SILKWORM. (See p. 529.) In 1856 the French silk crop, which should 
have been worth about $25,000,000, was reduced to one-third that value 
by the destruction of the silk-worms, which were killed off by a sort of 
epizootic called pebrine, which turned out to be parasitic. Scientific in- 
vestigations by order of the government resulted in a method, devised by 
Pasteur, which has nearly destroyed the disease. 

SILVER. (See pp. 113, 529. See Coinage ; Money.) Silver produced in 
the United States, 184S-1873, $150,050,000. In 1875, Nevada alone pro- 
duced $40,478,869 of the precious metals, of which nearly all was silver. 
In 1876 an important fall took place in the value of silver, since which 
time the question of the standard of money has been vigorously debated, 
with a tendency to make gold the only standard, thus leaving silver more 
a merchandise than a currency, except for small change. 

SINAI, MT. Ordnance survey by Wilson and Palmer, published 1872. 
SINAITIC MS. of the Bible, or Codex Sinaiticus. (See Bible.) 

SKOPTZI, or White Doves. A South Russian fanatical sect, who prac- 
tice emasculation as the Shakers do celibacy. 

SLAVERY. Abolished by the Dutch in their West India colonies, from 
July, 1863; slave trade, by the Seyyid (or ruler) of Zanzibar, by treaty 
with England, June 5, 1873 ; on the Gold Coast, by agreement with several 
chiefs, November 3, and proclamation made by Gov. Strahan, December 
17, 1874; slavery, by the Sultan of Turkey, November 23, 1876. 

SLAVONIA, a province of Austria. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
cludes Bohemian, Bulgarian, Polabic, Polish, Russian, Servian, Slovak, 
and Wend. The Slavic races in Europe are estimated to number, in 1875, 
as follows: Russians and Ruthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 5,940,- 
539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; Slovaks, 2,223,830; 
Czechs (l e., Bohemians), 4,815,154 ; Poles, 9,492,162; total, 90,365,633. 
A so-called "Pan-Slavist " movement has of late years been set on foot, 
with rather vague designs, and a congress of Slavonic deputies met at 
Moscow, 1867, but with no distinct results. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE, or Sociology, has become a distinct department of study 
within fifty years, and especially since 1857. Annual meetings of the 
English Social Science Association have been held, beginning with that at 
Birmingham, October, 1857, and an annual volume of its transactions 
has been published. The American Social Science Association, whose 
headquarters are at Boston, Mass. , has issued, besides a tract on emigra- 
tion and one on free libraries, annual numbers of its Journal, beginning 
with June, 1869. It holds annual meetings, where papers are read and 
debate is had. 

SOONGARIA. (See Dzoungaria.) 

SOUND DUTIES, levied by Denmark at Elsinore on all ships" passing the 
Sound there, until 1855, when the United States decided to pay them no 
longer, and the Danish Government gave them up for a compensation. 

SPAIN. (See pp. 116, 535.) The Government, since 1S67, has changed as 
follows: Queen Isabella leaves Spain, September 30, 1868; Provisional 
Republican government established ; Marshal Serrano regent, 1869 ; 
Queen Isabella abdicates January 25, 1870 ; crown declined by Leopold 
of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, July 4 ; Prince Amadeo of Italy chosen 
king November 16, 1870 ; abdicating, a republican government restored. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 55 

1873 ; Marshal Serrano President, 1874; Alfonso XII., son of Queen Isa- 
bella, king, 1875 ; the present constitution proclaimed June 30, 1876. 
An attempt by Don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII. , to obtain the 
throne ; he enters Spain, May, 1872, and maintains hostilities with more 
or less success against whomsoever it may concern until February, 1876, 
when, after many reverses, he leaves Spain and surrenders to the 
Governor of Bayonne, February 27, 1876. Don Carlos (born 1848), is son 
of Don Juan, who was brother of the Count of Montemolin, or Carlos VI. , 
who was son of Carlos V., the brother of Ferdinand VII. Carlos VI. 
renounced his rights in favor of Don Juan, and the present Don Carlos 
therefore claims under Carlos V. 

SPECIE PAYMENT. (See Resumption.) 

SPECTROSCOPE. First constructed and used by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, 
1861 ; since variously improved. Spectrum analysis, or the examination 
of light through the spectroscope, has resulted in many remarkable dis- 
coveries, particularly in astronomy, such as the determination of the sub- 
stances composing the sun, some nebula?, fixed stars, comets, etc. ; and 
also in analytical chemistry, including the discovery of two new metals, 
caesium and rubidium. 

SPELLING REFORM. The Spelling Reform Association was organized in 
Philadelphia, August 17, 1876, for ''the simplification of English ortho- 
graphy." President, F. A. March, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. ; Cor- 
responding Secretary, D. P. Lindsley, Fern wood, Pa. Efforts in the same 
direction have for some years been made in England. 

SPIRITUALISM, or SPIRITISM. The so-called " spiritual manifesta- 
tions " began at Rochester, New York, about 1848 ; about 1851 much 
attention was given in England to the raps, "table-turning," etc. Some 
time afterwards a little machine called "Planchefcte" was a leading 
topic of interest. Various sorts of "test-mediums" and "manifesta- 
tions " have appeared, and it is confessed, even by the most ardent 
spiritists, that a great share of the phenomena exhibited are fraudulent. 
The " Spiritual Magazine," London, began January, 1860; the " Spirit- 
ualist," November, 1869. Many very intelligent people believe in some 
of the "manifestations," but Spiritism has not thus far (1877) been 
demonstrated either good morally, or true scientifically. 

STADE DUES. Levied on the Elbe by Hanover, on all vessels passing 
Stade. Resisted by the United States, 1855 ; abolished, 1861, for a sum 
of £3,000,000. 

STANDARD GOLD AND SILVER. English standard gold is 22 parts (by 
weight) gold, and 2 parts either silver or copper ; standard silver, 37 of 
silver to 3 of copper. The old-established proportion of silver to gold 
was 15^- of silver equal to one of gold by weight. 

STEEL. Bessemer's process patented 1856. Tungsten steel made in 
Germany, 1859. Steel is very rapidly coming into use (1877) for railroad 
rails, cannon, and other purposes for which iron has heretofore served. 

STORM SIGNALS. (See Meteorology.) 
STORMS. (See Cyclones; Hurricanes.) 

STRASBURG. Invested by the Germans, August 10, 1870 ; surrendered 
by Gen. Uhrich with 17,500 men and 400 officers, September 27. The 



56 THE WOELT V j PROGRESS. 

ancient and very valuable library was destroyed during the siege, and 
the cathedral much injured. 

STREET RAILWAYS, Steam on. (See Railways.) 

STRIKES. (See page 118 ; see also St. Crispins.) In 1824, combinations by 
workmen against masters ceased to be criminal by English law, and the 
history of workingmen since that time has been increasingly a history 
of strikes, which have occurred in great numbers, especially in Great 
Britain and the United States. In March, 1867, the farm-laborers of 
Buckinghamshire struck for higher wages, and with some measure of 
success. Same month, the engine-drivers on the London and Brighton 
Railway struck for higher wages and some other concessions. Result, a 
compromise. April 10, the engine-drivers and others on the (English) 
Northeastern Railway struck in consequence of the refusal of indoor- 
work to some of them — in all, 1,100. The strike was defeated. April 
28, the London journeymen tailors struck for higher wages, but returned 
to work on the employers' terms after a number of months. In a trial 
arising from this strike the practice of ' ' picketing " or watching for, fol- 
lowing, and abusing non-union men was exposed. September, 1868, the 
London cab-drivers and owners struck work, because certain so-called 
"privileged" cabs only were allowed upon the premises of the railways. 
The strike failed. January, and again March, 1870, the workmen of Schnei- 
der's great iron and steel works, at Oreuzot, in France, struck in conse- 
quence of a quarrel about a benefit fund and the dismissal of a troublesome 
workman. A military force put down the movement. In the same year, 
16,000 -work-people struck at Mulhouse, and before the troops sent could 
restore quiet, a large factory was burnt. Other strikes had already 
taken place at Marseilles, Perpignan, and other places in the south of 
France. December 8, 570 telegraph clerks of the Manchester, Dublin, 
Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Belfast, and some other post-offices struck by 
arrangement, in consequence of the removal by government of certain 
clerks for joining a " protective association." The strikers were mostly 
reinstated after making written apologies and leaving the association. 
October 9, 1871, the monster strike of some 8,000 engineers and other 
workmen at Newcastle, England, having lasted since the end of May, 
ended by the reduction of working hours from ten to nine, the wages re- 
maining the same. The Newcastle strike of 1871 was of 9,050 engineers 
for nine hours instead of ten, at same wages. The trade-unions main- 
tained these 9,050 men for sixteen weeks, and did much to prevent 
others from taking their places. At one time during this year were on 
strike these engineers, the Newcastle police, the colliers of Northumber- 
land, Dean Forest, and Gloucestershire, the iron-workers of North Staf- 
fordshire, the dyers of Bradford, the quarrymen of Leeds, and the crate- 
makers of the potteries. The New York strike, in 1872, for the 
eight-hour working day, included 90,000 workmen. March 25, 1873, 
60,000 Welsh colliers struck against a 10 per cent, reduction in wages. 
Many strikes occurred in the United States about 1874, as wages began 
to be lowered from the high standard maintained since the war. April 
12, 1876, 20,000 miners struck in Yorkshire. At Fall River, Mass., the 
mill-hands were on strike for several months in the summer of 1876, but 
ultimately in part resumed work without obtaining their demands. 
February 12, 1877, the engineers of the Boston and Maine Railroad, be- 
longing to a general " Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers," presided 
over by one Arthur, an Englishman, struck without notice. They were 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 57 

not taken back, and the road in a few days obtained other men. Report 
of the Massachusetts Railroad Commissioners on this strike, recommend- 
ing penal statutes against such action in future, was published February 
21, 1877. The success of the railroad, and some subsequent similar 
cases, pretty much broke the power of the "Brotherhood." Extensive 
series of riots and railroad and other strikes in the United States, begin- 
ning at Martinsburg, in West Virginia, on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- 
road, July 16, 1877. The strikers were in many places joined by outlaws 
and criminals, who set fires, robbed, and committed violence of various 
kinds. State and National troops were called out in large numbers, and 
the trouble gradually ceased, but not without the destruction of vast 
amounts of property and great interruption of travel, transportation, and 
communication. It was reckoned that about 9,000 miles of railroad were 
blocked on this occasion, and no through line to the sea-coast within the 
United States was left open. Board of Arbitration for amicable settle- 
ment of questions between workingmen and employers, formed by Act 
of Parliament in Great Britain in 1866, after a great strike in that year, 
but its usefulness was only temporary. 

SUEZ CANAL. (See p- 118.) Work commenced 1858. First ship goes 
through, February 17, 1867. Canal formally opened, November 17, 1868. 
£4,080,000 voted by the House of Commons, for the purchase by England 
of the canal shares belonging to the Khedive of Egypt; purchase an- 
nounced, November 26, 1875. 

SUICIDES. (See p. 546.) Inquests on suicides in England and Wales in 
ten years : 

18fi5 1,397 

1866 1,360 

1867 1,356 



1868 1,546 

1869 ...1,562 



1870 1,517 

1871 1,464 

1S72 1,455 

1873 1,481 

1874 1,549 



SUN. (See p. 547.) Cycle of changes in number of sun's spots fixed at 
11 years by Schwabe and others, 1826-51. Red flames at edge of sun 
during an eclipse, shown to be burning hydrogen by Janssen, August 18, 
1868. Unknown substance believed to exist in the sun, corresponding to 
line 1474 of the spectrum, 1870-71. Substances already shown by the 
spectroscope to exist in the sun : Aluminium, barium, cadmium, calcium, 
cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, iron, lead, magnesium, 
manganese, nickel, sodium, strontium, titanium, uranium, zinc — all fused 
into a liquid or even vaporous state. 

SUNDAY ; Sunday Laws. Scientific lectures with a bearing on natural 
religion were given in London in January, 1867, by Huxley, Carpenter, 
and others, with sacred music in the intermissions. On legal inquiry 
(case of Baxter v. Baxter Langley, Nov. 19, 1868), held that this was not an 
infraction of the Sunday Act of 21, George III. The Boston Public 
Library Reading-Room opened to the public on Sunday, after much op- 
position, February, 1873. 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. (See pp. 121, 548.) Religious toleration to 
some extent (previously a rigid and exclusive state Lutheranism pre- 
vailed), 1860. New constitution, December, 1864. Charles XV. dies 
Sept. 18, 1872. Oscar II., his brother, succeeds. Population of Sweden, 
Dec. 31, 1875, 4,383,291, and Norway 1,817,237. 

SWIMMING DRESS, Boyton's. (See Life-Saving.) 
3* 



58 the world's progress. 

SWITZERLAND. (See pp. 121, 550.) Mermillod, papal nuncio, expelled, 
January 16, 1873. Eevised federal constitution adopted, April 19, 1874. 
Swiss National Catholic Church ("Old Catholic") established June, 1874 
Civil marriage law adopted, May 23, 1875. Population, 1870, 2,669,147. 

SYLLABUS of errors in modern times, issued along with an encyclical let- 
ter by Pope Pius IX., December 8, 1864, condemned heresy, modern 
philosophy, political liberalism, etc. Adopted by the Vatican Council, 
1870. 

TALMUD. (See p. 553.) The Talmud has been translated into Arabic, 
and parts of it into Latin and into modern languages. Raphall and de 
Sola translated eighteen treatises of the Mishna or text into English, Lon- 
don, 1847. 

TAXES. (See pp. 121,554; also Revenue : National Debt ; etc.) National, 
State, and municipal taxes in United States, estimated in 1876 at $730,- 
000,000 a year, or about $19.00 for each soul. 

TEA. (See pp. 121, 554.) Importation into the United States, and value, 

1869-1876 : 

Lbs. Value. 

1869 . 39,141,755 $13,687,750 

1870 40,812,188 13.871,546 

1871 46,972,787 17,254,617 

1872 56,974,100 22,943,575 

1873 57,870,700 24,466,170 

1874 49,831,800 21,112,234 

1875 64,856,899 22,673,703 

1876 62,S87,153 19,524,166 

Imported into England in 1875, 197,505,316 lbs. ; worth £13,766,961. 

TELEGRAPH. The English Government in 1869 bought out the English 
telegraph companies on the basis of paying twenty years' profits for the 
property. The companies claimed £7,035,977; on a valuation this sum 
was reduced to £5,715,047, of which the profit item was £5,220,109. 
£700,000 were also paid to railroad companies for telegraph rights, and 
some other items carried the whole government expenditure to about 
£6,750,000, or $33,750,000. The government estimate of returns was, 
annual revenue expected, £673,838; expenses, £359,484; net profit, 
£314,354 ; and deducting three and one-half or four per cent, interest on 
the government securities issued to buy with, there would remain a sur- 
plus of £77,000 or £44,000, as the case might be. The result, however, 
has been thus far (1877) a loss instead of a profit. February 16, 1871, at 
9.8 P.M., a telegram was received at London which was sent from Kur- 
rachee, in India, at 12.43 in the morning of the next day. 

TELEPHONE. Bell's, Gray's, and Edison's telephones were brought before 
the public in 1876 and 1877. One was invented by Philip Reiss, a Ger- 
man, about 1862. Bell's operates by means of talking and listening into 
a "funnel" or small drum-head (or an equivalent mechanism), which 
vibrates over an electro -magnet in an electric circuit. Gray's acts by the 
vibrations of tuning-forks. They are all contrivances to convey sound 
along an electric circuit. 

TELESCOPE. (See p. 555.) Lord Rosse's great telescope, fifty-two feet 
long, seven feet diameter, erected 1828-45, cost over £20,000. Newall's 
telescope, with object-glass 25 inches aperture, set up at Gateshead, Eng- 
land, 1870. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 59 

TENURE of OFFICE ACT. Passed March 2, 1867, in order to limit the 
power of President Johnson. It required the consent oi' the Senate to re- 
move as well as to appoint officials. 

THOMASSEN. (See Explosions.) 

TICHBORNE CASE. May 11, 1871, this case, in which the claimant of 
the Tichbome estate, calling himself Sir Roger Tichborne, was asserted 
by the defendants to be a butcher named Arthur Orton, came on for trial. 
After occupying 103 days (the Attorney-General, Sir J. D. Coleridge, 
spoke twenty-six days), claimant nonsuited, and held for perjury and 
forgery ; trial began April 23, 1872 ; verdict of perjury, February 28, 
1874. Longest trial known in England; sentence fourteen years at hard 
labor. 

TICKET OF LEAVE. A permit granted to convicts supposed likely to 
behave well. 2,666 persons thus liberated in England in 1856. In 1861-3 
the system appeared a failure, these liberated convicts committing many 
crimes, and the device was practically discontinued by the Penal Servitude 
Act, 1864. 

TORPEDO. For submarine warfare, invented by David Bushnell, of Say- 
brook, Conn., and tried on British vessels unsuccessfully, except that it 
greatly frightened them, 1777 ; much used in rebellion, 1861-5. Torpedo 
departments have, since the introduction of iron- clad war-ships, been in- 
troduced into all navy organizations. 

TRADES-UNIONS. (See Battening; Strikes.) National Federation of 
Employers formed in England, to counteract Trades-Unions. Parliamen- 
tary report on persecutions by the Saw-Grinders' Union of Sheffield, and 
similar practices, dated August 21, 1867. Forty-five trades-unions in 
New York City in 1869 had 24,425 members ; in 1876 many of them had 
been discontinued, and the membership was less than 15,000. The whole 
number in the United States in 1872-3 was estimated at 1,500, of which 
eleven had a national organization, and ten an international one. The 
fifth annual Trades-Union Congress of Great Britain and Ireland, at 
Leeds, January 13, 1873, included representatives from ninety-nine socie- 
ties, one of which contained 140,000 members. 

TREASON-FELONY. Term applied in an English Act oi 1848, to certain 
treasons mitigated to felonies, and made punishable by imprisonment or 
transportation. The Fenians were tried under this act in 1865. 

TRIALS. (See pp. 123, 567; also Ticlibome Case ; Bitualism, and Purchas 
Case.) Saurin v. Starr, '' the convent case," by an ex-inmate of a Roman 
Catholic convent at Hull, England, against the Superior and others, for 
conspiracy, etc., occupied three weeks in trying, in the year 1889. The 
plaintiff recovered £500. July 15, was tried at Carmarthen, Wales, the 
" Welsh Fasting Girl Case." The girl's parents, Evan and Hannah 
Jacobs, had made a show of their daughter, pretending that she had lived 
for months without food ; and when some competent persons were sent 
from Gray's Hospital to watch the child, the parents let her die. They 
were convicted, and imprisoned at hard labor, the father for twelve, and 
the mother for six months. November 26, 1870, Rev. Mr. Mackonochie, 
a " ritualist," incumbent of St. Albans, Holborn, London, was suspended 
for three months from clerical duty, and sentenced to pay costs, for dis- 
obeying the monitions of the Privy Council about elevating the paten and 
prostrating himself before the consecrated elements. February, 1870, 



60 the world's progress. 

the case of Lady Mordaunt, whose husband had sued for a divorce, re- 
sulted in a stay of proceedings on the ground of Lady Mordaunt's insanity. 
The Prince of Wales had been reported concerned, in the scandal, but 
denied it on the witness-stand. November 10, 1871, there was a curious 
libel suit at London. One John Hampden, who maintains that the earth 
is flat and not round, had bet £500 with a Mr. Wallace on this question, 
and the money had been paid to Mr. Wallace by the referee on deciding 
the bet, as agreed. Upon this Hampden began a system of sending 
about libellous postal cards, accusing the referee of fraud. On trial 
he made an ample apology, and was let off. February 11, 1871, judgment 
was given by the judicial committee of the Privy Council in the Voysey 
case, in which Rev. C. Voysey was prosecuted for heresy in maintaining 
and teaching various alleged infidel doctrines. The tribunal found that 
he contradicted and impugned the thirty-nine articles in respect to original 
sin, the incarnation, the atonement, the trinity, the authority of scripture, 
and other points, and sentenced him to deprivation and payment of costs. 
By final decisions in 1877, Mrs. Gaines, after forty years' litigation, 
obtains title to a great mass of real estate in New Orleans. 

TRICHINA. A minute worm living in the muscles of hogs and other 
animals ; transferred iuto those who eat the infected meat, and causes a 
disease, sometimes fatal, called trichiniasis. First found in human mus- 
cle by Owen, 1832. Thorough boiling kills them. Much attention to the 
subject, 18(55-6. 

TROY. Dr. Schliemann, 1872-3, discovered on the hill of Hissarlik re- 
mains of three different ancient cities, one over the other, and much an- 
cient treasure, part of which he called the "treasure of Priam." He be- 
lieved the site to be that of ancient Troy ; his book translated and pub- 
lished in English, 1875. 

TUNNEL. Mont Cenis tunnel, seven and one-half miles long ; began 
August 31, 1857 ; boring completed, December 25, 1870 ; cost about 
$18,000,000. A tunnel under the English Channel, from Dover to Ca- 
lais, proposed, August, 1869, by Bateman and Revy ; plans by Thome de 
Gamond shown in Paris, 1867 ; a convention in favor of it signed for 
France by M. Chevalier, January, 1875, and a thirty years' monopoly 
granted ; French and English companies formed ; experimental borings 
in the chalk at the sides of the channel indicate that the rock is such as 
to make the scheme practicable. Hoosac Tunnel, under Hoosac Moun- 
tain, in Western Massachusetts, begun 1856 ; completed, 1873 ; four and 
three-fourths miles long. Sutro Tunnel, to drain the Comstock Lode 
and other silver mines in Nevada, estimated cost, $8,000,000 ; to be 21,- 
178 feet, and with all branches and shafts, 43,088 feet. 

TURKEY.. (See pp. 124, 570.) Insurrection in Herzegovina, June, 1875, 
extending more or less into Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia. The " An- 
drassy note," suggesting reforms in Turkey, presented to the Sultan's 
Government by the Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian, and Russian am- 
bassadors, January 31, 1876. On the 6th February, an answer promises 
religious liberty and other reforms. February 14, decree issued order- 
ing them. Risings in Bosnia, early in March, 1876. Insurgents in Herze- 
govina blockading Nicsics ; defeat Turks under Mukhtar Pasha, April 15, 
1876. Turks defeat insurgents at Prejeska, April 23. In May, 1876, 
risings in Bulgaria put down by the Turks with frightful cruelty and out- 
rages. Consuls of France and Germany assassinated at Salonica, by Mo- 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 



61 



hammedan fanatics, May 6, 1876. May 11, 1876, the " Berlin memo- 
randum," agreed on by Russia, Germany, and Austria, at Berlin, requir- 
ing prompt fulfilment of the Turkish promises made in reply to the 
Andrassy note. England refused to join in this demand, and it was 
dropped. May 12, 1876, riots at Constantinople, headed by the softas 
(students of law and religion), against the government. Abdul Aziz de- 
throned by his miuisters, May 27th, and was found dead (said to have 
committed suicide), June, 1876. Murad, nephew of Abdul Aziz, made 
Sultan, May 30th ; deposed, August 31, 1876, and succeeded by his 
younger brother, Abdul-Hamid II. June 12, 1876, Prince Milan of Servia 
proclaims that the insurrections around him force him to put Servia under 
arms. June 15, 1876, Hassan Bey, a Circassian captain in the Turkish 
army, enters the ministerial council-room, shoots dead the Ministers of 
War and of Foreign Affairs, and killed or wounded six other officials be- 
fore he was secured. He was hanged two days afterwards. Prince of 
Servia aud Hospodar of Montenegro jointly declare war against Turkey, 
July 2, 1876. Turkey announces that no payments can be made on the 
public debt " until the internal affairs of the empire have become more 
settled," July 9, 1876. Decisive defeat of the Servians by the Turks at 
Alexinatz, October 28, 1876, and Alexinatz occupied the 31st by the vic- 
tors. Mr. Gladstone's powerful pamphlet on the Bulgarian atrocities, 
published September 6, 1876. Armistice for six weeks with Servia 
granted by Turkey, under pressure from the powers, November 1, 1876. 
Conferences of the powers at Constantinople to try to avert war begun 
December 11, 1876. Represented : Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, France, 
Germany, Italy, Russia, Turkey. A constitution, providing for represen- 
tatives, a legislative assembly, etc., proclaimed, December 2.4, 1876, in 
order to avert European intervention. For the war, see Russia. 



U. 



UNITED STATES. (See pp. 125, 575; also Centennial, etc.; Chronological 
Tables, p. 138, etc.) In 1870 there were in the United States, 3,603,844 
square miles or 1,942,000,000 acres, half of it public lands, and less than 

• one-tenth of it cultivated. Population, 1870, without Indians, 38,558,371 ; 
estimated, June 1, 1876, 45,627,000; expected at census of 1880 to be 
fifty millions. Value of all real and personal property (1870), $30,068- 
518,507; paupers, 116,102; convicted of crime, 36,562; in prison, June 
1, 1870, 32,901 ; religious congregations of all kinds, 72,459; church edi- 
fices 63,082; sittings, 21,665,062, or 4 to every 7 souls. 

UNIVERSITIES. Students and professors, etc. , in German ones, June, 1876 : 





Professors 






Professors 






and Teachers. 


Students. 




aud Teachers. 


Students. 




197 


2,143 


Konigsberg 


S3 


611 




100 


707 




156 


2,925 




107 


1,116 




65 


401 




54 


429 




116 


1,203 


Freiburg . . . 


i-59 


274 




29 


431 




54 


315 




39 


153 


G-ottingen . 


115 




Strassburg . 


90 


677 




57 


444 
870 




84 


823 






67 


984 


Heidelberg 












73 


440 


21 


l,SO0 


.... 16,622 


Kiel 


61 


202 









62 the world's progress. 

Add to these 2,377 unmatriculated, "permitted to attend lectures" (of 
which 1,962 at Berlin alone), and there are 18,999 studerits ; 14 universi- 
ties are Protestant ; the theological faculty being Roman Catholic at Frei- 
burg, Munich, Minister, and Wurzburg, and mixed at Bonn, Breslau, and 
Tubingen. 



VATICAN COUNCIL, called the Twenty-first GScumenical or General 
Council, summoned by encyclical letter of September 8, 1868 ; met at 
Rome, December 8, 1869 ; present, 803 members ; there were four public 
sessions, and from 90 to 100 " congregations." New canons issued April 
24, 1870; the infallibility of the Pope affirmed by 547 to 2, and the 
doctrine promulgated July 18, 1870. 

VBDAS. Hindoo sacred books, consisting of hymns, prayers, and liturgies. 
There are three portions of them — the Rig-Veda, Yajur- Veda, and Atharva- 
Veda — the first being much the oldest and dating to 1,000 or more years 
B.C. Max Miiller's edition (in Sanscrit) began to appear 1849 ; Wilson's 
translation, 1850. 

VELOCIPEDE. One invented by Blanchard, the aeronaut, about 1779 ; 
one by Niepce, 1818 ; came into use again about 1861, and are still (1877) 
more or less employed. 

VENDOME COLUMN. Pulled down by the communists, May 16, 1871 ; 
restored August 31, 1874 ; statue of Napoleon replaced at top, December, 

1875. Courbet the painter was condemned to a fine of 30,000 francs for 
his participation in overturning it. 

VENEZUELA. (See p. 578.) Presidents: Falcon, March 18, 1865; Mo- 
nagas, June to November, 1865 ; Pulgar, December, 1865 ; Blanco, July, 
1870, and re-elected 1873, 1875. Conflict with Roman Catholic Church on 
civil marriage ; papal authority renounced by the government, September, 

1876. Area about 403,261 square miles; population (1873), 1,784,194. 
VENUS, Transit of. (See Astronomy.) 

VESUVIUS. (See pp. 126, 580.) Recent eruptions: spring and sum- 
mer, 1860 ; December, 1861 ; February, 1865 ; November 12, 1867 to 
April, 1868 ; October 8 to November 20, 1869; April 23 to May 3, 1872. 

VICTORIA, ra Australia. (See p. 126.) Capital, Melbourne. Popula- 
tion, estimated March 31, 1876, at 829,824. 

VISIBLE SPEECH. A universal system of delineating sounds in which 
each letter is a diagram of the position of the vocal organs in uttering it. 
Invented by A. M. Bell; explained by him, and a book on it published, 
London, 1866 ; introduced in America by him and his son, J. G. Bell, 
the inventor of a telephone, about 1872. 

VIVISECTION. Efforts to prevent it have been made since 1859 ; gener- 
ally opposed by scientific physiologists and medical men. Bill to regulate 
it in Great Britain, August 15. 1876, by restricting it to licensed persons. 

W. 

WAGES. JSee pp, 128, 585 ; also Strikes, Trades-Unions.) In New York, 
from 1870 to 1876, wages in fifty eight trades fell from 10 to 20 per cent. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1867-77. 63 

In England, wages were often raised by the strikes, 1874-75. Yearly- 
total of wages paid in United Kingdom, 1866. estimated at from £250,- 
000,000 to £418,300,000, earned by 10,697,000 working people, between 
20 and 60 years of age. 

WAHABEES. Fanatical reforming Mohammedans, a kind of Puritans ; 
arose in Arabia about 1750 ; in 1803 seized Mecca and Medina ; were 
defeated by Egyptian forces 1818 ; are at present prosperous in Arabia, 
and there are some of them in India. Palgrave's Journey in Arabia, 1865, 
is a good account of them. 

WAR. (See pp. 128, 587 ; also Army ; Battles ; Navy ; National Debt ; etc. ) 
An estimate from 1853 to 1877 shows the following deaths and expenses 
in one quarter-century of Christian war. 



Crimean war. $1,700,000,000 

Italian war (1859) 300.000,000 

TJ. S. rebellion (North) 4,700,000,000 

TJ. S. rebellion (South.) 2.300,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein war ' 35,000,000 

And deaths (not complete). 

Crimean war 475,000 

Italian war 1859 ... 45,000 

Schleswig-Holstein war 3,000 

TJ. S. rebellion 800,000 



Austro-Prnssian war (1866) 330.000,000 

Franco- Prussian 2,500.000,000 

Other wars, etc 200.000.000 



Total cost $12,085,000,000 

Austro-Prussian war of 1866.... 45.000 
Franco-Prussian war 215,000 



Total deaths 1,183,000 

These deaths are nearly all of the strongest young men, from 25 to 35 
years old. 

WATCHES. (See p. 590 ; also Clocks and Watches.) 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Includes all New Holland west of 190° E. 
longitude, being estimated at 978,000 square miles. The settled part is 
not more than one-eighth of this area. Population, March 31, 1870, in- 
cluding 1,470 convicts, 24,785. First settled 1829, and was then called 
the Swan River Settlement. 

WOERTH. Defeat of the French under McMahon by the Germans under 
the Crown-Prince of Prussia, after most obstinate and bloody fighting, 
August 6, 1870. The French said to have charged the German line and 
broken it eleven times, always, however, finding fresh troops behind. 

WRECKS. (See pp. 130, 602; also Life-Saving Seamen.) Of 1803 casual- 
ties to vessels on the British coast in the year 1873-74, 346 were total 
wrecks, and 506 lives were lost. Lives (saved chiefly by life-boats), in 
1871, on British coast, 4,336. 



YACHT. (See p. 131.) July 4, 1870, an "international" yacht race was 
begun, from Cork to New York, between the English yacht Cambria and 
the American one Dauntless. The Cambria won, arriving at 4 p.m. of 
July 27, the Dauntless, taking a more northerly route, came in two hours 
later. October 16, 1871, and six subsequent days, took place an inter- 
national yacht race between the English yacht the Livonia and the yachts 
of the New York Yacht Club. The Columbia and Sappho, of New York, 
won four out of the first five races, deciding the match. 



64 THE WOKLD's PROGRES3. 



Z. 

ZANZIBAR. Set off from Muscat, 1806, for Majid, a son. of the Seyyid 
(lord) of Muscat. At Majid's death, October 7, 1870, Barghash, his 
brother, succeeded. Treaty with England abolishing slave trade, June 5, 
1873. 

ZEND AVESTA. The present Zend Avesta is said by the Parsees to be 
only three out of the original twenty-one nosks-or books. It consists of 
hymns, prayers, and liturgies, much as the Vedas do, and is in three 
parts, the Vispered, Vendidad, and Yacnas. The five Gathas or hymns 
in the Vendidad are considered the oldest part. Their age is very doubt- 
ful, though in part unquestionably great. Anquetil Duperron's French 
version, 1771 ; Burnouf's, 1829-43 ; Spiegel's, in German, a later one. is 
the best ; and an English version of this by Bleeck was published at 
Hertford, England, 1804. 



BUREAU OF STATISTICS, U. S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 



[Few the following statistics we are indebted to the courtesy of Hon. Alexander DELSfya, 
Director of the Bureau.] 

CUSTOMS Duties Received in 1866. 

* During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83 

* " " June 30, " 46,175,132.33 

* " " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 

f '« " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.54 



$181,467,531.94 
Official. t Commercial a.nd Financial Chronicle, March 30, 1867- 



HIPP! 


NG Statistics: 


Tonnage of 


the United States. 








Registered. 


Enrolled and Licensed. 


Total. 


Tear. 




Sail. 


Steam. 


Sail. 


Steam. 


Tonnage. 


1860, 




2,448,941 


97,296 


2,030,990 


770,641 


5,353,868 


1861, 




2,540,020 


102,608 


2,122,589 


774,596 


5,539,813 


1862, 




2,177,253 


113,998 


2,224,449 


596,465 


5,112,165 


1863, 




1,892,899 


133,215 


2,660,212 


439,755 


5,126,081 


1364, 




1,475,376 


106,519 


2,550,690 


853,816 


4,986.401 


1S65, $ 


old, 


1,031,465 


60,539 


1,794,372 


630,411 


3,516,787 


1865, i 


new, 


482,110 


28,469 


730,695 


338,720 


1,579,994 


1S66, S 


old, 


341,619 


42,776 


443,635 


114,269 


942,299 


1S66, I 


new, 


953,018 


155,513 


1,489,194 


770,754 


3,36S,479 



EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending 
June 30, 1867 



Domestic. 



Foreign. 



In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. 
Gold Bullion,... 298,854 8,425,227 

Gold Coin, 1,500,041 15,800,152 

Silver Bullion,. 706,081 8,186,837 

Silver Coin,.... 248,978 1,581,753 




none. 
1,418,853 
18,939 
1,521,062 



8,724,081 

19,902,626 

8,911,857 

3,658,974 



Total, 



2,753,954 



33,993,969 



1,490,761 



2,958,854 41,197,538 



COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consut ption of coffee in the 
United States during the years ending December 31, .861, 1862, 1863, 1861, 
1865, and 1866 : 



Year. 
1861, 

1862, 



Pounds. 

187,046,00ft 
88,990,000 
79,720,000 



Tear. 
1864, 
1S65, 
1866, 



Pounds. 

109,087,000 
128,146,000 
169,915.840 



60 



UNITED STATES TEEASURY STATISTICS, 



See page 63, Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66. The quantities given 
for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annual Report of the 
New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. 

The quantity for 1866 is taken from the Supplement to H. E. Moriug's Monthly 
Coffee Circular, 1867. 



CON Statistics. 














Production. 


Exported. 




A verage Price 


Tear. 




Bales. 


Pounds 


Bales. 


per pound. 


1860-61, 




3,656,086 




3,126,622 


1 7.42 cents. 


1861-62, 


est. 


4,800,000 


5,064,564 = say 


12,000 


42.15 " 


1862-63, 


est. 


1.500,000 


11,384,986 = say 


26,000 


71.08 " 


1S63-64, 


est. 


'500,000 


10,830,534 = say 


25,000 


$111.14 " 


1864-65, 


est. 


300,000 


6,607.186 = say 


15,000 


75.75 " 


1865-66, 




2,214,476 




1,554,744 


44. " 


1866-67, 


est. 


1,900,000 


est. 


1,500,000 


32.5 " 



The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from 
Neil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all 
ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and 
the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & 
Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 
1867, as 1,S09,500 bales. 

The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 349, Finance 
Report, 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 
489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the 
exports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. 



TEA Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United 
States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 
and 1866 : 

Tear. Qreen, Japan. Black. Total. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00) 



11162, 


13,871,600 


13,597.000 


27,468,600 


1863, 


14,490,680 


12,415,685 


26,900,365 


1864, 


13,564,295 


9,573,251 


23,137,546 


1865, 


18,874,199 


10,979,234 


29.853,433 


1866, 






29,643,187 



See Reports of Revenue Commission, 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are 
estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in 
New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir- 
cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 
pounds. 

The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any 
allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one 
pound per capita. 

TOBACCO Statistics. 



Year. 


Production. 




Pounds. 


1861, 


est. 200,000,000 


1862, 


136,736,596 


1863, 


276,850,870 


1864, 


197,460.229 


1S65, 


185,316,953 


JRfifi 


n«t 330.501,500 



Exported. 




Average prie* 


Leaf, pounds. 


Manufd, lbs. 


Total. 


per lb., Leaf 


est. 160,000,000 


14,783,363 


174,783,363 


9. centK. 


est. 107,000,000 


4,071,963 


111,071.983 


11.9 " 


est. 112.000.000 


7,025,248 


119,025,248 


149 " 


est. 110,000,01(1 


8.586,494 


118,586,494 


14.85 " 


est. 149,000.0' <u 


7,294,165 


156.294,105 


12.6 '« 


100,826,243 


6,515,709 


197,341,957 


13. " 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 67 

The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1S65 is given as found in the Re- 
ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is 
taken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son. 

The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns of 
commerce and navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1S63, 1864, and 1865. The 
quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, 
are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. 

In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and 
the disloyal Statea being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, 
and in 1866 all thp States. 



]AT Statistics. 










Tears. 


Production. 


Exported. 


Av. Price 


per bu 




Bushels. 


Wheat, bushels. 


Flour, bbls. 


at Kew 


York 


1861, 
1862, 
1863, 
1864, 
1865, 
1866, 


189,993,500 
191,068,239 
171,695,823 
159,522,827 
151,999,906 


31,238,057 
37,289,572 
36,160,414 
23,681,712 
9,937,152 
5,579,103 


4,323,756 
4,882,033 
4,390,055 
3,557,347 
2,604,542 
2,183,050 


$1,18 to 
1.30 to 
1.33 to 
1.48 to 
2.22 to 
1.85 to 


$1.45 
1.50 
1.53 
1.83 
2.70 
2.75 



No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry waa 
made at the Department of Agriculture. 

The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are 
taken from the Monthly and Annual Eeports of the Department of Agriculture, 
and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 
States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from California in 1864 
and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, which m 
believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels. A 
barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. 



STATISTICS, YEARS 1867-77. 



(From public documents and other standard sources.) 

REVENUE of the United States from customs for ten years (to June 30), 
1867-1876. 

1872 $216,370,286.77 

1873 188,089,522.70 

1S74 163,103,833.69 

1875 157,167,722.35 

1876 148,071,984.61 

For the first five months of the years ending June 80, 1877 and 1876, the 
revenue from customs was as follows : 

1877. 1S76. Decrease. 

$57,80.1,772.50 $68,170,576.48 $10,368,803.98 



1867 $176,417,810.88 

1868 164,464.599.56 

1869 180, 048, 426. B3 

1S70 194;53S,374.44 

1871 206,270, 40S.05 



COIN and BULLION exported, from the United States for seven years, 

" " -9 to 1874-5, ending June 30. 

1868-9 $42,915,966 I 1872-3 $73,905,546 

1869-70 43,881, S61 1873-4 59.699,686 

1S70-1 84.403,359 1874-5 83,857,129 

1871-2 72,798,240 | 



68 



UNITED STATES TREASURY STATISTICS. 



COTTON. Production and exports of United States for nine years (ending 
June 30), 1868 to 1876. 

Production, bales „ .. , 

of 440 lbs. Exported, pounds. 

1868 ]...■ 3,593,993 784,763,633 

1869 2,439,039 644,327,921 

1870 3,154,946 958,558,523 

1871 4,352,317 1,462,928,024 

1872 2,974,351 933,537,413 

1873 3,930,508 1,200,063,530 

1874 4,170,388 1,358,602,303 

1875 3,832,991 1,260,418,903 

1876 4,600,000 1,491,405,335 



SHIPPING of the United States, 


nine years, 1867-1875. 




Registered (tons). 






Total Merchant Marine (tons). 




Enrolled 


Licensed 






















Sail. 


Steam. 


Licensed. 


20 tons. 


Sail. 


Steam. 


All. 


1867 


" 1,187,714 


165,522 


2,563,232 


41,047 


2,834,535 


1,122.980 


3,957,515 


1K6S 


1,310,344 


221,939 


2,733,167 


52,860 


3,118,895 


1,199,415 


4,318,310 


1869 


1,353,170 


213,252 


2,526,093 


52,126 


3,041,073 


1,103,568 


4,144,641 


1870 


1,324.256 


192,544 


2,677,940 


51,767 


4,171,412 


1,075,095 


4,246,507 


1871 


1,244,228 


180,914 


2,805,274 


52,191 


3,194,970 


1,087,637 


4,282,607 


1872 


1,232,982 


377,666 


2,971,309 


[ 55,790 


3,326,194 


1,111,553 


4,437,747 


1873 


1,229,865 


193,423 


3,215,915 


56,824 


5,539,584 


1,156,443 


4,696,027 


1874 


1,233,678 


195,245 


3,312,146 


59.583 


3,615,042 


1,185,610 


4,800,652 


1875 


1,362,138 


191,689 


3,238,390 


61,515 


3,685,064 


1,168,668 


4,853,732 



TOBACCO. 

1876. 



Product and exportation of United States, ten years, 1867- 



Production. lbs. 

•1867 313,724,000 

1868 320.982,000 

1869 273; 775, 000 

1870 250.628,600 

1871 263,196,100 

1S72 342,304,000 

1873 372,810,000 

1874 178,355,000 

1S75 379,347,000 

1876 



Exported, Leaf, lbs. 



181,537,630 
185,747,181 
215,667,604 
234,936,892 
213,995,176 
318,097,804 
223,901,713 
218,310,265 



WHEAT. Product and exportation of the United States, nine years, end- 



ing June 30, viz., 1867-1875 (in bushels). 

Production. As Wheat. 

1867 212,441,400 6,146.411 

1868 224,086,600 15,940,899 

1869 260,146,900 17,557,836 

1870 235,884,700 86,5S4,115 

1871 230,722,400 34,504,906 

1872 240,997,100 26.423,080 

1873 280,372.700 39,204.285 

1874 306,102,700 71,039.928 

1875 53,047.175 



Exports. 



Flour. 
,500,530 
382,115 
129.365 
273,925 
209.205 
572,675 
810,430 
470,470 
755.430 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 
1851 to 1867. 

BEING AN ALPHABETICAL RECORD OF IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES DCKIEa 
THOSE YEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. 



ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five 
should be erected near Paris; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was 
erected at Edinburgh in 1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London 
metropolitan cattle-market, opened on June 13, 1855. In New York City 
abattoirs were established under the direction of the Board of Health, 1.8G6. 

ABBASIDES. A Mohammedan dynasty ; held the power of the Caliphs for 400 
years until 1258. The Caliph Haroun al Rashid was of this line. 

ABECEDARIANS. A sect appearing in the sixteenth century ; held that it was 
better not to know how to read, as the Holy Spirit would convey a direct un- 
derstanding of the Scriptures. 

ABSTINENCE, Total, from stimulating beverages: First temperance organi 
zation in the United States is said to have been effected by Dr. B. J. Clark, of 
Moreau, N. Y., 1808 ; " members fined fifty cents for intoxication ; " Ameri- 
can Temperance Union formed in Boston in 1826 ; total abstinence from dis- 
tilled spirits, except when prescribed as medicine, proposed at a meeting in 
Philadelphia in 1833, but voted down. See Temperance. Tetotallers in Eng- 
land organized in Lancashire, 1834. 

ABYSSINIA. A large country in north-east Africa. Its ancient history is very 
uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitse (from its chief town Auxume) flour- 
ished in the first and second centuries after Christ. About 980 Judith, a 
Jewish princess, murdered a. great part of the royal family, and reigned forty 
years. The young king escaped; and the royal house was restored in 1268 
in the person of his descendant, Icon Amlae. In the middle ages it was said 
to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions com- 
menced in the fifteenth century, but they were expelled about 1632 in conse- 
quence of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of 
Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty gov- 
ernments. The religion of Abyssinia is a corrupt form of Christianity intro- 
duced in the fourth century by Trumentius. Missions were sent from Eng- 
land in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been 
given by Bruce, (1790,) Salt, (1805-9,) Ruppell, (1838,) and Parkyns, (1853). 



70 



THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. 



ACADIA. Now cahVd Nova Scotia, settled by the French in 1604, and finally 
ceded to the English in 1713. It was three times conquered by the English, 
and as often restored by treaty. Expulsion of French settlers (see Longfel- 
low's Evangeline) 1755. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES were probably written by Luke, A. D. 62 to 68. 



ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States.- 
ident Taylor, July 9, 1850—* 



-(p. 1 52.) On the death of Pres- 



Millar? Fillmore, of New York (Vice-President), became President. He appointed 
soon after, the following Cabinet, viz. : 



r -.ai>iel Webster, 
Tfutnas Oorwin, 
Chwles M. Conrud, 
"Vv liiaro A. Graham, 
A. il. H. Stuart, 
Nathan K. H-tll, 
.John J. Crittenden, 
William li. King, 

Howell Cobb, 
Linn Boyd, 



Massachusetts, 

Ohio, 

Louisiana, 

North Carolina, 

Virginia, 

New York, 

Kentucky, 



Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treasury. 
Secretary of War. 
Secretary of Navy. 
Secretary of Interior. 
Postma6ter-General 
Attorney-Generar_ 



Alabama, was elected President of the Senate, 

and became Acting Vice-Pres't of U. S. 

Speakers of H. Eeps. 



Georgia, (continued in office), | 
"""1. J 



Kentucky, December, 1851. 



Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, inaugura.ed March 4, 185^, President. 
Vice-President — vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. R. King, April 18, 1S53 — 



William L. Marcy, 
James Guthrie, 
Robert M'Clelland, 
James C. Dobbin, 
Jefferson Davis, 
James Campbell, 
Caleb Cushing, 
James L. Orr, 



THE CABINET. 

New York, 
Kentucky, 
Michigan, 
North Carolina. 
Mississippi, 
Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts, 
South Carolina, 



Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Treasury. 
Secretary of Interior. 
Secretary of Navy. 
Secretary of War. 
Post Master-General. 
Attorney-General. 
Speaker oi H. Eeps. 



James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, inaugurated March 4, 1857, President. 
John C. Breckinaidge, of Kentucky, Vice-President. 



Lewis Cass, 

J. S. Black, 

Isaac Toncey, 

John B. Floyd, 

Joseph Holt, 

Howell Cobb, 

Philip Thomas, 

/ohn A. Dix, 

Jacob Thompson, Mississippi, 

Joseph Holt, Kentucky, 

Horatio King, 

J . S. Black, 

E. M. Stanton, 

Nathl. P. Banks, 



Michigan, 

Pennsylvania, Appointed Dec. I860. 

Connecticut, 



Virginia, 
Kentucky, 
Georgia, 
Maryland, 
New York, 



Maine 

Pennsylvania, 
Pennsylvania, 
Massachusetts, 



Appointed Jan. 1S61. 

Appointed Dec. 1860. 
Appointed Jan. 1861. 

Jan. 1861. 

Dec. 1860. 

1856. 
1859. 



• Secretary of State. 
Secretary of Navy. 

- Secretary of War. 

> Secretary of Treasury. 

Secretary of Interior. 
■ Postmaster-General. 

• Attorney-General. 

• Speaker of H. Eeps. 



Wm. Pennington, New Jersey, 

Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4. 1S61, President. 

Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President. 

Wm. H. Seward, New York, Secretary of State. 



*0misssions on page 152 " World's Progress." 

S. Carolina, May 9, died June 20, 1843, 
S. Carolina, March 6, 1841, to March, 1, 1845, , 
Kentucky, June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of Treas. 

Pennsylvania, Feb. 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of War. 
Feb. 15, 1844, died Feb. 28, 1844, i „ Pvr 

v„.-v,ij -.on x- »f... »'««' > Sees, of Navy. 



lugk 8. Legare, 
John C. Calhoun, 
George M. Bibb, 
William Wilkins, 
Thomas "W. Gilmer 
John Y. Mason, 



-Sees, of Stat- 



Virginia, March 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1S45. (, ' 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



71 



Salmon P. Chase, 
Wm. P. Fessenden, 
Hugh MeCulloch, 
Simon Cameron, 
Edwin M. Stanton, 
Gideon Welles, 
Caleb B. Smith, 
John P. Usher, 
Montgomery Blair, 
Wm. Dennison, 
Edward Bates, 
James Speed, 
Galusha A. Grow, 
Salmon P. Chase, 



Ohio, 

Maine, 

Indiana,, 

Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, Appointed Jan. 1862 

Connecticut, 

Indiana, 

Indiana, 

Maryland. 

Ohio, 

Missouri, 

Kentucky, 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio, 



Appointed July, 1864. 
Appointed March, 1865, 



Appointed Jan. 1863. 

Appointed Sept. 1864. 

Appointed Sept. lSt4. 

1861-2. 

Appointed Dec. 1S64. 



i Secretary of Treasuiy. 

i Secretary of "War. 

Secretary of Navy. 
( Secretary of Interior. 

i Postmaster-General 

( Attorney-General. 

Speaker H. Reps. 
Chief-Justice. 



Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President. 
Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, Vice-Presiaenr. 

[President Lincoln was assassinated at Washington by Wilkes Booth, 

April 14, 1865.] 
Andrew Johnson became President, April 15, 1S65. 
Lafayette S. Poster, of Connecticut, elected President of the Senate. 
[Succeeded by Ben. P. Wade, of Ohio, 1867.] 
New York, (continued in office), Secretary of State. 

Indiana, do Secretary of Treasury. 

Pennsylvania, do Secretary of War. 

Connecticut, do Secretary of Navy. 

Indiana, do ) 

Iowa, Appointed March, 1865. 



"Wm. H. Seward, 
Hugh McCulloch, 
Eciwin M. Stanton, 
Gideon Weiles, 
John P. Usher, 
James Harlai 



Orville H. Browning, Illinois, Appointed June, 1866. 



Secretary of Interior. 



W. Dennison, Ohio, (continued in office), 

Ales. W. Randall, Wisconsin, Appointed June, 1S66. 

James Speed, Kentucky, (continued in office), 

Henry Stanbery, Ohio, Appointed June, 1866. 

Schuyler Colfax, Indiana, 1863-'65-'67.' Speaker H. of Reps. 

The salary of each member of the Cabinet was raised in 1S53 from $6,000 to $8,000. 



Postmaster-General. 
• Attorney-General. 



ADMINISTRATIONS of England after 

Lord John Russell's Administra- 
tion, July 6th, 1846. 

[He and his colleagues resign Feb. 
1851, but resume office March 1S51.] 

Earl of Derby, Disraeli, Spencer H. 
Walpole, Duke of Northumberland, 
&c. Feb. 1S52. 

Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Palmer- 
ston, Lord Russell, &c Dec. 1852. 

[Russell retires, and Lord Aberdeen 
and Ministry resign Jan. 1855. Pal- 
in erst on reconstructs cabinet with 
Lord Cranworth, &c, Feb, 1855, but 
Gladstone, Herbert and Graham, se- 
cede from it and Palmerston forms a 
new ministry with Russell and Earl 
of Clarendon, &c. Feb. 24th, 1855.] 

On vote of censure they resign. 

Feb. 7th, 1S58. 



1846. 

Earl of Derby's Administration — 
Disraeli, Walpole, Stanley, &c. 

Feb. 26th, 1858. 
[They resign on vote of Parliament 
expressing want of contidence in 
them. June 1859] 

Lords Palmerston and Russell, &c. 
June 18th, 1S59. 
[Palmerston dies, Oct. 1865.] 
Earl Russell's Ministry — With 
Gladstone Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer; Lord Cranworth, Lord 
Chancellor ; Earl Granville, &c. 
Dec. 1865. 
Derby Administration — Earl of 
Derby, First Lord, &c; D 1 Israeli, 
Chancellor of Exchequer; Lord 
Stanley. Sec. for Foreign Affairs, 
&c. ' June 19, 1866. 



ADULTEEY in England, (p. 155.) By 20 Victoria, c. 85, (1857,) the " action 
for criminal conversation" was abolished, and the "Court for Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes " was established which has power to grant divorces for 
adultery and ill usage. See Divorce. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, Eng. (p. 145.) The duty on them was all 
together abolished in the United Kingdom, August 4, 1S53. For a copious 
article on this subject see Appletorfs Cyclopcedia. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in U. S. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 8 
to 20 cents a line ; of weekly papers, up to $2.00. A few monthly and quar 



72 the world's progress. 

terly periodicals charge $2.50 per line. The price of one page for advertise- 
ments in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the advertising receipts of the 
N. Y. Tribune were about $359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertisements in 
American papers are taxed 3 per cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than 
2,000 copies circulation are exempt. The duty on advertising in England was 
abolished in 1853. 

ADVERTISING VANS, in 1853 a great nuisance, were prohibited in England. 
They have recently appeared in New York and other places in the U. S. 

jEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : 
beginning about 1124 b. c. The JEolians built several large cities both on the 
mainland and the neighbouring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered 
the capital. 

^EOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known 
before. 

jEQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands 
annexed after a conflict, 471-302 B.C. 

AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been 
patented by Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 1847; Tylor in 1840, 
and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented 
by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 

.ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful 
(especially in art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, 
whose work "JEsthetica" was published in 1750. 

AFRICA, (p. 15.) Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and 1849, 
(by direction of the government,) he left England to explore Central Africa, 
accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851, 
and Overweg September 27, 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforce- 
ments to Dr. Barth Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. Barth returned to England, and re 
ceived the Royal Geographical Society's medal May 16, 1856. His travels 
were published in five volumes in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary 
traveller, returned to England in December, 1856, after an absence of sixteen 
years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of South Africa, 
and walked about 11,000 miles, principally of country hitherto unexplored. His 
book was published in November, 1857. In February, 1858, he was appointed 
British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left shortly after. 
Accounts of the assassination of Dr. Vogel were received in 1857. Lieut. Bur- 
ton's Explorations of the Eastern Coast, 185- ; his journey from Zanzibar to 
the interior, 1858 ; and his account of it published in London and N. Y., I860. 



The publication of M. du Chaiilu's 
travels in Central Africa created 
much controversy and excitement in 
1861. 

Second expediton of Dr. Livingstone, 
March, 1858. 

Captains Speke and Grant announce 
the discovery of the source of the 
Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, Feb. 
23, 1S63. 

[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by 
his own gun while alone near Bath, 
Sept. 15, 1S64] 

Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully ex- 
plore the "White Nile, and undergo 
many privations, July, 1863 — IS64. 



Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition 6 Aug. 
1S63. 

Dr. Livingstone returns July 23. 1864. 

Death of Dr. W. B. Barkie, at Sierra Leone, 
Nov. 30, 1864. 

[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro 
tribes near the Niger by the Foreign Office 
about 1854. He opened commercial rela- 
tions with Central Africa.] 

Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, sup 
posed to be another source of the Nile, 
which he named Lake Nyanza Albert, 
March, 1864. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed Bvitish consul for 
Inner Africa, March 24, 1S65. Repoited to 
be killed by natives, Apr. 1S67. 

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. In England, Sir Humphry Davy delivered 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. I'd 

lectures on this subject (afterwards published) at the instance of the Board of 
Agriculture, in 1812 ; but it excited but little attention till the publication of 
Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's 
"Economie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The 
immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, 
a partial reaction has taken place, and much controversy ensued. Liebig's 
"Letters on Agriculture'' appeared in 1859. 

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. By act of July 2, 1862, Congress made pro- 
vision for " donating public lands to the several States and Territories which 
may provide Colleges lor the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts." Up 
to Sept. 1863, 15 States had taken advantage of the act, and many colleges in- 
troduced Agricu Hire among the branches of their scientific course. Agricultu- 
ral college at Amherst, Mass., in process of construction (1867). 

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS of 1851 : 

Great Britain. France. United States. Russia. 
Acres of Land in Cultivation 22,000,000 72,000,000 1JS,000,000 243.000,000 

Bushels of "Wheat, av. per annum, 336,000,000 576,000,000 100,000,000 1,400,000,000 
Number of Horned Cattle, 18,000,000 9,000,000 19,S00,000 25,000,000 

Number of Horses, 1,600,000 2,81S,000 5,000,000 18,000,000 

Number of Sheep and Goats, 50,000,000 32,000,000 22,000,000 50,000,000 

Numbeiof Swine, 19,000 000 5,000,000 30,000,000 12,000,000 

Population of each country, 27,000,000 36,000,000 23,000,000 68,000,000 

In 1866, the wheat crop in the U. S., was 180,000,000 bushels, (increase of 80 
per cent, in 15 years.) Cattle, 26,935,000, (increase about 40 per cent.) ; sheep, 
41,253,652, increase nearly 100 per cent. 
AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the 
United States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged 
in agricultural pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In 
1860 the number of acres in cultivation was 163,000,000, valued at 6,600 mil- 
lion dollars. In the same year the value of agricultural implements was $247,- 
000,000. 

1860. 1862. 1865. 

Bushels of Wheat 132.000,000 1S1,000.000 148,000,000 

Bushels of Oats 172,000,000 171,000,000 235,000,000 

Bushels of Eye 20,000,000 21,000,000 • 19,000,000 

Tons of Hav 19.000,000 20,000,000 23,000,000 

Pounds of "Wool 60,000,000 114,0"0.000 

Bales of Cotton 4,000,000 .„ 1,000,000 

B ushels of Corn 800,000,000 500,000,000 600,000,000 

In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the states in rebellion are not included. In 
1862 the shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted 
to 29,100,000 bushels. Total exports of grain 1863 were 17,300,000 bushels. 
The cereals of the northern states in 1865 amounted to 1,228 million bush- 
els, valued at $1,047,000,000. The southern cotton crop for 1866-7 is esti- 
mated at 2,000,000 bales. "Department of Agriculture " established May 15, 
1862, at Washington, D. C. Its object, to diffuse information on subjects con- 
nected with agriculture among the people of the U. S. 
AIR or ATMOSPHERE. In 1858, Dr. Angus Smith made known a chemical 
method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The re- 
searches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, led to the discovery 
of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. — 
See Ozone. 

ALABAMA. One of the United States; Population in 1850; whites, 426,515; 
free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765 ;- slaves, 342,894. In 1855: white, 
464,456; free colored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, in I860: w.hite, 
4 



74 the world's progress. 

520,444; slaves, 485,473. The slaves have increased more rapidly than the 
whites. Ordinance passed " seceding" from the United States January 7, 1861. 
During the war the state was untouched by the national army until March, 
!S65, when Gen. Wilson with 17,000 cavalry, penetrated its most productive 
region. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor. 
The state sent 120,000 men to the war, and lost 35,000. Estimated loss in 
wealth, $500,000,000. Present debt (1865) is $3,400,000. 

ALBANY, N Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,367; in 1865, 62,613. 
It became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of 
commerce is lumber; in 1863, $7,000,000 worth was received there. Its Law 
Library, the best in the country, contains 70,000 volumes. 

ALPINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many 
of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 
1494 with Husaeus. 

ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, July 13, 1866, a tax of $1.00 i3 
levied on every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold. 

ALEPPO (anciently Bercea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Seleucus Ni- 
cator about 299 B. C. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five govern- 
ments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, a. d. 638, who restored its ancient 
name Haleb orChaleb; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its 
depopulation by the plague has been frequent; 60,000 persons were computed 
to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the 
cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes 
in 1822 and 1830; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. 
On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They 
burnt everything in their way ; three churches were destroyed, five others 
were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of 
property amounted to about a million sterling; no interference was attempted 
by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the 
foundation of Alexandria, 332 b. c. It flourished under the patronage of the 
Ptolemies till about 100 b. c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212), 
Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose 
about a. d. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were 
Ptolemy, the author of Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician 
(200), and Pappus the geometer (350). 

ALGIERS, (p. 162). An insurrection of the Kabyles was subdued by the 
French in Oct., 1857. In 1858, the government was entrusted (for a short 
time) to Prince Napoleon, 

ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Granada in Spain, founded 
by Mohammed I. of Granada, about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians, 
Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by 
Owen Jones, and Jules Gowry, published 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a 
court of this name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, near London. 

ALIENS, (p. 162.) The rigor of the Alien laws in England was much mitigated 
by 7 & 8 Vict, c. 66, 1844. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In 
1863, 233,408 arrived. Of these 106,000 came from Germany ; 68,000 from Ire- 
land ; 36,000 from England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress, 
July, 1666.) See Emigration. 

ALIWAL, Battle of, India, between the Sikh army (24,000), and the British 
under Sir H. Smith (12,000). Sikhs defeated with loss of 6,000, Jan. 28, 1846 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 75 

ALLIANCE, Treaties of, (p. 162) between the high European powers: 

Alliance of Sweden with the western 



Alliance of England, France, and 
Turkey (signed at Constantino 
pie) March 12, 1854 

Alliance of England and France, 
ratified April 3, 1854 

Alliance of Sardinia with the west- 
ern powers (signed at Turin), 

Jan. 26, 1855 



powers Dec. 19, 185i 

Alliance of Prussia and Austria against 

Denmark 1864 

Alliance of Prussia and Italy against 

Austria 1S6S 



ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2). A festival of the Roman Catholic church to com- 
memorate the souls that are in purgatory, instituted it is said, at Cluny about 
993 or 1000. 

ALMA. A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 
1854. See Russo-TurMsh War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turk- 
ish army (about 57,000) and the Russians under Menschikoff (46,000). Latter 
defeated, with loss of 5,000. Allied loss 3,000, killed, wounded, and 
missing. 

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King street, St. James's, London, at first very 
exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12, 
1765. 

ALMANACS, American. A comprehensive and valuable "National Almanac," 
was issued by G. W. Childs of Phila., in 1863-4, but was not continued. Sixty 
eight diiTerent almanacs are registered among the list of American publications 
1861-6. French. First French Almanac published in Paris (1442), in a 
Bibliotheque. "Almanac Royal" of Paris (16*79), noticed fairs, markets, 
genealogy of kings, &c. " Almanac of Napoleon," and " Almanac of Litera- 
ture and Fine Arts," are widely circulated. The "Connaissance de Terns" is 
astronomical. There are many inferior ones devoted to burlesque and wit. 
German. Almanacs appeared in Germany in 1475. The first one was pub- 
lished in a series in a periodical, and contained only the eclipses and position 
of the planets. The author was the German Regiomontanus. His series sold 
for ten crowns. "Almanac de Gotha" is 104 years old, and of very high 
reputation. Also the " Astronomisches Jahrbuche " conducted by Bode and 
then by Encke. 



Franklin's " Poor Eichard's Almanac," 
(Phil. 1732), was the first of any note 
in the U. S. 

"The American Nautical Almanac" 
was established in 1S49, and superin- 
tended by Capt. Davis, U. S. N. It 
has few equals in scientific accuracy. 

The "American Almanac" of Boston, 
was discontinued in 1857 (?), after 
being published 29 years. 



The " National Almanac" (valuable and 
comprehensive), published by Childs of 
Phila., appeared only 1863 aud 1SC4. 
At the present time (1S67), no general alma- 
nac of any special value is published in the 
U.S. 
The " Family Christian Almanac" of the 
Tract Society has a wide circulation. 



ALPACA (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft 
hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It 
was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca 
factory, &c, (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York- 
shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. 

AMBASSADORS. The U. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass- 
ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary 
{Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil. 
China, Prance, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To 
the smaller states, " Ministers resident " are sent, 22 in all. Number of con- 
suls from U. S to foreign countries in 1862, 272. Some of these are known 



76 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest 
salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. Num 
ber of foreign consuls in U. S. in 1863, 356. 

AMERICA, Central, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, 
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 
1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The 
states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 184*7. There has 
been among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by 
the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In 
Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) 
and San Salvador, (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were de- 
feated at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the 
president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and Carrera, the dictator of Guate- 
mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about 
2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. 

AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &o. 

AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used by the American army 
exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with 
white. On the 14th June, 1777, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the 
thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the 
union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing 'a new con- 
stellation.' " 

AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R. 
Bartlett ; first published in Boston, in 1848. 

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of 
Herodotus, about 1687 b.c. It is considered as ending with the destruction 
of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Ma- 
homet (a.d. 622), or Charlemagne (768). 

ANAESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of 
N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed the 3,000 cases he had up 
to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.) 

ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in England. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, 
zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, 
which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. Laws on the 
subject were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1S49, and 1854. Dogs were for- 
bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char- 
tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. 
Henry Bergh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent 
cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws prohibiting 
cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- 
vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. 

ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 
1758, and continued to the present time) was commenced in London by R. & 
J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire 
de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 1850. An American Annual 
Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton'g 
Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comprehensive. 

ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, published annually, con- 
taining poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en- 
gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations ol 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 77 

similar books in Germany. The duration of the chief of these publications ia 

here given — 

Forget-me not (Aclrerman's).... 1823-48 Amulet 1S27-34 

Friendship's OlTermg 1824-i4 Keepsake 1828-58 

Literary Souvenir (first as The * Hood's Comic Annual 1830-38 

Graces) 1824-84 

The earliest American "Annuals" were the Talisman, published by E. Bliss, 
in New York, about 1830, 3 vols. (Bryant, Sands, and others contributors); 
the Token, S. G. Goodrich (Peter Parley), in Boston, 1837 (?) to (?), about 
8 vols. ; and the Gift, Carey & Hart, Philadelphia, 1840 (?), about 5 vols. 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS. In England, the sending of threatening or libellous 
anonymous letters was made felony by several acts, 1*722, 182*7, 1847. 
Punishment — transportation, imprisonment, and whipping. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Winston, the number of 

people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Elood, reached to the 
enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482. 

ANTIGUA. A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; settled by 
the English in 1632. 

ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U, S. Here was fought a 
terrible battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Union army under Gen. Mc- 
Clellan and the rebels under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull Run or 
Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded Maryland, was immediately followed by 
McClellan. On the 16th Lee was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next 
morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the con- 
flict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The battle was indecisive ; 
but eventually the Rebels retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 and 
19. The Union loss was estimated at 12,469 ; the rebels lost 14,000. 

APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all courts can hear appeals from those next 
inferior. The highest courts of the states are courts of appeal only. The 
Supreme Court of the U. S. sits on appeal from Circuit and Territorial Courts, 
and also from the highest state courts, whenever the question turns upon the 
validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. (Statute of 1789.) 

APPENZELL. A Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of 
St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
Swiss confederation in 1513. 

APPIAN WAY. An ancient Roman road,made by Appius Claudius Caecus, while 
censor, 312 b.c. 

APPLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apples, according to Pliny. Ray 
reckons 78 kinds in his day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties 
exist. Apple-trees of finest quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200 
years. Throughout the U. S. the following appear to be the favorites : For 
summer apples, the Early Harvest, Sweet Bough and lied Astrachan ; for au- 
tumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Gravenstein ; for winter, the Baldwin and 
Rhode Island Greening. The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of 
the supply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In 
1860, the yield of orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of 
which was derived from the apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the 
State of New York yielded 16,275,505 bushels of apples. 

APPRENTICES. In the U. S. apprenticeship is not so common as in En- 
gland. The American apprentice rarely pays a fee to the master. In some 
eastern states farmers take them to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, whet 



78 the world's progress. 

they leave present tliem with a sum of money. Whole number in the IT. 
S. in 1860 was about 55,000. There is a Library in Mechanics Hall, N. Y. 
City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful apprentices. For laws respect- 
ing them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. Y. State in 
1865, 1,861. % 

AQUARIUM, or Aquavivaeium. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh) 
in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other; 
snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded 
in growing sea-weeds, in artificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. R. Warington dem- 
onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in 
jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's 
Park, were set up under the direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1850 Mr. 
Gosse published, " The Aquarium. " Mr. 0. E. Hammett, jr., of Newport, R. I., 
published in 1859 his observations and experiments with Aquaria, which were 
very remarkable. Aquaria have been introduced into several public museums 
in the U. S., and they are also largely cultivated in private houses. 

AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any times is the Croton 
aqueduct, which supplies the City of New York with water from Croton lake, 
40 miles distant. It was commenced 1837 ; its completion was publicly cele- 
brated in 1842; its cost was $10,375,000. It is carried across the Harlein 
river on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer John B. Jervis ; contractor 
for the bridge, Geo. Law. The aqueduct which supplies Boston from lake 
Cochituate, 23£ miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct. 
25, 1848 ; cost $5,370,818. That which supplies the city of Brooklyn, L. I., 
was finished 1858 ; engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cost $640,828. Jersey City, N. J., is 
supplied by an aqueduct 8 miles long from the Passaic river at Belleville ; W. S. 
Whitwell, chief engineer. It was completed in 1856 and cost $640,000. 
Washington, D. C. is furnished with water from the Potomac by an aqueduct 
15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. The water 
was first admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the cost amounted to 
$2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct dis- 
charges 67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Cro- 
ton aqueduct. 

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated 
into French by Galland, and published in 1704; but their authenticity was 
not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from 
the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1889, with valuable notes 
and beautiful illustrations. 

ARCHITECTURE, (p. 173.) Dates of notable buildings : 



Egyptian Pyramids, b.c. 1500 

Solomon's Temple begun ....b. c.1000 
Temple of Jupiter, Rome, ...b. c. 616 

Babylon built b. c. 600 

Parthenon finished b. c. 43S 

Pantheon at Rome a. d. IS 



Coliseum a. d. 70 

Basilicas at Rome a. d. 330-900 

St. Sophia's, Constantinople begun. a. d. 532 

Oai iterbury Cathedral a. n . 602 

Mosque of Omar a. d. 637 

York Minster begun a. d. 741 



ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See North- West Passage, and Franklin's Expedi. 
iions. 



Lt. Hartstein with the Arctic and 
release leaves Brooklyn, May 31, 
1S55, and finds Dr. Kane at Lieve- 
ley, Greenland, Sept. 13, 1S55 ; 
aud returns to N". Y. with him 

Oct.ll, 1855 



Steamer Fox, Capt. McClintock, sails 
from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Frank 
lin) in search of remains of Franklin's 
expedition July 1ft 185 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



79 



Capt. McClintock returns, bringing 
relics and remains of Franklin's 
expedition, and ascertaining his 
fate 1859 

Mr. C. F. Hall sailed from .New 
London, Conn., in ship George 
Henry May 29, 1860 

Returned Sept. 13, 1862 

He went again with strong hopes 
of finding some of Franklin's 
men. Discovered the fate of four 
who died from cold and starva- 
tion, June 1S64 



Dr. Hayes sailed from Bos ,on in 
schooner United States, and returned 
in fifteen months. Valuable surveys 
and experiments made by him 

July 10, I860 

Capt. Parker Snow sailed from Eng- 
land in schooner Intrepid, in search of 
Franklin's companions, June, 1861 

Expedition from Sweden blockaded by 
ice and unable to accomplish its ob- 
jects, May 9, 1S61 



ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFEDERATION. Originally fourteen, now 
thirteen, provinces — Buenos Ay res having seceded in 1853. This country 
was discovered by the Spaniards in 1517 ; settled by them in 1553, and form- 
ed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 1118, when it became that of Rio 
de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 
1816. It. was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of 
Uruguay, which became independent at Montevideo. It. was at war with 
France from 1838-40. Urquiza was chosen President for six years in 1854. 
See Buenos Ayres. 

ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a territory of 30,000 square miles, 
purchased from Mexico by the TL S. for $10,000,000, in 1855. It had in 1856 
about 5,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Feb. 24, 
1863, the territory was organized and part of New Mexico added to it, the 
whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital is Prescott. The first 
Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 1866, 
white, about 8,000. 

ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of -the Louisiana purchase. 
It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 
1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 9*7,574, including 19,935 slaves. 
Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 111,115 were slaves. The state "se- 
ceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided during the war by the 
Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. At the 
close of the rebellion I. Murphy was appointed provisional governor (1865.) 
Many of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and land can be bought 
at $1 to $5,000 per acre (1866). 

ARMY OF THE U. S. Includinc Volunteers. 



Date. Regulars. 

July, 1861 14,108 . 

Jan. 1,1862 19.871 . 

Jan. 1, 1S63 19,169 . 

Jan. 1,1864 17.237 . 

Jan. 1, 1865 14,661 • 

May 1, 1S65 



Volunteers. 
169,480 
507,333 
679,633 
594,013 
606.263 



The following list is official : 
Present for Duty. Aggregate. 

183,588 286,751 

527,204 175,917 

698,802 918,191 

621.250 860,737 

620,924 959,460 

.... 797,807 ....1,034,064 



From May 1, 1865, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of 
service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act 
of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army comprises 45 regiments of infantry, 
10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantry are col- 
ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 54,300. The 
higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10 
Brigadier-Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,' 
239,000 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the 
war was 280,751, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or died 
of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 182,329 men died of disease. See Enist 



80 the world's progress. 

ment. The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished th« 
army during 1861-65 : 

Cannon— number 7,892 

Artillery carriages — number 11,787 

Artillery projectiles (shot and shell)— number 6,335.595 

Grape and canister shot — pounds 6,589,999 

Field artillery ammunition — round;- 2 SG2,177 

Small arms, muskets, rifles, carbines, and p slots 3,477,655 

Swords, sabres, and lances 544,4-75 

Infantry accoutrements — complete sets 2,146,175 

Cavalry accoutrements — complete sets 216,371 

Horse equipments — sets 539.544 

Two-horse artillery harness — set:- 2S,164 

Horse blankets — number 732,526 

Cartridges for small arms— number 1,022,176.474 

Percussion caps for small arms — numbei 1,2-0,555,435 

Cannon-primers 10,281,305 

Fuses for s i , ell 4.226,377 

Gunpowder — pound? 26,440,054 

Nitre— pou tids 6,395,152 

Lead in pigs and bullets— pounds 90,416,295 

This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by 
the navy. 

ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently 
occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing 
water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the 
boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar Square in London are 
supplied by two of these wells. The great well at Paris was completed in 
1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about 
£12,000. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., 
in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various 

■ parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are said to have existed in 
China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated 
making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to California. 

ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con- 
tributed to it by members, which sold for $7,500. The object of this society 
is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859. 

ARTS, Fine. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the IT. S. 
"-since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build- 
ing, the first in the United States wholly designed for such a purpose, was 
completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the U. S. 
for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. Dj 1864, 30 collec- 
tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for $500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in 
Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures 
and sculptures. A handsome building for the Yale School of Fine Arts was 
completed at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition 
was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 
sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com- 
mittee ; See Paintings ; Tuckermari 's Book of the Artists. 

ART UNION. For distributing works of art bv lot. The first was in Germany 
fouuded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berlin (1828), Dresden, 
Leipzic, Bremen, Dnsseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. " Roman Catholic Art- 
Unions " were started in 1851. London Art Union founded 1837; its receipts 
increased in nineteen years from $5,000, to $90,000 per annum. The first in 
the U. S., the Ameiican Art Union (originally the Apollo Association) was 
founded at N. Y., in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distrib- 



SUPPLEMENT, 1S51-C7. 81 

uting works to the amount of $453,853. It was closed in 1851 as being 
forbidden by the state laws against lotteries. 
ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the 
Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after hia 
resurrection from the dead, May 14, a. d. 33 ; first commemorated, a. d. 6S. 
Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part 
of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was visible 
in his time. 
ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854 assayed 
more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1866. The follow- 
ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department shows 
the collections on bullion and the amount of bullion assayed in each state and 
territory of the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1866 : 
States and Territories. Colleetions on Bullion. Bullion Assayed, 

California $294,121 $49,020,250 

Colorado 1,219 219 860 

Idaho 3,210 535,105 

Missouri 4 815 

Nevada 91.635 15,272,246 

New Jersey S2 13,688 

New York 43,774 7,295, S03 

Oregon 28.711 4,7S5,221 

Pennsylvania 24,265 4,044,218 

Rhode Island 13 .. 2,211 

Utah 361 60,278 

Washington 837 139,533 

Total $4SS,377 '.".".".".'.".".'.".'.' $81,389,541 

The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States 
Mint at San Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000. 

ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior to 1843. 
At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public interest in the science 
was awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis, 
U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of 
Yale, Prof. O. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell, of Nantucket, 
have contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seer; from 
Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The 

•■ La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awarded by the French Acad- 
emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see 
Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. B. 
Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S. 
has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, O. M. 
Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College, 
Poughkeepsie. 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph. 

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood 
Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1855. See Pneu- 
matic Railway. 

AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. 
Augustine, who died a. d. 430. These monks really first appeared in the 12th 
century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. Its 
rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an 
Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were the 
rivals of the Dominicans. 

AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin amis], oi 
4 * 



82 



TEE WORLD'S PEOGEES8. 



the priest must have been an enrly practice, since it is said to have been for- 
bidden in the fourth century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople. 
It was first enjoined by the Council of Lateran in 1215. It was one of Six 
Articles of Faith enacted by Henry VIII. in 1539, and by the Council of Trent ; 
but was abolished in England at the Reformation. Its revival in England 
was attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians, but with- 
out success. 
AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights. The most remarkable exhibitions 
of this phenomenon on record are those of 1560 in London, in the form of 
burning spears ; 1574 (described by Stow), and the close of the ISth cen- 
tury ; again in 1835, 1836, and 183*7. "In Northern Europe, this phenomenon, 
now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60, 
the Aurora was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United 
States, and the telegraph wires were sensibly affected by the electricity. 

AUSTRALIA The smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one- 
sixth the size of North and South America, and ten times larger than Borneo, 
its area being about 3,000,000 square miles. Its colonization by convicts was 
first proposed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now 
divided into four provinces : New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, 
(or Port Philip), and Western Australia (or Swan River). 

Capt Cook landed at Botany Bay. 1770 I First Ch.- of Eng. Bishop (Broughton)..1836 

Sydney founded 1788 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 

Gov. Bligh for his tyranny de- | Transportation suspended 1839 

posed by an insurrection 1808 | Transportation ceased 1853" 

AUSTRIA See p. 184. 



Trial by jury abolished 1852 

Marriage of the emperor to Eliza- 
beth, daughter of Maximilian, 
duke of Bavaria Apr. 24, 1S54 

Alliance with England and 
France on the Eastern Ques- 
tion Dec. 2, 1854 

Degrading Concordat with 
Borne Aug. IS, 1855 

Diplomatic relations with Sar- 
dinia broken oft' on ace. of .it- 
tacks of Sardinian press March, 1857 

Excitement on the address of 
Napoleon III. to Austrian 
minister, Hubner Jan. 1, 1859 

Preparations for war. Banks of 
the Ticino fortified 

Feb. and March, 1859 

Austria demands that Sardinia 
disarm. Refused Apr. 26, 1859 

Austrians cross the Ticino Apr, 2(1, 1859 



French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 1S59 

French emperor declares war May 3, 1859 

Austrians defeated at Montebello, 

May 20, 1859 

do do Palestro, May 30-1. 1859 

do do Magenta, June 4, 1859 

do do Marignano, June 8, 1859 

Death of Prince Metternich, set. 86, 

June 11, 1859 
Austrians def. at Solferino, June 24, 1859 

Armistice agreed upon ..July 6, 1S59 

Emperors of France and Austria meet 

July 11, 1859 
Preliminaries of peace at Villa Fran- 
ca, Lomhardy to belong to 

Sardinia July 12, 1859 

Fruitless conference of envoys at 

Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859 

For war against Denmark, and against 
Prussia and Italy', see Prussia. 



B 

BAALBEC, or HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An 
ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood 
(in 1*757) and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. 
Antoninus Pius is stated to have built a magnificent Temple of Jupiter here. 
The city was sacked by the Moslems, a. d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. 

BADEN, (p. 186.) 1852, Frederic (born September 9, 1826), regent to Sept. 5, 
1856, when he was declared grand duke, and still remains so (1867). Heir, 
his son, Frederic William, born July 9, 1857. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 83 

BALAKLAVA (small sea-port in the Crimea), Battle of. Russians aboutl2,000, 
commanded by Geu. Liprandi, British by Lord Eaglan. In this battle Lord 
Cardigan's cavalry made the famous " charge of the light brigade ;" only 19S 
out of 607 returning from the charge, Oct. 26, 1854. Another engagement 
here, Russians defeated, losing 2,000, Allies losing 600, March 22, 1855. Eiec« 
trie telegraph between this place and London completed April, 1855. 

BALLOON, (p. 187.) An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Den- 
mark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subsequently found on the sea-shore in a 
contiguous island, dashed to pieces. On June 28, 1859, Mr. Wise and three 
others ascended from St .Louis in a balloon. After travelling 1,150 miles they 
descended in Jefferson county, New York, very narrowly escaping with 
their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the professed 
intention of an air-voyage to Europe, was inflated and exhibited at New York. 
May 1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated 
the project. Equestrian ascents were made by Green in London in 1850, and 
stopped by law, 1852. In France ascents on horses in balloons have been fre- 
quently made since 1850. Balloons were used for reconnoitering, during 
the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Army of the Potomac 
1861-5. Ascents for scientific observations made in England by Jas. Glai- 
sher, one ascent reaching 7 miles, 1862-5 

BALLOT. Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled 
" The Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marvel!, 
was published in England in the "State Tracts," 1693. The ballot-box was 
used in a political club which met in 1659 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster. 
The ballot has been an open question in British Whig governments since 1835. 
On June 30, 1857, the House of Commons rejected the ballot, 257 being 
against, and 189 for it. It became part of the electoral law of Victoria, Aus- 
tralia, in 1856. Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in France 
from 1840 to 1845, and was employed also after the coup dj'itat in 1851. In 
the United States the ballot is used in all public elections. 

BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side. 
On October 21, 1861, by direction of Gen. C. P. Stone the heroic Col. E. 
I). Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the rebel 
camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss, the force of the rebels 
having been misrepresented. Treachery was evident somewhere, and Gen. 
Stone himself was arrested, but released without trial. 

BALTIMORE, (p. 187.) Population in 1860, 214,037, including 2,213 slaves, 
On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S, troops passing through the city to the de- 
fence of Washington were fired upon and two men killed. Military occupa- 
tion of the place by Gen. Butler, May, 1861. President Lincoln, who passe i 
through Baltimore (1861) in disguise, to his first inauguration, was nomina- 
ted with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there assem- 
bled (1864). 

BANKING SYSTEM, U. S. Before the outbreak of the rebellion, paper currenc; 
issued from incorporated independent banks. In 1860, there were in the U. 
S. 1,562 banks, having an aggregate capital of $421,880,000, and a circulation 
of $207,104,400. In 1861, the banks generally were compelled to suspend 
specie payments. The government established by act of Congress Feb. 25, 
1863, a uniform national banking system. An additional act w^as passed June 
3, 18*4. In Jan. 1866, theie were 1,579 National Banks. Capital, $403,350, 
000. Circulation, $213,000,000. These banks deposit bonds with the U. 3. 
Treasury to the extent of one-third of their capital. There ara 14 citif* cc-« 



84 the world's progress. 

taining 218 banks, which are selected as points of redemption. Jan. 1867, the 
national bank-note circulation was $291,093,294 ; total currency of the United 
States (circulation and deposits), $1,496,672,065. 

BANKRUPTS in England, (p. 189.) The number in 1850, was 1,298 ; in 1857, 
it was 1,488 ; in 1858, there were 1,346 ; in 1859, there were 959 ; and in 1860, 
no less than 8,470. In Scotland, there were 453 in 1857, and 445 in 1860. In 
Ireland, 73 in 1857, and 113 in 1860. ■ 

BANKRUPT LAWS in the U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con- 
gress, April 4, 1800, and repealed 1803. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841, 
and repealed 1343. An act " establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy in 
the U. S.," passed Congress, March, 1867, and is now in operation (July, 1867), 
the "Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union having been appointed 
by Chief- Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law. In England, a Court of 
bankruptcy was first established 1831. An important act relating to the sub- 
ject was passed 1849, amended 1854, and further discussed for amendment 
1859. See Commercial Failures. 

BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was estab- 
lished in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative 
of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 vol- 
umes were issued. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or 
banners — Num. ii. (1491 b. c.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscrip- 
tion, in hoc signo vinces — " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure 
of the cross. See Cross. The magical banner of the Danes, (said to be a 
black raven on a red ground), was taken by Alfred when ho defeated Hubba, 
878. fc.t. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, or oriflam- 
me, were the standards of France about 1100. See Auriflamma, Standards, 
&c. 

BAPTISTS, U. S. A. (p. 190). In 1858, they had 12,000 churches with about 
1,000,000 members. In 1762, they had 56 churches only; 1792, 1,000; 1812, 
2,432; in 1832,5,322; 1852, 9,500: 1866 (Baptist Almanac), they had 592 
associations, 12,702 churches, 7,867 ordained ministers, and 1,040,300 
members. 

BATTLES, (p. 192.) 

In the British and French (allies) war with Russia : 



Tcheruaya Aug. 16, 1855 

Malakoff taken by the French. 

Sept. 8, 1855 

Ingour, (Russ. and Turks) Nov. 6, 1S55 

Baidar, (Buss, and French) Dec. 8, 1855 



Silistria June 13-15, 1S54 

Alma Sept. 20, 1S54 

Balaldava Oct. 25,1854 

Inkerhian.... Nov. 5, 1854 

Eupatoi-ia, (Turks and R.) Feb. 17, 1855 
Sebastopol March 22-4, 1855 

In British war against mutineers in India : 

Conflicts before Delhi, May 30 I Cawnpore, victory of Campbell, 

to July 23, 1S57 | Doc. 6, 1S5T 

Havelock's victories before Cawn- | Lucknow taken March 14-19, 1858 

pore, &c July 12 to Aug. 16, 1S57 | Gwailor (Rose victorious) June 1 , 1S5S 

Assault and capture of Delhi, I Begum of Oude defeated Feb. 10, 1859 

September 16-20, 1857 | 

Allied (French and Sardinians) against Austrians in Italy : 

Austrians cross the Ticino. I Magenta, (Allies vict.) June 4, 1S59 

April 27. 1859 | MaPgnano, do .-...June 8. 1S">9 

Montebello (Allies vict.) May 20, 1S59 I Solferino, do June 24, 1SJ9 

P&lestro do May 30, 1859 | See Sardinia, Naples, &c. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



85 



Naval conflict in China : 

Mouth of the Peiho June 25, 1859 



French and English attack on 
Pekin Oct. 6,1860 



BATTLES, Austrians against Prussians and Italians, war of 1866 

Battle of Custozza, between Ital- 
ians and Austrians, [Italians 
defeated].. June 24, 1866 

Battle of Skalitz in Bohemia, 
between Austrians and Prus- 
sians, [Austrians retreat]. 

July 27, 1866 

Great "battle of Sadowa, between 
Austrians and Prussians. 



[Nearly 500,000 men engaged. 
Prussians completely victo- 
rious] July 3, 1S66 

Austrians defeated at Olmutz, 

July 15, 1S66 

Naval fight off Lissa, between 
Italians and Austrians. [Ital- 
ians lose two war ships]. July 20, 1866 



BATTLES, IT. S. In the War for the Union, 

Fort Sumter, Charleston, S. C, 
bombarded by the Rebels. 

April 12. 1861 
Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Na- 
tionals retreat and Gen. Lyon 

killed.) Aug. 10, 1861 

Carthage, Mo. (Nat. victory) 

July 10, 1S61 
Rich Mountain, Va., (Nat. vic- 
tory) July 11, 1S61 

Bull Run, Va., (Nat. defeated) 

July 21, 1861 
Lexington, Mo. (Nat. surren- 
der) Sept. 20, 1861 

Balls Bluff, Va., (Nat. defeated. 

Gen. Baker killed) Oct. 21, 1861 

Mill Spring, Ky. (Nat. victo- 
rious) Jan. 19, 1862 

Roanoke Island, N. C. (Nat. 
capture 46 guns, 2,500 prison- 
ers) Feb. 7-8, 1862 

Fort Don elson, Tenn., (Nat. cap- 
ture 13,300 prisoners, 55 guns.) 

Feb. 16, 1862 
Pea Ridge, Ark., (Nat. victo- 
rious) March 6, 7, 8, 1862 

Shiloh, Tenn., (Rebels retreat 
after desperate fighting). 

April 6-7, 1862 
Island No. 10, Miss. River, sur- 
renders to U. S. forces, with 125 
guns, 6,000 prisoners. April 7, 1862 
Williamsburg, Va.,(Rebs. retreat) 

May 5, 1862 
Winchester, Va., (Nat. retreat) 

May 25, 1862 
Fair Oaks, Va., (Nat. defeated) 

May 31, 1862 
Seven Pines, Va., (Nat. victo- 
rious) June 1, 1862 

Seven Days' Battles near Rich- 
mond (Nat. repulsed). 

June 26-July 1, 1862 
Bull Run, Va., (IS at. defeated). 

Aug. 30, 1862 
Anttetani, Md. (Rebs. defeated; . 

Sept. 17, 1862 
Fredericksburg, Va., (Nat. de- 
feated) Dec. 13, 1862 

Murfreesboro', Tenn., " Stone 
River " (indecisive ; Rebs. re- 
treat.. Nat. loss very heavy). 

Dec. 31, 1862 to Jan. 3, 1863 



1861-5. 

Grierson's raid through Missis- 
sippi April 17 to May 2, 1863 

Chancellorsville, Va. (Nat. re- 
pulsed) May 2^,1863 

Champion Hills, Mississippi, 
(Nat. victorious. Siege of 
Vicksburg begins) May 16, 1863 

Gettysburg, Penn., (Rebs. de- 
feated) July 1-4, 1863 

Chickamauga, Ga., (Rebs. de- 
feated) Sept. 19-20, 1863 

Vicksburg, Miss. (30,000 prison- 
ers and 220 guns surrendered 
to U. S. forces under Gen. 
Grant) July 4, 1863 

Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison- 
ers surrender to U. S. forces). 

July 8, 1863 

Chattanooga, Ga., (Nat. victo- 
rious) Nov. 23-26, 1863 

National " Red River Expedi- 
tion" under Gen. Banks, (de- 
feated) April 8, 1864 

Wilderness, Va. (indeeisive>; 
loss heavy on both sides). 

May 5-6, 1864 

Spottsylvania, Va., (Heavy fight- 
ing, but Rebels retire). 

May 10-12, 1864 

Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs. retreat) 

May 15, 1864 

Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. re- 
pulsed) June 1-3, 1864 

Battles about Petersburg, Va., 
(indecisive) June 15-19, 1864 

Sherman fails in an attack on 
Kenesaw Mountain, Ga. 

June 27, 1864 

Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de- 
feated) July 30, 1864 

Terrible fighting about Atlanta, 

Ga., (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1861 

Atlanta, Ga., taken by Sherman. 

Sept. 2, 1864 

Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan 
defeats Early, Rebel).. Sept. 19, 1864 

Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again 
defeated) Sept. 22, 1864 

Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally 
defeated after gaining some 
success) Oct. 19, 1864 

Sherman starts on his march 
across Georgia Nov. 11, 1864 



80 THE WOELD's PEOGBESS. 



Franklin, Tenn., CBehs. de- 
feated) Nov. 30, 1864 

Nashville, Tenn., (Kebs. com- 
pletely routed, losin«60 guns). 

Dee, 15-19, 1864 

Sherman enters Savannah, Ga. 

Dec. 21, 1864 

Fort Fisher, N. C, taken l»y as- 
sult of U. S. forces Jan. 15, 1865 

Kingston, N. C, (Eelis. re- 
pulsed) March 10, 1865 



Grant defeats Lee at Five 
Forks, and continues fighting 
until the latter surrendered at 
Appomatox Court House, Va. 

April 1-9, 1864 

Gen. Johnston (Rebel) surren- 
ders to Sherman near Eaieieh, 
N. C April" 26, 1865 

The last rebel army under Kir- 
by Smith surrenders west of 
the Mississippi May 28, 1865 



For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, 
1865. See Naval Battles, Atlanta, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Nashville, 
Corinth. 

BAVARIA. Louis II. (b. 1845), became king on death of his father Maximilian, 
March 10, 1864. Population of Bavaria 1861, 4,689,837. 

BEDOUINS. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. 
They profess a form of Mahommedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They 
are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect- 
ing him, b. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and 
Egypt. 

BENEVOLENCE, British. During 1859, there were contributed to about thirty 
of the principal religious societies of Great Britain, $4,262,435, an average of 
$82,000 a week, over $11,000 a day, and nearly $500 an hour. And yet this 
is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be- 
nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was 
$'7*74,530 ; of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, $645,380; of the Church Mis- 
sionary Society, $610,440; of the Religious Tract Society, $489,490; of the 
London Missionary Society $366,440. 

BENEVOLENT Societies, (p. 199). The receipts of some of the principal be- 
nevolent societies of New York for the year ending April 30 were : 

1857 JS58 1859 1860 1866 

Amer. Tract Society $348,049 

«< Bible 441.805 390,759 415,011 429,799 642,625 

" B. C. Foreign Missions, 388,932 334.000 S50,S15 435,956 

" Home Missionary Soc 178,060 175,970 188,139 185,216 

" Sunday School ¥nion (sales), 202,426 234,436 

Charities, Missions, etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re- 
ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total 
receipts of 28 leading societies in 1866, $4,766,698,81. These are national 
organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 
15 per cent. 

BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's " Dictionary of 
the Bible," 1722-8; Kitto : s "Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," (3 vols.) 
1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) 1860. See 
Concordances. 

BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus- 
trating Scripture history, with texts, carved in wood, a " block book," printed 
early in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the 
Franciscans, about 1260. A facsimile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 
1859. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. The first that ever existed was established by some_ Ro- 
man Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. Chambers s Ed. CI. The British 
and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jan, 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 87 

3, 1851, more than twenty-three millions of copies in one hundred and ?orti 
different languages. The American Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1S66. 
expended $10,434,953. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the science of books. The following works on this subject 
are highly esteemed: Peignot, Manuel, 18'23 ; Home, Introduction to the 
Study of Bibliography, 1814; Scriptural — Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824; 
Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, 1854-8; Classical — the works of Fabii- 

\ cius, Clarke, and Dibdin; English — Watts' Bibliotheca Britannica, 1824; 
Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); French — Querard, 

i 1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunet's Manuel du Librairc, 
1842, is exceedingly valuable. The most important work on English and 
American bibliography is Allibone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R, 8vo., 
1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Bartlett published the bibliography of the 
American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and pamphlets relating 
to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. 

BIRDS, Divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735); by Blumenbach into eight 
(1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The most remarkable works ever 
published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John 
Gould in England ; the latter will consist of thirty-one folio volumes of color- 
ed plates, &c. Each set, bound, will cost about £500. Audubon's great work 
on Birds of America was engraved and published by him in Edinburgh, in 
four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro- 
duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60, 
at New York. 

BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the 
United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two. 
Lieut.-Gen. Polk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal Bishop, was killed near 
Kenesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops 
numbered forty-five. 

BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 
fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi- 
fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Natural History being- 
then printed in the new characters. 

BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low- 
landers to the Highlanders, for the protection of their cattle ; existed till within 
a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural 
improvement almost impossible. 

BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine 
Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in 
Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing 
in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris 
by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman 
characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowledge 
ih which blind persons have not obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, bcrn 
in 1S29, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by 
Dr. Howe, of Boston, U. S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb 
persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind 
persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females: about one blind in 975. Asylums for 
the blind. The number in the U. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was the "Per- 
kins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, by 
Dr. Howe and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil. 



88 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

adelphia Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigh, F, 
C, 1848. Number of blind persons in the U. S. in 1860, 11,125. Estimated 
at about the same number in 1866. 
BOLIVIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru ; was declared indepen- 
dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, Aug. 
11, 1825. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, 
took place in 1780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre govern- 
ed ably from 1826-8 ; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834 ; after which 
many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cor- 
dova president, 1855-7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen. 
Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Aeha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126. 

BOLOGNA, (p. 208.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw off the 
temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On 
Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts 
should be headed " under the reign of Victor Emmanuel." 

BOOK-TRADE, United States, (p. 211.) The number of new books recorded as 
published during one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261. No accurate 
statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new 
works and new editions recorded as then first published in the U. S. was about 
2,400. There were in the U. S. (1860) about 3,000 booksellers and 400 pub- 
lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate publications; in 1865, 1,802, of 
which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The increased cost of 
paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since 
the rebellion began. 

BOOK-TRADE of Great Britain, (p. 210.) Number of new publications in 
1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 5,5o7 different works entered for copyright, 
and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of 700 per cent, 
on the returns of 1828: about 400 percent, on those of 1S36, and about 50 
per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864 the number of publications was 3,553. 

BOOK-TRADE, France, (p. 210.) The value of books imported in 1855, was 
1,829,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,S55 francs; increased of exports 
since 1851, 30 per cent. 

BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except At s- 
tralia, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 
1604, established factories in 1776, and still remain on the island. The Brit- 
ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1843, and in 1846 they took 
possession of a part of the island, Sir James Brooke being appointed "Raj.ih 
cf Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 
1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 1857 ; subdued by Brooke, 
and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawak, 
Nov. 1858, but declined. 

BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 212.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1855, 160,518 
in 1860, 1*77,902. Free Public Library, a noble institution, first opened 1858. 
Population in 1867, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by 
the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor. 
During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers. $3,668,000 ; for school- 
houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, $1,357,000— a total of $6, 629,358, which ia 
claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city 
in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the sev- 
eral high schools is $4,000. 

BOUNDARY QUESTIONS between the U. S. and England. The " Nor th-Eusi 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 89 

Boundary " between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the 
Webster-Ashburton Treaty at Washington, 1842. The Oregon Boundary, 
adjusted by treaty at London, June 18, 1856. 

BRAZIL, (p. 216 ) First steamship line to Europe, 1850 ; Slave trade sup- 
pressed, JS52 ; Railways commenced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro lighted with gas, 
1854. War with Uruguay. Brazilians march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865. 
Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez, 
pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New York to 
Brazil, established through the agency of Rev. J. C. Fletcher, 186-. Kidder 
and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes- 
sive editions 1859-1867. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil, 
1866. Preliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 1867. 
The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. 

BREWERIES, IT. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, was 
969. In that year 3,285,345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured. 
Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num- 
ber of breweries than any other city. 

BRIBERY in the U. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been 
held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare 
in this country. 

BRIBERY at elections in England, (p. 217.) Borough of St. Albans disfran- 
chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void 
by bribery in 1853, and at other places 1857-9. 

BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and 
Milwaukee, Wis. Number of brickmakers in I860, 13,700. The time for 
burning bricks is 3 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 
bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. 
Sawyer, of Baltimore. A brick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago, 
1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac- 
tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value of products, $10,253,734. 

BRIBGES, U. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is 
100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama, 
120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co., 
remarkable for their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is 
High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high, 
and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia, 
has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the IT. S. was 
built by Mr. Finley about 1800. The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a 
span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. 
suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. Roebling ; completed in 
1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the 
cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. 
Height of pier, 80 feet ; width, 45 feet ; size of cable, 12 inches ; cost 
$1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace is 
3,278 feet long; completed in 1865, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men. 
It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river. 
Cost, $1,500,000. 

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, Earl of Bridgewater, died 
in April, 1S29, leaving by will, £8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed 
by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the 
power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. Tha 



90 the world's progress. 

essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckla.'icL 
William Prout, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Whewell and Williim 
Kirby) were published in 1834-37. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science, It holds annua.' 
meetings, the first of which was held at York in 1831. One of its main ob 
jects is to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science. A volume 
containing reports of the proceedings is published annually. 

BRITISH AMERICA. United by act of Parliament under the name of Domin- 
ion of Canada, 1867. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 220). In 1848 the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville 
bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy- 
rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. Layard between 
1847-50. Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately 
been made by the munificence of Parliament, independently of a large annual 
grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was 
opened to the public, May 11, 1857. The room contains about 80,000 vols., 
and will accommodate 300 readers. The library contains about 562,000 vols., 
exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alphabetical catalogue was completed 
from A to H in May, 1S58 in above 1,000 folio vols. 

BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in 
1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants; in 1830 it had 15,292; in 1855 (then con- 
solidated with Williamsburg) it had 205,250. In 1860, it had 273,425 ; in 
1865, 296,378. See Additions. 

BUDDHISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia 
beyond the Ganges and Japan, from which Brahminism is derived. Buddha, 
or the Wise, flourished about 1,000 or 1,100 b. c. The Buddhists believe 
that the soul is an emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous, it 
will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India 
about a. d. 596. 

BUENOS- AYRES, S. America, (p. 222.) The independence of the province , 
was declared July 19,1816, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form- 
ing part of the Argentine Confederation ; but for some years the country was 
a prey to civil war under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, 
and Rosas. The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to 
whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at 
Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10, 

1852, invested the city,. Dec. 28. He defeated his opponent's squadron, 
April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July 13, and the civil war ended. In 

1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been 
generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was 
elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor 
for three years, May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,000. 

BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who 
would -build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at 
Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in New York jn 
1848—49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained. 

BURMESE or Birman Empire. For the events of war with England, and of 
the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu 
annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end, June 20, 
1853. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 91 

c 

CABINET, U. S., See Administrations. 

CABRIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets {vidgo, cabs) were introduced in Londos 
as public conveyances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 18SG 
they had increased to 165. In 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of 
which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost 
extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and 
other Amer, cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not 
being a desirable shape they were not papular, and soon disappeared. An 
improved pattern — the coupe, was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some 
extent. 

CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The Nones of March, 
May, July, and October, fell on the 7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The 
other months had the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the 
Greeks had no Calends, ad Grcecas Calendas, " on the Greek Calends," meant 
never. 

CALIFORNIA, (p. 230.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 
23,000. By the census of 1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it 
was 264,435, of whom only 22,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula- 
tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans; 
10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans; 2,000 English; and 15,000 various (white) 
nationalities ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive, 
75,301 Chinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the 
same time. Population "in 1860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 500,000. In 1865 
there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals. 
From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000 
has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000. 
Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines 
were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. 

CALORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 
1833, and then considered a success, but not made practically available till 
1852. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it propelled 
from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough 
weather, February, 1853. This achievement created great excitement in the 
scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient. 
Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all purposes requiring a 
moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used 
in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro- 
pean States. It is inexplosive, entirely free from danger, consumes but little 
fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and 
patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one 
(other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and commerce 
is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. 
It establishes an epoch in the history of motive power. 

CANADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A 
regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and 
lower provinces united and designated Canada East and Canada West. Sir 
Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Railway 850 miles long, from 
Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856, 
Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremony 
by the Prince of "Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 952,004; 



93 the world's progress. 

Lower Canada, 890,261. In 1857 it was estimated thus: Upper Canada, 
1,305,923 ; Lower, 1,220,514. The value of exports in 1857 was £6,751,656. 
Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,506,755. Products 
of the U. S. imported into Canada under the " Reciprocity Treaty," in 1862, 
$14,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,217. Exports, $33,317,873. Total 
militia force, (1S63) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 1864, 
a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by some confederates, 
created great excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, IJ. S. A., ordered that 
U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender- 
ed. The government revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can- 
ada," consisting of the United "Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New 
Brunswick, &c, established by the Queen's consent, 1867. 

CANALS, (p. 223.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000 ; 
completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 31 miles, cost $235,934 per 

mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 
1858, 388 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,- 
436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro- 
duce from the west were brought to tide-water. 

CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was 
founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. 
Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York 
(1866-7). 

CANNON, (p. 234.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was 
a 24-pounder ; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs. 
A. vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S. 
Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Pairott in- 
vented, at West Point, a rifled gun of great efficiency. The 10-pounder has 
a range of 5,000 yards. The 300-pounder can throw a shot -of 250 lbs. 54; 
miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth 
chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts- 
burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, 1,000 lbs.; charge, 100 
lbs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. 
Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and 11-inch bores are unequalled for powerful ef- 
fect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe, 
carrying shot of 525 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart- 
ment (U. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for the army and. navy. Steel cannon 
were first manufactured in the U. S. by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June, 
1861. In England, since 1850, great improvements in cannon have been 
made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the U. S. 
navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An 
American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860. 

CANTON, (p. 235.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts 
guarding the city were captured, and Canton was bombarded, Oct. 29, 1856, 
by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was afterwards censured by a vote of the 
House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and French, Dec. 29, 1857, 
and Yeh, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner. 

CAPITOL of the United States. The corner-stone of the original edifice was 
laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the British 1814; re- 
stored 1818. Corner-stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July, 
1851. The present structure is 751 feet long, and covers 3-^ acres. The co« 
lossal statue of Freedom, by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec. 



BUPPLEMEOT, 1851-67. 93 

2. 1863. The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar- 
ble and the setting of the same was $2,402,000. ~ 

CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (H. B.), (John 
Doyle Jd=HB), R. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known 
"Punch" was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction 
(Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con- 
tributed to this amusing periodical. " Vanity Pair," commenced in New 
York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but 
was short-lived. See Satire. 

CARNIVAL. (Carrii vale, Italian, i e., Flesh, farewell!) A well-known festival time 
in the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about 
Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and indulgence, 
and numbers visit Italy during its continuance. 

CAROLINA.— See N. and S. Carolina. 

CARPET MANUFACTURE.— The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in 
1855 was $1,362,000. Carpets imported into the U. S. in 185*7, valued at $2- 
181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but of 
these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting required, 
in the best houses. 

CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed, are Said 
to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 185*7. The Duke of Pa.*ma 
had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon fol- 
lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States. 

CASUALTIES for 1865. During the year 1865, there were 354 fires in the 
United States where the amount of loss was $20,000 or upwards, at which 
property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses 
by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were $214,588,000. During the year 
there were 183 railroad accidents, by which 335 persons were killed and 1,427 
wounded ; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265 
wounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, 
by which 2,204 were killed, and 8,356 wounded; and 324 steamboat accidents, 
by which 5,372 were killed, and 1,579 wounded. 

CAUCASUS, (p. 241.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been 
the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of 
Schamyl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by the czar. 

CAVfNPORE. A town in India ; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by 
native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by 
Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers 
of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have- 
lock, July 17, 1857. 

CAYENNE, (p. 242.) Many political prisoners have been sent here by the 
French emperor since 1852. 

CEMETERIES, National. For soldiers of the U. S. who fell in battle or died 
in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,- 
528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves. 
The "Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,000 graves, half of them marked 
" unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1887 for substantial headstones 
and improvements. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication 
of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev- 
eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn, 
Calvary, The Evergreens, &c. 



94 TH3E "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

CENSUS or the United States, has been taken at eight different periods, viz; 
1790. 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860. See Population. The 
Census is taken by the general government every ten years; that of New 
York, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially at 
intermediate periods, thus gmng returns every five years. Other states have 
different periods for a census. In 1865, it was taken in the states of Illinois, 
Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa. 
The number of persons employed in taking the U. S. census of I860 was 4,481 ; 
expense to the Government, $1,045,206. 

CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1*700, the entire population of the Anglo-Ameri- 
can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In 
1790, the population of the United States alone was 3,929,827 ; and in 1860, 
31,443,321. Anticipated population in 1900, 107,000,000. The unimproved 
lands of the United Sta f es, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres ; improved 
lands, 163,110,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at .$6,645,045,007. 
Estimated product of our manufactures in 1860, $4,000,0*00,000. Com- 
mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing $1,432,649, 
0C0. Chy railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals 
and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property 
estimated at $19,089,156,289. Educational institutions reported, 113,006 ; 
teachers, 148,742; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445; students, 
54,969. Churches, 54,000. Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,00u,000 
copies, Revolutionary army, from 1775 to 1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. In 
1812, regulars, 32,360 ; volunteers, 6,000 ; militia, 30,000 ; navy, 8 frigates, 
and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865, 
we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre ; 
and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,000. 
If the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of 
4,000,000 of men at arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country 
or age of the world. — Christian Almanac. 

CHALDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. 
W. portion of it. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. 
See Dan. 2, &c. 

CHANCELLORS, LORD, England, (p. 245) 
Sir Thomas "Wilde, created Lord 



Trnro 1850 

Sir Edw. Suaden, created Lord 

St. Leonards 1852 

Robert Mousey Rolfe, created 

Lord Cranworth 1S52 



Sir Ered. Thesiger, created Lord 

Chelmsford 1858 

John, Lord Campbell 1859 

Richard Bethel, Lord Wcstburv, 

June 26, 18G1 
Thomas, Lord Cranwortb, again 

July 6,1865 

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr. 
Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 
1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker, and the rebels 
under General Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army ciossed the Rappahannock ; 
on May 2, General " Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the 
right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis- 
take. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 
and 4, with great loss to both parties, Hooker was compelled to retreat across 
the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont 
during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. 

CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered, 
and this system was adopted by the state of N. Y. in her Constitution of 1846, 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 05 

CHARITIES OF THE WAR in the U. S. A careful statement made of the 
amount contributed by the people of the loyal states for philanthropic pur- 
poses connected with the war, not including the donations for religious or 
educational objects, gives the following noble record : The total contributions 
from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, amounted 
to $187,209,608.62; the contributions of associations and individuals for the 
care and conifort of soldiers were $24,044,865.96 ; for sufferers abroad, $380 - 
040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, for freednien and white refugees, 
$639,633.13: making a grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the a^vern- 
ment, of $212,274,248.45, See Sanitary Commission, &c. 

CHARLESTON, S. C. Population in 1860, 40,578. A severe fire des^-oyec. 
the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks ware sunk 
by U. S. forces to blockade the channel, December 21, 1861. The c>v surren- 
dered to National troops, February 18, 1865. 

CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self *, 
relatives; and British laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of he' 
chastity ; and a husband or father in taking the life of him who attempts t.- 
violate his wife or daughter. In 1,000 years from the time of Numa, "?.0 b. C, 
to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a. n. 394, only eighteen Roman vestals 
had been condemned for incontinence. 

CHATTANOOGA, Battle of, U. S. Fought on Nov 23, 1863, between the 
Union armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. Tht> 
Confederates were driven from every position. Or. tne right, Hooker stormed 
Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carried the rifle-pits ; Sherman forced 
the left after hard fighting. On the 25th the whole of Missionary Ridge was 
in the hands of the Union army, and the enemy completely routed. This has 
been regarded as one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. Union 
loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoner? and 42 guns were captured. 

CHICAGO, Illinois. Population in 1860, 109,260: in 1865, estimated at i80,- 
000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 1,000,000 
ho^s are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 
1866, $2,457,673. 

CHICKAMAUGA, Battle of, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a 
severe battle between the Union and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. 
The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. 
Thomas withstood the fierce assaults of the enemy, and saved the army from, 
a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reinforced by Longsrreet from 
Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acted entirely on 
the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their 
papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. 

CHILI, S.' America, (p. 248.) The present president (1859), Don Manuel Moutt, 
was elected Oct. 18, 1856. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was 
going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,558,468. Exports in 1857 
amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pres. 1861. Rupture between 
Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. in 1857, 
l v 558,319. 
CHINA, (p. 249.) 

Death of Taon Kwang. . .Feb. 25, 1850 Rebels take Nankin, March 19, 

Rebellion breaks out in Quana-si, Amoy, May 19, Bhangiiae, 

Aug. 1S50 Sept. 7, 1853 
Rebel emperor or pretender .Rebels besiege Canton unsuc- 
Tienteh appears... March, 1851 cessfully ..jSTov. 1854 



96 



THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. 



janton forts taken by the Brit- 
ish (see Canton) Oct. 8, 1S56 

Americans capture 3 forts, Nov. 21, 1S56 

Chinese bum European fac- 
tories, and murder English 
sailors Due. 1S56 

Lord Elgin sent .out as British 
envoy March, 1857 

British destroy the Chinese fleet, 

June 1, 1S57 

British blockade Canton. ....Aug. 1S57 

Canton taken by English and 
French Dec. 28-9, 1857 

TTeh, gov. of Canton, who is said 
to "have beheaded 100,000 
rebels, sent to Calcutta Jan. 1858 

Forts at moiuh of Peiho captured 
by the English aud French. 

May 20, 1S58 

Treaty of peace signed by Key- 
ing, Lord Elgin, and Bar. Gros. 

June 28, 1858 

{Principal articles : Ambassa- 
dors to be at both courts ; free- 
dom of trade ; Christianity to 
be tolerated ; expenses of war 
paid by China ; tariff to be 



revised ; Chinese epithet of 
" barbarian" no longer to bo 
applied to foreigners.] 

Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop- 
ped at the mouth of the Peiho. 
Admiral Hope attempting to 
force the passage defeated, 
losing 81 killed, 300 wounded. 
June 25, 

Pekin taken by the French and 
English forces, and tiie em- 
peror's palace sacked 

Pekin given up by allies. . .Nov. 5, 

English and French embassies 
established there 

Mr. Burlingame appointed U. S. 
Minister to China 

Emperor Hien-fung dies, and is 
succeeded by Ki-tsiang. Aug. 24, 

Canton restored to Chinese. 

Oct. 21, 

English and French aid the gov- 
ernment against the rebels 

English Capt. Gordon defeats 
rebels and takes Nankin, and 
rebel emperor Tienwang kills 
himself .....July 18, 



1860 
I860 

1861 

1861 

1861 

1861 

1862 



CIIINA TRADE. A large trace is developed with China through the city of San 
Francisco. "Flour, wheat, himber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and 
vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value 
of exports from the U. S. to China in 1862, was $4,323,500. Iu 1866, 2,530,- 
000 lbs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one 
shipment reached New York, vi?, California and Panama, in 60 days. In 186*7, 
a regular line of steamers was established between China, Japan, and Califor- 
nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Burlin- 
game appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861. 

CHLOROFORM. See Ancesthetics. 

CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most 
severe at the west, especially at Chicago, St. Louis, and Nashville. From 
Julv to Sept., 1866, there were 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 
583 in N. Y. city. 

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, London, founded by Edward VI., 1552. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in colors. 

CHRONOLOGY, (p. 253.) The following works are much esteemed : Play- 
fair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by Sir H. 
Ellis in 1844, and by Mr. Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 
1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful. " 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 253.) The number of churches in England for 
Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Publication of " Essays and Re- 
views." and numerous Replies, 186.1-2. The Church divided into High, Low, 
(or Evangelical) and Broad church — the latter including those who hold the 
opinions of Dr. Arnold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Publication of a woi& on 
the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation, 
1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 1864. This pro- 
ceeding declared by the Privy Council to be null and void, Oct. 21, 18§5, 
" Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen, 
and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 97 

CITURCH RATES in England in 1854 amounted to £318,200. Bill to abolish 
them passed by the House of Commons but defeated by the H. of 7<ords, 185S. 

CIDER. In the State of New York (1865), 591,379 barrels of cider were maim, 
factured. 

CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the 
United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and 
N«.w Jersey. Population in 1795,500; in 1800,750; in 1810,2,540; in 
1820,9,642; in 1830,24,831; in 1840, 46,338; in 1850,115,486; in I860, 
161,044. 

CINQUE PORTS, England, (S. E. coast.) They were originally five: Dover, 
Hastings, Hy the, Rommey, and Sandwich ; Winchelsea and Rye were after- 
wards added. They are governed by a particular policy and are under a 
lord warden. The Duke of Wellington filled that office from 1828 to hia 
death, 1852. 

CIRCASSIA. (p. 255.) By the treaty of Adrianople, in 1830, Circassia was 
surrendered to Russia by Turkey. But the Circassians, particularly under a 
native chief named Schamyl, have ever since carried on a war of indepen- 
dence with varying success against the whole power of Russia. In June, 
November, and December, 18j7, the Circassians were defeated by the Rus- 
sian governor, Prince Orbelliani, who also in April, 1858, conquered a large 
tract of country, and expelled the inhabitants. On Sept. V, 1859, Schamyl 
was captured by the Russians, and treated with great respect. The Circas- 
sians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 

CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circum- 
ference, has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archi- 
medes, about b. C. 221, gave it asT to 22. Abraham Sharp (1717), as 1 (and 
72 decimals) to 3; and Layny (1719), as 1 (and 122 decimals) to 3. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The largest circulating library in the U. S. is the 
Mercantile of N. Y. city. It contains 86,000 volumes, and has 10,000 mem- 
bers ; 12 % 000 volumes were added in 1866, costing $15,000; 200 copies of 
the " Con / of Joseph II." were bought to supply the demand, and liberal 
numbers of all new books of general interest. 

CLERMONT (France), Council op. The celebrated council in which the crusade 
against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed 
to Command it, in the pontificate of Urban II., 1095. In this council the 
name of pope was first given to the head of the Roman Catholic church, 
exclusively of the bishops, who used until this time to assume that title. 
1 hilip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly. 
Renault . 

CLOACA MAXIMA. The chief of the celebrated sewers in Rome, the construc- 
tion of which is attributed to King Tarquinius Priscus (b. c. 588), and his 
successors. 

CLOCK (p. 258). The great Westminster (London) clock set up, May 30, 1859. 
The London watchmakers established the Horological Institute in 185S, which 
publishes a j< ur.ial. In 1857, 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom. Clockmaking of a cheap kind, on a large 
scale, was commenced in Connecticut in 18 — . The American watch compa« 
nies, founded 1850, at Waltham, Roxbury, &c, make large quantities of supe- 
rior watches. Number of clock manufactories in the U. S. in 1860, 23 ; value 
of products annually, $1,181,500. 
CLUBS IN THE UNITED STATES. In New Yoke: The most important are the 
5 



98 the world's progress. 

AthencBum, founded 1859, in 5th avenue, afterwards in Union square, now 
(186V) in Madison square; Century, founded in Broadway in 1 48, now 'n 
15th street; Eclectic, founded 186- ; Jockey, founded 186- ; New York, 18-; 
Travellers', 1S6-; Union, 5th avenue and 21st street; Union League, f .unded 
Feb. 6, 1863, incorporated Feb. 16, 1865; University, founded 186-. The 
Century and the Athenceum were originated as "associations for the advanci- 
!£"" it of literature and art." The Union League was started on the basis of 
'unconditional loyalty" to the government, and to aid in the suppression of 
treason and rebellion. It was said to have made loyalty " fashionable in the 
best circles." It raised three regiments of colored troops for the U. S. volun- 
teer forces, and otherwise rendered important services. In Philadelphia, 
the Union League Club, founded Dec. 27, 1862, was the foremost of its kind 
in the U. S. It raised ten regiments for the government. It numbers 2,000 
members, and has a magnificent club-house. One of the oldest clubs in Phila- 
delphia was the Wistar. In Boston, the Union League Club was founded in 
1868. Clubs originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred 
tastes and pursuits, who met together at stated times for social intercourse. 
The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the sixteenth 
century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakespeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a 
club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at But- 
ton's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present London clubs, 
some comprising 800, others about 1,500 members, possess luxuriously fur- 
nished edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near Pall Mall. 
The members obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges. 
Many of the clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly the Athenceum 
(which see). The annual payment varies from £6 to £11 lis.; the entrance 
fee from £9 9s. to £31 lis. The following are the principal clubs: 



Kit-Cat 1703 

Beef-Sleak 1735 

"White's {Tory) established... 1736 
Boodle's 1 762 

Literary Club (ic/iich see), 
termed also " The Club," 
and Johnson's Club 1763 

United Sendee 1815 



Travellers' 1819 

Oxford and Cambridge 1829 

Carlton (Conservative) ....1832 

Reform (Liberal) 1836 

Army and Navy 1837 

"Whittington (founded by Douglas 
Jerrold and others) 1846 



French. The first of these arose about 1782. They were essentiaMy politi- 
cal, and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised aniung 
its members Danton and Camille Desmoulins. From these two clubs .'.anie 
the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists, 1793, and fell in its turn 
in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were re- 
vived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former 
eminence. 

COAL in the U. S. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined 
at d used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, &c, extend 700 miles. The "Statistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, pub- 
lished in Philadelphia in 1854, give a full and reliable account of coal pro- 
ducts in all parts of the world. The anthracite coal of Pennsylvania was first 
used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous coal first 
mined "in the U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in 1S60, 6,218,080 tons. 
Amount of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the 
states. The upper seam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain 
53,516 tons. A single lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the 
Paris Exposition of 1867. The area of coal in the U. S. is 206,939 square 



8TTPPLEMENT, 1851-67, 90 

miles; 470 mile3 is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product in 1865 was 
22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. The consumption of coal 
in France, in 1750 only 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. The 
United States produced between 8 and 9 millions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000,- 
000 ; and France, 4,500,000, in 1855 
COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its color from feed- 
ing on the cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523. It was not 
known in Italy, in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. See 
Dyeing. In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in the Tenerijfe, the vines 
having failed through disease. The import into England in 1850, 2,360,000 
lbs. In the United States the importation in 1858 amounted to $221,382. 
CODE NAPOLEON. The Civil Code of France, promulgated from 1803 to 1810. yj 
This was considered by the emperor as his most enduring monument. It was 
prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 
systems previously existing. 
COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods 
is reported by the Secretary of the Treasury thus : 

1S21 Tea, 4,586,223 lbs Coffee, 11,886,063 !bs. 

1830 " 6.873,091 lbs.... " 38,363,687 lbs. 

1835 " 12.331,638 Lbs " 91 753,002 lbs. 

1842 " 13,482,645 lbs " 107,387,567 lbs. 

1S46 " 16,891,020 lbs " 124 336,054 lbs. 

1856 " 240,676,227 lbs. 

In 1867 a company was being organized to introduce the cultivation of 
coffee in South Florida. The duty on imports of coffee, by tariff of July, 
1862, is five cents per pound. 

ODD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by 
Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's 
treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin in 1844; in English in 1849. 

COIN of the U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The gold coin- 
age consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half-eagles, quarter eagles, and dol- 
lars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first deposit of California gold 
for coining was made by Mr. David Carter, 1,804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. 

COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1793 to 1866> inclusive. 

Gold. Total. 

1793 to 1850, 57* years 117,569,825 196,054,037 

1851 to 1860, 9i years .470,S3S,1S0 520,1?5,556 

1861 to 1866, 6"years. 257,128,586 271,194,433 

Total, ,,..... 1846,536,590 $987,424,026 

COLONIES. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the world 
was estimated, in 1852, at 182,983,672, of .vhich 176,028,672 belong to the 
East Indies. 
COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U. S. organized March, 1861. Area, 
104,000 square miles. Capital, Denver City. In 1862, $12,000,000 in gold was 
produced from its mines. Population in 1860, 34,280, and about 6,000 
Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a state passed Congress, but was 
vetoed, May, 1866. 
COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by 
Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and 
Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was receded to Virgina. Population in 



100 the woeld's peogeess 

1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43', 71 2, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 
4,694 slaves. In 1850, 5l',687, including 3,687 slaves; in 1860,61,403; 
in 1864, 75,000, including 31,500 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools were 
in operation in the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867, 
IIS, 800, of whom there were several thousand more women than men. Im- 
partial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admitting colored voters in the dis- 
trict, 1867 ; put in force at the municipal election of 1867, when colored votes 
were cast for city officers. 

COMBAT, SINGLE, in England. It commenced with the Lombards, a. d. 659. 
Introduce* iuto England, and allowed in accusations of treason, when no other 
evidence was produced, 1096. The last combat proposed was prevented by 
the k'ng in 1631. 

COMETS. (P.264.) Donati's comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, being then calculated to be 
228 millions of miles from our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the 
end of September and October following, when the tail was said to be 40 
motions of miles long. On the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ; 
on the 18th it was near coming into collision with Venus. Two new comets 
were discovered in 1862 ; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, another at Cam- 
bridge, Mass., July 18th. Besides these, the regular return of Encke's comet 
took place in the beginning of the year. In 1863, five new comets were 
found, none of them in the U. S. ; only one was visible to the naked eye with 
any certainty. 

COMMANDERS-in-Chief, U. S. army. 

Jacob Brown 1821 Geo. B. McOlellan 1861 

Alexander Macomb .....18S5 Henry W. Halleck 1S62 

Winfleid Scott... 1841 Ulysses £. Grant 1864 

British Army. 

Duke of Monmouth 1674 Hon. George Conway 1782 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 Duke of York 1795 

Duke of Schomberg 1691 Sir David Dundas 1809 

Duke of Ormond 1711 Duke of York again 1811 

Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Wellington 1827 

Eieldmnrshal Wade .1745 Lord Hill 1828 

Lord Ligonier 1757 Duke of Wellington again 1842 

Marquess of Granby 1 766 Lord Hardinge 1852 

Lord Amherst 1T78 Duke of Cambridge 1856 

COMMERCE. See Exports and Imports, Navigation and Shipping, &c. 
COMMERCIAL FAILURES The circular of Dun, Boyd, & Co., of N. York 
gives the following statistics of failures in the U. Stages: 

1857 1858 1859 1860 

Failures 4,937 4,225 3,913 3,676 

Amount $291,750,000 $95,750,000 $64,294,000 $79,807,000 

Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts 
amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of 
failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $17,625,000. 
CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Virgin. On the 8th of September, 1854, 
the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this 
dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should 
doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, 
established in 1488. 

CONCORDANCE. (P. 268.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, 
8 remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, wai 
completed in 1844, after ten years' labor. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 101 

•CONFEDERATE STATES of AMEEICA." The efforts of the Southern 
States for the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern States for 
its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great seces- 
sion of 1860-1. See United States, also Chronological tables. On Nov. 4, 

1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected 
president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the 
South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the 
Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia 
(except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also seceded 
early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern 
Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. 

CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Atbanasian, and Nicem 
creeds. Augsburgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed 
to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1833. 

CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862, 
under the census of 1860, increased the number of Representatives to 242. 
There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, who deliberate but have no 
vote. The Senators in 1862 were 62 in number. Each Senator and Repre- 
sentative is allowed $10,000 compensation for each Congress (two years) de- 
ducting for absence (1866). In the 39th Congress there were 52 Senators 
and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In 
the 40th Congress, (1867), the same number, with the addition of Senators 
and Representatives from Tennessee. 

CONGRESS, " Confederate." Delegates from seven Southern states met at 
Montgomery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, 
chairman. On the 8th, a constitution was adopted similar to that of the U. S. 
On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the " Confederacy ;" 
Jeff. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May 7, 

1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. 
The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the 
approach of the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled 
again. 

CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850, 3*70, 792 ; 1860, 460,670. This state 
sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5. 

CONSCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the 
French and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a military conscription was or- 
dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of 
age: from these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified 
in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department, 
— for all the country, 80,000 men — which may be increased. The duration 
of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. A con- 
scription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian 
campaign, and in Dec. of same year another for 300,000, after the battle of 
Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union, 1861-5, " drafts" were 
ordered and enforced at two different times. The first draft was the (nominal) 
cause of riots in New York, July, 1863. 

CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American politics, to denote the 
opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 
1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the " Conservative party," 
in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavery 
party of the south. 



102 the world's progress. 

CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term "Consols,") was formed 
of the other funds in 1*786. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain, 
and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. 

CONSTITUTION of the U. S. The great amendment to the constitution, 
abolishing slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths ol 
the states, 27 in number, ratified it and it became the law of the land, Dec. 
18, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring 
all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives shall be apportioned 
according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no person who 
shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold auy office under the IT. S. 
government ; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques- 
tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (186*7) 
been ratified by three-fourths of the states. 

CONSULS. See Ambassadors. 

CONTRABAND of war. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty 
of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle 
between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships 
of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance 
of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; 
and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. 

CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of 
Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their 
owners on the ground that they were " contraband of war." Since then the 
term has been used for " blacks or slaves." 

CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in the British 
Parliament, 1*782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, in aid of the Government of the U. S., (1861-65.) See 
Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid 
and relief of Union soldiers, amounted to $187,209,608. The contributions of 
associations and individuals for the care and comfort of soldiers were 
$24,044,865 ; for sufferers abroad, $380,040 ; for sufferers by the riots of 
July, for freedmen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu- 
tions of the people of the loyal states, $212,274,248, The famous Sanitary 
and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered their services for 
the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during 
the war. See Sanitary, &c. 

CONVENTION, in the U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished 
men from the states met at Washington, D. C, as a Peace Conference, to pro- 
pose compromise measures between the north and south. Their propositions 
were referred to Congress, which rejected them. " Phila. Convention " of 
delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy of Pres. Johnson in 
regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention, 
Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.) 

COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo- 
cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on 
any terms. 

COPYRIGHT of DESIGNS, for manufactures in England, first granted 1787, 
for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14 
years, 1814. Copyright on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or- 
namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 3 years, by act 
of 1842, and still further in 1850. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 102 

COPYRIGHT in the U. S. The law modified so that the copy of the book ia 
to be sent to the library of Congress, instead of Smithsonian Inst. 1865. (?) 
The law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 years, 
and- a right of renewal to himself, his wife and children for 14 years more, mak- 
ing 42 years in all. No foreigner can secure a copyright unless residing ia 
the U. S. So far (1867), the American government has refused or failed to re- 
spond to the British offer of reciprocity in literary copyright. A treaty for 
this purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon. 

COPYRIGHT of BOOKS, Produce oe. The most profitable copyrights in 
the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have yielded 
Lirge sums to the authors. Of literary and historical works the most profita- 
ble have been the works of Prescott, Bancroft, Irving, Longfellow, Kane, Mrs. 
Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (1865-7). 

COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled 
with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived 
from the Eutychians, a sect of the fifth century. 

CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi ; important during the war aa 
a military position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Gen. Beauregard, 
(Confed.) entrenched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces 
under Gen. Hafleck. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place was 
evacuated by the rebels, May 29, 1862. 

CORN, Indian, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture 
for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total 
result is 880,000,0(10 bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said 
to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn in 1866 amounted 
to $12,299,879. 

COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been 
mu:h disturbed by filibusters from the U. S. See Nicaragua and Central 
America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, 
and Dr. Jose Montealegre made president. 

COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume, known 
as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with 
very limited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline, 
ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birth of 
the heir to the French throne (about 1854). The latter was the prevailing 
fashion until 1866-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very 
small expansion. 

COTTON, U. S. (p. 278.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced 
! v stated in millions of pounds weight) : 

1S21 124 mills., average price 16 cts. 1859 1386 mills., average price 11 cts. 



1330 298 



1840 


743 


1849 


1026 


1850 


635 


1855 


1098 


1856 


1351 


1857 


1048 


1858 


1118 



1859 


1386 i 


I860 


1767 


1861 


307 


1862 


5 


1863 


11 


1864 


lOf 


1865 


6§ 


1866 


650 



11 
11* 

23i 



Total value of cotton exported in 39 years, 2,383 millions of dollars. Value 
in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 
5 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 78-£ per cent. ; India, 10-^ ; Brazil, 
7 : Egypt, 3£ ; West Indies, tfcc, \ per cent. In England a cotton supply 
association to obtain from Africa, India, &c, was formed at Manchester about 



104 the world's progress. 

!'857. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, states Chat 
cotton grows there in great profusion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth is 
manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product, 
of 1,750,000 bales of 4(0 pounds each in 1866. The estimates are made up 
as follows : North Carolina, 91,000 bales ; South Carolina, 152, Out) , Georgia, 
205, OuO ; Florida, 36,000 ; Alabama, '220,000 ; Mississippi, 2*70,000 ; Loui- 
siana, 100.000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,0u0 ; Tennessee, 148,000 ; 
other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the U. S. was 5,198,077 
bales. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866, 
$18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports 
of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,300. 

COTT2N GIN.' This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave 
an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and 
prepares 300 lbs. per day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could 
be cleansed. 
COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain. 

Official Value, i Official Value. 

1697 . . . ". £5,915 I860 .... £52,012,430 

1701 23,253 I 1S61 ..... 4<i,S72,489 

1780 .... 355,000 ! 1862 .... 36,750,971 

1790 1,162,369:1863 47,587.1SS 

1800 .... 5,406,501 1864 .... 54,S50;289 

1S20 20,509,926 ! 

In 1860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported of which 9,963,309 cwt. 
came from the United States, and 1,822,698 cwt from India. 

COTTON RAW Imported into Great Britain. 

lbs. I ' lbs. 

1697 .... 1,976,359 ! 1830 .... 264.0o0.000 

1730 .... 1,545,472 i 1840 .... 5:>2,5i'0i«)00 



1764 . . . . 3,870,392 

1790 .... 31.500,000 

1800 .... 56,000,000 

1810 .... 132,500,000 

1820 . . . . 151,500,000 



1560 .... 1,390,938,752 

1561 .... 1,256,984,736 

1862 . . . . 523,973,296 

1863 . . . . 669,583,264 
1S64 .... 893,304,720 



COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following 
was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operalion; Great Britain, 
17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000; Russia, 700,000, 
Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain, 300,000; Italy, 300,000 : 
Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in 1860, the number of spindles employed in 
the five New England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states, 236,480. 
Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices of 
cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent., or 81 per cent, in gold be- 
tween 1860 and 1866. 

COURT, SUPREME, or the U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy 
in this Court is to be filled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice, 
and six Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices. 
The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts. 

COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers comand- 
ing distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene courts-martial. There 
are several limitations to the act. The number forming a court is from five to 
13. Great numbers of these courts were in session during the late war. In 
1866, 8,188 records of courts martial and military commissions were received 
and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D. C. 

CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-&.tock company with this name was established at 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 105 

Paris, Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It takes up or 
originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to .them the principle of 
commandite, or limited liabilities, and is authorized to supersede or buy in any 
other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to 
carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by 
a paid-up capital of 2§ millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less 
than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac- 
count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless considered 
by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1*716, and likely 
to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed; and in May, 
1858, no dividend was paid. 
CRIME, New York City. WJio Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent 
publication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one 
months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of 
whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 German, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons 
admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners; 15,948 were 
Irish, 1,240 Germans, a>nd 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 
admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inmates of 
the lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city 
prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86*431 professed to be members of the 
church of Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. 
11,222 were convicted in the court of Special Sessions. During the war, 
there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See 
Prisons. In England. The number of convictions by trial in England and 
Wales was, in 

Persons. Capital Offences. 

1S49.„ 21,001 66 

1855 19.971 ..50 

1S58 lo,'2-16 53 

1864.......... 14,726 32 

Since 1848 there had been no commitments for political offences, such as treason 
or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. In 1856 
there were 2,666 persons liberated .on " tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi- 
nal prosecutions in 1856 were £194,912. 

CRIMEA, or Crim Tartar?. War having been declared by England and 
France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to 
the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c, sailed for Varna, 
where they disembarked May 29. The expedition against the Crimea having 
been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting 
to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. 
Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, 
without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas- 
topol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong 
(under Prince Menschikoff), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to 
be unassailable. After a sharp coutest the Russians were totally routed. See 
Alma and Russo-Tarkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the 
allies quitted the Crimea in July following. 

ERINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern 
name of the " far din gale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats 
made of whalebone, &c, revived in France, England and the United States, 
since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life, by coming in com 
tact with lire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, published Jan. 5, 
1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. See Costume 
5* 



106 the world's pkogeess. 

CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to 
have been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, with two others, by St. 
Helena, May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by 
a 3ick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, 
king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered by the 
emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has 
since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," es- 
tablished in 642. It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, twc 
miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him 
to adopt it on his standards, with the inscription "In hoc signo vinces" "in 
this sign thou shalt conquer." With these he advanced to Rome, where he 
vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 2*7,312. Lenglet. 



Signing with the cross was first 
practised by Christians to dis- 
tinguish .themselves from the 
Pagans, about 110 ; and in the 
time of Tertulian, 260, it was 
teemed efficacious against 



Crosses in churches and chambers 
were introduced about 431 ; and 
set up on steples about 

Crosses and idolatrous pictures 
were removed from churches, 
and crosses in the streets demol- 



poison, witchcraft, &c. | ished by order of parliament. 1641 

CRYSTAL PALACE in rfEW York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a 
cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the 
public (Pres. Pierce being present), August, 1852. The building destroyed by 
fire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sep. 1859. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the Exhibition of the 
World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad- 
ditional projection. Entire area, 7*72, 784 square feet, or about 19 acres. 
Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and opened May 1, 1851. 
Closed to the public Oct. 11, same year. It cost £176,030. 

CRYSTAL PALACE at Sydenham, near London, built chiefly of the materials 
used in the foregoing, was commenced August 5, 1852. Capital of the com- 
pany £1,0 00,000, in shares of £5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its 
erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen, 
June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859. In 1857 
the receipts were £115,627 ; expenditures, £87,872. 

CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, in connection with Col. Crittenden, of 
Kentucky, Aug. 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana, 
Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners 
sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con- 
ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the 
U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell, 
in TJ. S. Senate, 1859. See Submarine Telegraph. 

CUSTOM DUTIES in the U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000- 
000; 1855, $53,000,000; 1863, $69,000,000; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to 
1861, $1,575,152,579.92. Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863, 
$3,238,936 00. 

CYMRI, or Kimri (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British 
who belonged to the great Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied 
the greater part of Europe, about 1500 e. c. About A. d. 640,Dyvnwal Moel- 
mud reigned "King of the Cymri." See Wales. 

CYNICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 b. c, Diog.. 
Laert., Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 107 

except morality ; were very free iu reprehending vice ; lived in public, and 
practised great obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died 
323 b. c) 



DACIA. A Eoman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it waa 
subdued by Trajan, a. d. 1(j6, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was slain in 
battle. 

DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in 
this business in the TJ. S. In 1867, the number must be nearer 30,000. The 
art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former use 
of metal plates. See Photography. 

DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con- 
quered by the Romans, 34 b. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at 
Spalatro, and retired there a. d. 305. Dalmatia was held in turn by the Goths, 
Hungarians, and Turks, till its session to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio, in 1797, it was given to Austria. In 1805, it was incorporated 
into the kingdom of Italy, and ga^e the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In 
1814, it reverted to Austria. 

DAMASCUS, (p. 287). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860. 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest 
and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, which was con- 
quered by Trajan about a. d. 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. 
For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians 
and Greek emperors; and afterwards of the Hungarians. The provinces 
having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely 
treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, they were 
placed under the protection of Russia. The Russians quitted these provinces in 
Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a convention between 
the Sultan and Austria), and remained there till March, 1857, The govern- 
ment of the principalities settled at the Paris conference, Aug. 19, 1S58. 

DARDANELLES, Passage of the. (p. 287.) The allied English and French 
fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan's request, Oct. 1853. 

DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which 
gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated 
that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from 
it, the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of 
Valois. Henault. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, waa 
not called the dauphin. 

DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 
1840, there were 6,616 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population ; 7,659 
deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There 
were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. 
In the United States in 1860, there were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The 
institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the " in- 
struction of deaf-mutes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in 
the world" {National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec, 1863, 16, of 
whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded 
in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1,300. In 1862, there were 22 institu- 
tions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2,000 pupils. 
Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated 



108 the world's progress. 

by the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful 
of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment 
of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Brigham, Dr. But- 
ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston. 

DEATH, Punishment of, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and 
arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment abolished in the state of Wis- 
consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consolidation acts of 1861, the 
death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary 
commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in 18tf4. Capital 
punishment was restricted in Italy in April, 1865. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c, was established in France in 1790, 
and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the 
English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal cur- 
rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal Association 
formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use 
of the Metric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for 
our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of 
Congress, July 27, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state 
with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In- 
dependence (North Carolina), was passed in May, 1775, two months before 
that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia. 

DEDICATION. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Maece- 
nas, 17 b. c, and the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to 
solicit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel- 
lor of Augustus Caesar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and 
learning, that it has been cnstomary to style any one imitating his example, 
the Maecenas of his age or country. The Scriptures speak of the dedication of 
the Tabernacle, b. c. 1490, and of the Temple, b. c. 1004. The Christians 
under Constantine built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem- 
nity, in a. d. 331 et seq. 

DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on 
students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of 
pontifical origin. Bouvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of 
Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master 
of Arts, A. M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conferred on students 
on their graduation from medical schoojs. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and 
of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished 
persons. 

DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. S. except Rhode Island. First settled 
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, 
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by 
the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English 
in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. 
Penn in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. 
This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in the 
struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous vote ia 
Convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population— 1790, 59,094 ;' 1840, 78,085, includ- 
ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves ; in 1860, 
110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a mile 
long cost the Government $2,000,000. 

DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors, originally made for 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 109 

the use of the Dauphin (in usum DelpMni), son of Louis XIV., edited cj 
Huet, bishop of Avranches, Madame Dacier, and others. Each author L* 
illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in the 
work. The number of volumes published was sixty, printed between 164*i( 
and 1691, except Ansonius, in 1*750. A new edition with additional notes, 
published by Mr. Valpy of London early in the present century. 

DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves (demon, peo- 
ple, and kratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C 
(who termed their opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The 
name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery parry in N. America (the 
southern states), and the abolitionists were called Republicans. Into these 
two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential 
election in 1856. In 1860, the Republicans formed " Wide-awake " clubs for 
electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham 
Linccln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See United States, 1860, 

DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared (1850): 

Votes 
No. to 

Country. Pop. Votes. Pop. 

England ....17,000,000 630,721 * 1 in 26 

Wales 850,000 37.924 1 in 23 

Scotland 8,t-00.000 72,720 1 in 38 

Ireland S.000,000 98,006 1 in 81 



Votes 
Fo. to 

Country Pop. Votes. Pop. 

G and Seland \ 2S ' 650 > 000 8S9 > 3 71 1 \? 42 

Prance 34,000,000 250.000 1 in 137 

United States.. 20,000,000 2,750,000 1 in 7 



DENMARK. Frederick VIL, son of Christian VIII., succeeded to the throne 
1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedrichstadt 
bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9. 1850. Treaty of European 
powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown, May 8, 1852. New 
constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct. 1, 1855. Sound dues abolished 
for a compensation, March 14, 185*7. Death of Frederick VII. and accession 
of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 1863. Danes retire from Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863, 
German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21, 1864. Prussians tabe Schleswig, 
Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle off Heligoland, May 9, 
1864. 

DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationalists or inde 
pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1*727 as an association, with the 
privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. — Haydn, 

DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God"). Formerly in England, anything 

i (such as a horse, carriage, &c), which had caused the death of a human 
being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the manor, and was to be 
sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished (1846), 

D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun- 
tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in. London, was affirmed 
to be a female, at atrial at the King's Bench in 1*771, in an action to recover 
wages as to his sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death it 
was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. 

DEPUTIES, Chamber of. The title given to the French legislative assembly, 
from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took the 
name of Corps Legislatif. 

DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, of N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in 
the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, $150,- 

* The Reform Bill of 1S67, largely increased this number. 



110 the world's peogbess. 

000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to July 
See Arts, Paintings. 

DETROIT, Michigan, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 1670. 
Came into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1783 surrendered to the 
United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same 
year. In 1805, the town was completely destroyed by fire. It was the capital 
of the State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 60,000. 

DIAMONDS. The Eohinoor, or " Mountain of Light, " found at Golconda in 
1550, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England 
and presented to the Queen, 1850. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced 
by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small 
lien's egg; value abouttwo millions sterling. 

DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 b. C. 
The game of Tali and Tersera among the Romans was played with dice. 

DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English 
language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. 
It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The 
revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by 
its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriam), in 1844-5. A new and enlarged 
edition appeared in 1864 ; it contains 114,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations. 
Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, 
and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, the latter 
at Cambridge, Mass. 

DILETTANTI, Society op. Established in 1734 by several noblemen, desirous 
of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing 
Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and other works. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphihera, a membrane). A disease developing a 
false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bro- 
tonneau of Tours, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of 
the U. S., particularly among children, 1859—60. The number of deaths by 
this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June 1'865, was 2,942. 

D T? LOMACY of the United States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great 
Britair. and France. (See p. ) 

FRANCE. 

1853 James T. Mason, Va. min. plen. 
1857 Charles J. Faulkner, Va. do. 
1S61 Wm. L. Davton, N. J. do. 

1S65 John Bisjelow, N. Y. do. 

1866 John A.~Dix, do. do. 

By Act of Congress 1856, the salary of ministers plenipotentiary was raised 
as follows: Min. Plen. to England, $17,500; to France, $17,500; to Russia, 
Spain, Prussia, Mexico, Brazil, Chili and Peru, each $12,000. The " outfits" 
were abolished at the same time. Ministers resident to 19 other countries 
are paid $7,500. 
DIRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1786: a small 
volume of eighty two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The 
names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three 
pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city, United 
States Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address, the editor 
states it was the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The New 
York Historical Society possesses a complete set from it? first publica- 
tion, The Directory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,367 



GREAT BRITAIN. 

1852 James Buchanan, Pa. min. plen. 

1853 James R. Inaersoll do. do. 
1856 George M. Dallas, do. do. 
18G1 Chs. Francis Adams, Mass. do. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill 

<ner 1865-6. The volume for 1867-8 contains 177,317 names — a further in- 
crease of 806 only. 

DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III, 
in 1200. These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgen- 
ces, absolutions, &c, led eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 1517, 
and in England in 1534, et seq. 

DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began 
in London with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholo- 
mew's Close, in 1770. It relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861. Low's 
Charities. 

DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York city. The oldest was 
founded in 1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of 
charge. 

DISTILLATION, LT. S. The number of distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 wag 
1,138, employing a capital of $24,253,000. Number in New York state in 
1865, 67. The consumption of distilled spirits in U. S. in 1865 was about 
40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that year that for every three gallons 
that paid the revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The revenue amounted 
to $29,198,000. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars 
were issued from the mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The 
dollar is the principal silver coin in the United States. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). 
The first part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It 
is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before 
the second could be made ready for the press. Watts. 

DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, 
" because, mounted on horseback, with lighted match, he seemeth like a fiery 
dragon." Meyrick. The draconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons 
for ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it is be- 
lieved, in 1681. 

DRUSES. A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon ; derive 
their origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, 
and fled to Palestine, to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of 
the religion of their ancestors; they do not practise circumcision, pray or fast, 
but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 1860, in consequence of dis- 
putes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the Druses attacked 
their neighbors the Maronites (whcli see), whom they massacred, it- was said, 
without regard to age or sex. 

DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS. The absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns 
to the obedience of their subjects, was defended in England by many persons 
of otherwise opposite opinions, e. g. by Hobbes, the free-thinker, in 1642, and 
by Sir Robert Filmer, in his Patriarcha, in 1860, and by the High Church 
generally. 

DIVORCE. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the States. 
In Massachusetts, Main#, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and 
in some other States, desertion for two and three years, and some other causes, 
are ground for divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in 
Vermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. In Connecticut, cruel treatment is a 
ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Gospel in that State have 
calted the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce laws. 



112 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

DOGS, Laws about, U. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled 
during June, July, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every 
dog brought to the pound unmuzzled. Unless redeemed in 24 hours they are 
drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drowned in New York City, at au expense 
of $3,000. 

DUBLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. Opened by the lord Kent May 12, 
1853 ; closed Nov. 1, same year. 

DUELLING, (p. 300.) Duel between the duke of Wellington and the earl of 
Winchelsea, March 21, 1829; fifteen noted duels have since occurred in Eng- 
land. The most noted American affairs of the kind were these : two during the 
revolution, viz., Gen. Chas. Lee and Col. Jno. Laurens ; and Gen, Cadwallader 
and Conway (1778); Gen. Greene was challenged by a Capt. Gunn, of Ga., but 
refused to fight, and his refusal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamil- 
ton killed by Aaron Burr, July 11, 1804. Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron, 
Mar. 22, 1820. Henry Clay encountered John Randolph, April 8, 1826. Gen. 
Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton killed a Mr. 
Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky 
(both mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John 
Swart wout, 1802. See Millingen's Hist, of Duelling, and Sabine's Notes on 
Duels, 1855. 

E 

EAGLE, (p. 301.) An ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and cur- 
rent in the first years of Edward I., about a. d, 12*72. The American gold 
coinage of eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an 
eagle is of the value of ten dollars. 

EAST INDIA COMPANY. (Brit.) Chartered originally by queen Elizabeth, in 
1660, with a capital of £30,000, was rechartered and extended its operations 
until in 1856 it maintained a military force at an annual expense of more 
than £10,000,000. By the act of Parliament, " for the better government of 
India," Aug. 2, 1858, the Company's jurisdiction of India was surrendered to 
the queen. See India. 

EARTHQUAKES, (p. 303.) An elaborate catalogue of earthquakes, with com- 
mentaries on the phenomena, by R. P. W. Mallet, was published by Brit. 



Association, 1858-9. 

Earthquake at Cape Haytien, St. Do- 
mingo, 5,000 lives lost, May 7, 1842. 

At Rhodes, and Macii, mountains 
crushing a village, 600 lives lost, 
March, 1851. 

At Valparaiso, 400 houses destroyed, 
April 2, 1851. 

In South Italy, Melfi destroyed, 14,000 
lives lost, Aug:. 14, 1851 

At Philippine isles, Manilla nearly de- 
stroyed, Sept.— Oct., 1852. 

N. W. of England, slight., Nov. 9, 1852. 

Thebes in Greece, nearly dest. Sept. 
1853. 

St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed, 



April 16, 1854. 
Onasaca, in Japan ; Simoda, in Niphon, 

nearly destoyed, Dec. 23, 1854. 
Jeddo nearly destroyed, Nov. 11, 1855. 
Island of Sanger (Moluccas), 3,000 lives lost, 

March 12, 1856. 
In Calabria, several towns destroyed, 

22,000 lives lost, Dec. 16, 1856. 
Corinth, nearly destroyed, Feb. 21, 1858. 
Quito ; much injured, and 5.000 lives lost, 

March 29, 1859. 
Mendoza, S. America, 7,000 lives lost, March 

■M, 1861. 
Manilla, Philippine Isles, 10,000 persona 
perish, June 3, 1863. 



EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, first built, 1696; 
destroyed by tempest, 1703 ; rebuilt 1706 ; burnt, 1755 ; rebuilt by Smea.ton 
and finished, Oct. 9, 1759, and his structure still stands, 1861. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Founded by James VI. (I. of Eng.) 1582, 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 113 

New buildings erected 1789. Lord Brougham's discourse as Chancellor of 
the Univ., 1860. 

EGYPT. Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened Nov. 1, 1861. Said, YIeeroy, 
July 14, 1854, dies Jan. IS, 1863. Ishmael, Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863 ; visits 
France and England, July, 1867. 

EL DORADO (the "Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico 
and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of 
a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust, 
(which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they 
organized various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were 
accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's expeditions in 
search of gold in 1596 and 1617, led to his fall. 

EDUCATION. Some of the most noted educational theorists were Fenelon and 
Rousseau, in France, 18th century ; Basedon, Walke, and Pestalozzi (Swiss), 
Fellenburg, Jacotot, and others, in Germany; Joseph Lancaster (d. 1839), in 
England. In Prussia, all children from 7 to 14 are compelled by law, and un- 
der penalty, to attend school ; but this governmental system does not appear 
greatly to advance practical civilization and progress among the people. In 
France, a national system was adopted by Guizot, in 1833, from reports of the 
Prussian system by Cousin. In England (p. 306). See Oxford, Cambridge, and 
F'on. In the reign of Queen Anne numerous " Charity" schools were founded, 
and many others by "Society" effort, in 1641 etseq. Jos. Lancaster started his 
" Monitorial" system, 1186, and originated the Brit, and For. School Soc, 180S. 
The Gov. grant of £20,000, in 1834, for public education, was increased to 
£150„000 in 1852, and £450,000 in 1856. In 1851, there were 2,466,481 day 
scholars. Educational Conference, June 22, 1857, Prince Albert presiding. 
Industrial School Act passed 1857. In the U. S. Has been largely promoted 
and systematized since 1835, by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, 
Henry Barnard, D. P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am. 
Inst, of Instruction, organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annual 
meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 1864-5, the very large 
sum of $848,000 was donated to New England colleges. The New England 
seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the 
noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000), to 
promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees, 
Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867 ; and Barnas Sears, President 
of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges 
and Sehools. 

ELECTRIC CLOCK and Ball. Alexander Bain, of London, is said to have firsu 
conceived the idea of working clocks by electricity in 1837; his clocks, as well 
as those of Mr. Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
clock with four dials, illuminated at night, was set up in front of the office of 
the Electric Telegraph Company, in the Strand, London, July, 1S52. A time 
ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. A time ball connected 
with the observatory at Albany, placed on the Custom House, New York, 
1860. 

ELECTRICITY, (p. 308.) Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, 1820. Far- 
raday (Lond.) discovered magnetic-electricity in 1831, and published " Re- 
searches," in 3 vols., 1833-55. Sir Wm. Snow Harris received £5,000 for his 
invention of lightning conductors for ships. Important contributions to the 
knowledge of electricity and its uses, have' been made by Prof. Jos. Henry, 
and Prof. Page, of Washington, Prof. Draper, of New York, &c. 



114 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The electro-magnetic force was applied by M. Bre- 
guet of Paris, in the manufacture of theodolites and the finer kind of mathe- 
matical instruments, in 1855. 

ELECTRO-PLATING. Carried to great perfection by Elkington & Mason, of 
Birmingham, England, and the process has been introduced successfully into 
.New York, 1858-9. 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH, (p. 308.) Prof. Morse's services to the world as the 
originator of the practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, 
were acknowledged by the French government in 1859, by the voluntary pre- 
sentation to him of $80,000 (?) ; and by public honors and rewards from other 
governments of Europe in 1860. House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's 
electro-chemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system, 1855; the American com- 
bination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2,000 words an hour, 
adopted by the American Telegraph Company, Jan., 1859. Wheatstone's 
automatic printing telegraph patented, 1860. 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. In 1860, in America, 45,000 miles ; in Eng- 
land, 10,000; in France, 8,000; in Germany and Austria 10,000; in Prussia, 
4,000; in Russia, 5,000; in the rest of Europe, 7,650; in India, 5,000; in 
Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total inl858, 96,350. Over all the lines 
in the United States the number of messages per year is estimated at 4,000,- 
000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for less 
than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Submarine Telegraph. In the 
United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed 
Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Mon- 
roe in 1861. Ninety-five lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers. 

ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer of Newgate street, London, has patented an in- 
vention by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved 
plates, but the engraving itself actually produced by electrical agency. There 
are several processes by which this is accomplished, one of which, also pro 
tected by a patent, Mr. Palmer called Glyphography (about 1842). 

ELZEVIRS, A celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based 
on fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. 

EMIGRATION from Great Britain, (p. 309.) increased from 129,851, in 1846, 
to 335,000 in 1851, and 368,000 in 1852 ; and then fell off as follows:— in 1853, 
329,000; in 1855, 176,000; in 1857, 212,000. About three-fifths of this 
emigration is to the United States; one-eighth to Brit. America; remainder 
to Australia. To the United States. The total number of alien emigrants 
who arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,624. From 1784 to 
1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000; in all, say 5,000,000 ar- 
rived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,000 came 
from Great Britain and Ireland ; 1,600,000 from Germany ; 200,000 from 
France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway ; 40,000 from Switzerland, and 
18,000 from Holland. {Appleton's Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emi- 
grants at Castle Garden, N. Y. city, was established in 1847. From that time 
to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. The number in 1865 was 
237,397. See Aliens. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. TJie Iconographic Gyclopcedia, 6 vols., based on a German 
work, published at New York, 1853-4. The English Cyelopwdia (Charles 
Knight), based on the Penny Cyclopaedia, 1S55-60. The 8th edition of Ency- 
clop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopaedia 1857-62, 16 vols. 
(N. York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopaedia," begins with the year 1861, and 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 115 

is a complete review of the great events in the world, of each year. The 
volumes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war 
ENGLAND. For succession of events, see Chronological Tables, p. 160 to 190. 
ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the various " calls''' for tvoo^z 
by the Government during the war : — 
Date of Call. Number of M&n. 

April 15, 1862 75.000 

May to June 25, 1832 530,000 

July 2, 1S62 300,000 

Aug. 4, 1S62 300,000 

Oct. 17, 1S63 300,000 

Feb. 1,1804 200,000 

March 14,1864 200,000 

July 18, 1834 500,000 

Dec. 19, 1S64 300,000 

There were other calls for 30 and 100 days' men. The whole number called 
for was 2,759,049 ; total obtained, '2,656,553. By Act of March 3, 1863, called 
the " Conscription Act," the President was authorized to draft troops. The 
act provided for an enrollment, a draft, the reception of substitutes, and arrest 
of deserters. About 3,000,000 men between the ages of 20 and 45 were en- 
rolled. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were orders for drafts. But probably 
not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes 
were obtained. "The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of 
money paid in as a release from service, and which was used as a u Bounty 
Fund" for volunteers, amounted to $25,902,029. See Army of If. S. 
EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song). Narratives in verse. Some of the most 
famous are : 



Term of Service. 


Number obtai, 








714,213 








..... 87,000 




374,807 






.., = .., 1-2-3 years 









Homer's " Iliad " and " Odys- 
sey" (G-rek), between 8th and 
9th century, before Christ. 

Virgil's "iEneid ''-(Latin), about 

B. c. 19 

Ovid's, " Metamorphoses " (La- 
tin) about a. d. 1 

Dante, (died 1321) " Divina Corn- 
media " (Italian) a. d. 1472 



Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " 

(Ital.j a.d. 156 

Camoens, " Lusiad" (Portuguese) 1569 
Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered'' 

(Ital.) 1581 

Milton, " Paradise Lost" 1667 

Voltaire " Heririade " (French). ..172S 
Walter Scott, " Lay of the Lust 
Minstrel'' 1805 



The chief American epic which has hitherto been recognized as at all worthy 
of a national fame is Barlow's "Columbiad." 

EPIPHANY. The feast of Epiphany (Jan. 6), called Twelfth Day, celebrates the 
arrival of the wdse men of the East, and the manifestation to the world of the 
Savior, by the appearance of a blazing star, which conducted the Magi to the 
place where he was to be found. Instituted A. n. 813. Wheatley. Pardon 
says, " The heathens used this word to signify the appearance of their gods 
upon the earth, and from the heathens the Christians borrowed it." 

EPISCOPAL CHURCH in the United States. Episcopacy established 
in New York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first 
bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White 
of Pennsylvania and Provost of New York, consecrated in London, 1787. 
First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky 
and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov. 2, 1832. 

EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, and others. 
Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published, in England, a collection called Chroniiles 
of the Tombs, in 1857. 

EQUATOR (or Ecuador). A South American republic, founded in 1831, when the 
Colombian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela, 
and New Granada. The populat on of Equstor is about 1,040,400, of which 



116 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

V6 000 are in Quito, the capital. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; 
defeated in battle by General Flores, Aug. 1869. President (elected in 1861), 
G. G. Moreno. 

EQUITY COURTS of U. S. In New England, New York, and several other 
States, the same Judge may try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are 
no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between ac- 
tions at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, 
Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice 
is still preserved (1867). 

1RASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized 
Erastus), a German physician (1523-84) who taught that the Church had no 
right to exclude any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex- 
communication. 

ERASURES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in 
1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth 
received in the Court of Chancery. The errors must be corrected with the pen. 

ESQUIRE, title or, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of almost 
every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to 
it by law, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier. 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the 
inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is 
now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North- 
ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the 
civilized part of ancient Ethiopia. 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Ethiopia invaded by the Cam- 

Aza B.C. 941 byses without success between 

A dynasty of Ethiopian Kings b. c. 322-325 



reigned over Egypt from b. c. 765-715 

Terhakah, King of Ethiopia, 

marches against Sennacherib 

u. c. 710 



Can dace, Queen of Mcroe, ad- 
vancing against the Roman 
settlements at Elephantine, de- 
feated and subdued by Petro- 
niuB A. j>. 22-23 



ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind 
to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- 
lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical His- 
tory of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in 
1843,' publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- 
ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological 
Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- 
dent. It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School- 
craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief 
in the original unity of the human race has been opposed in the works of Nott 
and Gliddon (Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. 
George Peabody, in 1S66, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a 
museum and Professorship of Archeology and Ethnology, also a like amount 
for the same purpose to Harvard College. 

ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions 
are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1734, 477, 425, b. c. Eruptions 
also A. d. 40, 264, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. 

ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of 
Italv whence the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and 
superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colonv 
of Lydiaus. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted 



SUPPLEMENT, 185 1-6 V. 



117 



to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. b. c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained. 
See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- 
ed mi. 

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith 
and others in 1845, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations 
of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1857 at Berlin; in 1858 
at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. 

EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil 
service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said 
that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a 
similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. 

EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of 
the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- 
ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was 
purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of 
Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 

EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were 
first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1*796. About £20,000, 
000 of these are often in circulation. 

EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 
1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000. 

EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. 

EXHIBITION of 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- 
nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by 
a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed 
by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, 
May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 
6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- 
bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits 
£150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, 
&c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- 
gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. 



The exhibition was opened by 
the duke of Cambridge and a 
distinguished company on 

May 1, 

The Exhibition was closed on 
Nov. 1. when the total number 
of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
ants) had been 6,217,450. 



The success of the Exhibition 
was much impared by the de- 
cease of the prince consort, 
Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking 
out of the civil war in the 
United States of America. 
The foreign exhibitors in 1851, 
were 6566; in 1862, 16,456. 



EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; 
Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller 
vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 
19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the 
Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on 
the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to 
New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain 
Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was 
published in 1845. The scientific reports ' ~- f the expedition form about 20 
quarto and folio volumes. 



116 the world's peogeess. 

'ZG 000 are in Quito, the capital. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; 
defeated in battle by General Mores, Aug. 1869. President (elected in 1861), 
G. G. Moreno. 

EQUITY COURTS of TJ. S. In New England, New York, and several other 
States,the same JuJge may try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are 
no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between ac- 
tions at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, 
Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice 
?.s still preserved (186*7). 

XRASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized 
Erastus), a German physician (1 523-84) who taught that the Church had no 
right to exclude any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex- 
communication. 

ERASURES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in 
1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth 
received in the Court of Chancery. The errors must be corrected with the pen. 

ESQUIRE, title or, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of almost 
every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to 
it by law, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier. 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the 
inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is 
now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North- 
ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the 
civilized part of ancient Ethiopia. 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by 
Aza b. c. 941 

A dynasty of Ethiopian Kmgs 
reigned over Egypt from b. c. 765-715 



Terhakah, King of Ethiopia, 
marches against Sennacherib 

b. c. 710 



Ethiopia invaded by the Cam- 
byses without success between 

b. c. 322-326 

Can dace, Queen of Meroe, ad- 
vancing against the Roman 
settlements at Elephantine, de- 
feated and subdued by Petro- 
nius a. r>. 22-23 

ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind 
to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- 
lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical His- 
tory of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in 
1843, publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- 
ogy of the British Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological 
Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first presi- 
dent. It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School- 
craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief 
in the original unity of the human race has been opposed in the works of Nott 
and Gliddon (Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. 
George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a 
museum and Professorship of Archaeology and Ethnology, also a like amount 
for the same purpose to Harvard College. 

ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions 
are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1734, 4*77, 425, b. c. Eruptions 
also a. d. 40, 254, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. 

ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of 
Italy, whence the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and 
superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colonv 
of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



117 



to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. b. ft The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
cans still remaining show the degree of civilization to which they had attained. 
See Tuscany. Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- 
ed 1771. 
EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith 
and others in 1815, with the view of promoting unity among all denominations 
of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1S57 at Berlin; in 1858 
at Liverpool; 1859 at Belfast. 

EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil 
service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said 
that the present might be termed the " age of examinations."] A bill for a 
similar system in the U. S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumner, 1865. 

EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of 
the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- 
ished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was 
purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of 
Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 

EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government securities so called, were 
first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in 1796. About £20,000, 
000 of these are often in circulation. 

EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,486 ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 
1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000. 

EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue. 

EXHIBITION or 1851, in London. See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- 
nated with the Society of Arts ; Prince Albert, President. It was started by 
a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed 
by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, 
May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 
6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- 
bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505,107. Net profits 
£150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, 
&c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- 
gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. 



The exhibition was opened by 
the duke of Cambridge and a 
distinguished company on 

May 1, 

The Exhibition was closed on 
Nov. 1. when the total number 
of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
ants) had been 6,117,450. 



'862 



The success of the Exhibition 
was much impared by the de- 
cease of the prince consort, 
Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking 
out of the civil war in the 
United States of America. 
The foreign exhibitors in 1851, 
were 6566; in 1862, 16,456. 



EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S., consisting of the Yincennes, sloop of war ; 
Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller 
vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U". S. N., sailed frcm Hampton Roads, Ya., Aug. 
19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the 
Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on 
the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Yincennes (flagship) returned to 
New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain 
Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was 
published in 1845. The scientific reports ■** the expedition form about 20 
quarto and folio volumes. 



118 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the U. S. (Stated in round millions.) 



Exports of Produce. 
1849 $131 millions. .. 
134 " 
816 " 
204 " 
182 " 
249 " 
217 " 
254 " 
460 " 



of Manufactures. Total. Imports. 
,...16 millions 147 millions 147 millions. 



.149 
.364 
.247 

.2 15 
.299 



.318 
.530 



.178 
.362 
.286 
.275 
.252 
.3-9 
.234 
.437 



1850 
1800 
J861 
1862 
1S6:S 
1S04 
1865 
1866 

EXPORTS of Great Brita.n. (p. 318.) Total exports in 1850, £175, 126,706. In 

1851, £190,397, S10. Exports of British and Irish produce, in 1856 £115,826,. 

948. In 1857, £122,155,257 ; 1861, £125,115,133 ; 1863, £146,489,768 ; 1865, 

£218,865 
EXTENSION OF TERRITORY of U. S. Since the formation of the government 

in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired : 

Square Miles. 

("California, by tieaty 

with Mexico 

J Mesillia Valley (Ari- 



Sqaare Miles. 

599,599, Louisiana, &c, by 
purchase of 
France, for $150,- 
000,000 1803 

66,900, Florida, by treaty 
with Spain cost 
$6,4S9,000 1820 

318,000, Texas, by annexa- 
tion, tendered by 
its people 1845 

308,052, Oregon, settled by 
the treaty with 
Great Britain. ...1846 



.1848 



550,445, < 20na ^ by p [ iroh . lge 
of Mexico for $10,- 

l. 000,000 158 

Russian America by 
purchase from Rus- 
sia, negotiated by 
Mr. Seward, Sec. of 
State 1867 



7AIR0AKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli- 
sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of 
the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to 
Great Britain. Seen by Americus Vespucius ; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken 
possession of by France, 1763 ; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771 
Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ayres set- 
tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the 
British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided 
there. 

FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver 
were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 
1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined 
in copper by Charles II., 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large 
coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of 
Victoria, 1843. 

FASTS, (p. 319.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in times 
of war and pestilence. The British gov. appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for 
the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan 
appointed a public fast on account of threatened secession of slave states, which 
was observed Jan. 4, 1861. Natioual Fasts appointed by Pres. Lincoln at dif- 
ferent times during the war. Fast on account of his assassination, May 1865. 

FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. The following are the principal : 







Atbanasius, d. . 


373 


. 


1R6 


Ephrem Syrus, d. about . 


. 37S 


, . 


200 


Basil d. . . 


: J .7i) 






Cyril of Jerusalem, d. . , 


. 386 






Gregory Nazianzen, d. 


389 






Gregory Nyssen, d. about . . 


. o94 


, . 


217 


Epiplianiua d. . . 


402 




253 


CljriSostom d. . . , 


. 407 






Cyril of Alexandria, d. . . 


44.4 




220 


Latin. 




, . 


230 


Amobius . Jl. . . . 


. 3i '3 


, . 


258 


Laolantius . d. about . 


330 






Ambrose . d. . . 


. 397 


Greek 




Jerome . d. . . , 


. 420 


• . 


'340 


Augustine . d. 


430 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 119 

becond century. Greek. 
Justin Martyr, d. about 
Irei.asus • . d. about 
Athenagoras. 

third century. Greek. 
Clements . . d. about 
Origerx . . d. about 

Latin. 
Tertullian . d. about 
Minutius Felix,./? about 
Cyprian . . d. about 

FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. 

Eusebius . . d. about 

IAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renewed in cheap-books, flourished about the 
end of the loth century. Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited 
islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,00 inhabitants. 

FENIANS (See p. 297). A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, 
pledged to work for the liberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First at- 
tracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year Nov., a Fenian Congress met 
in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the 
order numbered 80,000. " Head Centre " Stephens figured conspicuously 
as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. In 
the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, 
Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a 
body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. 
They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were 
arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. In 1867, 
the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to 
create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were 
arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted 
to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and 
carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and was not an Amer- 
ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. 297. 

FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts 
of America in the 17th century. See Buccaneers. It was applied to Walker 
and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years 
endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba. 

FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle 
of the 12th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con- 
quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); 
but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. 

FIRE ANNIHILATORS. An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-» 
but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated. 

FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this 
country. During the war, great improvements were made in this branch of 
ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in 1860, carries seven cart- 
ridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading ; patented 1861 
120 shots have been fired from it in 54; minutes, including the time for reloading 
The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle 
muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenaj 
(1866-7). 



120 the world's progress. 



Steamers. 


Men 


Baltimore, 7 


114 


Bo.ston, 11 


2S1 


Buffalo, 7 


189 


Cleveland, 5 


56 



Steamers. Men. Cost. 

Chicago, 13 110 $245,500 

Cincinnati, 12 140 141,000 

New York, 34 564 869,957 



FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, the 
following cities had introduced the new system as follows: — 

Cost 
$73,000 
162,098 

46,470 

39,000 

FIRE-ESCAPES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from 
Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object was not fully attained till 1843, 
when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in 
March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57 
persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for 
effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the 
loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1S59-60. Two or three different fire- 
escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1S60. 

FIRES in the TJ. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were 
$214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of 
$20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,419,000. The 
largest fire of late years was at Portland, Maine, July 4, 1866. 1,600 build- 
ings were burned ; loss, $9,000,000 ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash- 
ville, Teun., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,000,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, burned, 
Feb. 8, 1864 ; Loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical 
College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1S66. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, 
March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned 
Jan. 24, 1S65 ; the Meteorological department suffered heavily. 

FLAG. See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth 
century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is 
said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the 
ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term 
flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs. 
The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early 
date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in a. n. 1673, at which period 
they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards 
to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Henault. After an engagement of 
three hours between Tourville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter 
yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688. 

FLORIDA, (p. 322.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the TJ. S., Jan. 
11, 1861, and seized the TJ. S. Navy Yard at Pcnsacola. Population, 1850, 
87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 1866, 77,747 white ; 
62.677 colored ; total 140,424. Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor, 
July 13, 1865. 

FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries 
in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the 
Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec. 23, 
1854. The endeavor to enlist for the legion, in 1854, in the United States, 
gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis- 
missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative. 

FRANCE, (p. 326.) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological 
Tables, page 65 ct seq. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 

Government. 



121 



New Republic proclaimed ; provi 
sional government ebtablished, 
Lamartine at the head 1S4S 

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte declar- 
ed Pres. by the Nat. Assembly, 

Dec. 19, 1848 

Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the 
French. Votes for the empire, 
7,S39,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; null, 
63,609 M ov. 2 1 , 1 852 



The Emperor proclaimed.. Dec. 2, 1852 

Empress : Marie Ekgenie (a Spa- 
niard), born May 5, 1826, married 

Jan. 29, 1853 

Heir : Napoleon-Eugenie-Louis- 
Jean Joseph, bom... .March 16, 185S 

Heir presumptive, in default of 
Louis Napoleon's issue : Prince 
Jerome Napoleon, and his heirs 
male 



FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. (p. 327.) The restricted diet of the Germanic 
Confederation was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 1850. The plenipoten- 
tiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg, 
assembled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic 
Diet, Sept. 1, 1850. Prussia refused to recognize it. Frankfort annexed to 
Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866. 

FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of 
Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to 
Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 10, 1866. 

FRANKLIN, Sir John. His last Arctic expedition in command of H.M. Ships 
Erebus and Terror sailed from Greenhithe, May 24, 1845. His last despatches 
home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the 
British gov. in 1850 offered £20,000 reward to any who might discover or 
assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them 
from' England and the U. S., viz. : 



1. H. M. Ship Plover, Capt. Moore, 

Jan. 1, 1848 

2. Land Expedition under Sir J. 
Richardson and Dr. Rae, Men. 25, 1S48 

3. Sir Jas. Ross, in the Enterprise 
and Investigator June 12, 1848 

4. Capt. Collinson and Com. Mc- 
Clufe sailed in same vessels 

June 20, 1850 

5. Capt. Austin, in the Resolute, 

<fcc Apr. 25 1850 

6. Capts. Penny and Steward, in the 
Lady Franklin, &c Apr. 13, 1850 

7. The Grinhell (Abee.) expedi- 
tion, under De Haven (Dr. Kane, 
surgeon), in the Advance and 
Rescue May 25, 1850 

8. Sir John Ross in the Felix, 

May 22, 1850 

9. Sir Ewd. Belcher's expedition 
(5 vessels), Assistance, &c. 

Apr. 15, 1862 
Lady Franklin fitted out the 
four next (private) expeditions, 
viz. : 



10. The Prince Albert.... June 5, 1850 

11. The same vessel June 4, 1S51 

12. The Isabel, Com. Inglefield, 

Nov. 1S52 

13. The same vessel 1S53 

14. H. M. S. Rattlesnake Aug. 1853 

15. Second Amemcan exped. (Dr. 
Kane, in the Advance) .. .J une 1853 

16. The Phanvix and others under 
Capt. inglefield May, 1854 

17. 3d American exped. (in search 
of Dr. Kane), Lieut. Hartstene, 
in the Release and steamer 
Arrtie May 31 , 1S55 

19. The ISth British exp. equipped 
by Lady Franklin and friends, 
in the Fox. Capt. McClintock 
(found remains of the Franklin 
Expedition), saded July 1, 1S57 

20. 4th. American exped. (in search 
of Polar sea), under Dr. Hayes 
(surgeon to Kane exped.), sailed 
from Boston .July. 1S60 

Returned 1863 



FREE TRADE, Principles advocated by Adam Smith in his " Wealth of 
Nations" (1776), triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 
, 1816, and the commercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Mr. Richarl 
Cobden, who was very instrumental in passing these measures, has been 
termed " The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 18S0 the British exports have 
been tripled. In New York the advocates of Free Trade established a 
" League " in 1866 (?) fin. Cullen Bryant, President; and a monthly periodical 
called the League was first issued May 1867. 

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient onea 
6 



122 the world's peogeess. 

exist in Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parlia 
nient, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others 
at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed in the 13th century, are 
justly celebrated. 

FBONDE, Ciyil wars of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), 
during the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Maza- 
rin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament 
and the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs (slingers), it is said, from 
an incident in a street quarrel. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U. S. Senate by Mr. Mason of Va., 
and passed, Sept., 1850. It imposes a fine of $1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment 
on any person harboring fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was de- 
clared by the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855. 
This law was repealed by Congress, June 28, 1864. 

G 

GALAPAGOS. Islands on the coast of Ecuador (N. Pacific), ceded to the United 
States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, French, and other powers pro- 
testing against it. 

GALATIA. An ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3d century 
b. c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Helles- 
pont, and conquered the Troas 2*78 ; were checked by Attulus in a 
battle about 289 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogrse- 
cia and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire 
b. c. 25, on the death of" the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians 
was probably written a. d. 58. 

GAME LAWS (p. 330), have been enacted in several states for the protection of 
game during certain seasons, to prevent its entire destruction. 

GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed 
do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si), for which the seven first letters of the alphabet are 
now employed, is ascribed to Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 

GAS (p. 332). Introduced in Boston, 1822 (?); New York, 1823 (N. Y. Gas 
Light Co.); now used in nearly every large town of the United States. Used 
in 43 towns of N. Y. State, 1860. Price in 1860 ranged from $1 50 per cu- 
bic foot in Pittsburg, Pa., to $1 in Belfast, Me., and other places. 

GAUL, Gallia. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives were 
termed by the Greeks, Galata?, by the Romans, Galli or Celtse. They came 
originally from Asia, and invading eastern Europe, were driven westward 
and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and 
Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British Isles (the lands of the Cymrior 
Gaeli). They gave great trouble to the rising Roman republic by their fre- 
quent invasions, 528 to 591 b. c. The Gauls under Brennus defeated the 
Romans and sacked Rome, but were expelled by Camillus, b. c. 390 They 
overran Northern Greece, b. c. 280. Gaul invaded by Julius Csesar and 
subdued in eight campaigns, b. c. 58-50. Christianity introduced in Gaul, 
a. D. 160. Franks and other invaders defeated by Aurelian, a. p. 241. Ju- 
lian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360. Invasion and settlement of Burgun- 
dians, Franks, Visigoths, &c, 406-450. Huns under Attila defeated near 
Chalons, 451. Paris taken by Childerick, the Frank, 464. Frank kingdom, 
established, 476. History of Gaul by Parke Godwin, pub. New York, 1860. 

GAUNTLET. An iron glove, first introduced in the 13th ceDtury, perhaps 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 123 

about 1225. It was a part of the full suit of armor, being the armor for tha 
hand. It was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an adversary. 

GAUZE. This fabric was much prized by the Roman people, about the begin- 
ning of the 1st century. " Brocades and damasks, and damasks and gauzes, 
have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). — Dean Swift, in 1698. The 
manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric, at Paisley, in Scotland, 
where they maintain great repute, was commenced about 1759. 

GENEALOGY (from the Greek, genea, birth, descent). The art of tracing pedi- 
grees, &c. The earliest pedigrees are those contained in the 5th, 10th, and 
11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many geneal- 
ogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many 
books on the subject have been published in all European countries: one at 
Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598; Anderson, 
Royal Genealogies, London, 173d ; Sims's Manual for the Genealogist, &c, 
1856, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.), Ed- 
mondson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825), on the British peerage universally 
esteemed. The Genealogical Society, London, was established in 1853. The 
New England Hist, and Genealogical Soc, fouuded 184-, publishes a quarterly 
magazine on those subjects. A volume called American Genealogies, publish- 
ed in Albany, 1855, and numerous private publications of family genealogies, 
have been printed in New England. Savage's Genealogical Hist, of N. Eng- 
land. 4 vols. 8vo., Bost. 1860-1. 

GENOA (N. Italy), (p. 333.) April, 1849, the city was seized by insurgents, 
who, after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed a 
republic, but soon after surrendered to General Marmora. Genoa warmly 
supported its sovereign, Victor Emanuel, in the struggle with Austria (1859), 
and furnished many volunteers for Garibaldi's demonstration on Naples, 1860. 

GEOGRAPHY, U. S. The Am. Geographical and Statistical Society was incor- 
porated April 3, 1852, at N. Y. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly of 
original papers. 

GEOLOGY Works on, U. S. "Geology of the Globe" by Prof. E. Hitchcock, 
1853. Prof. St. John's Elements of Geology, 1855. " Text-book of Geology," 
Prof. Dana, 1863. Besides these text-books there are many treatises and 
reports on Geology which are to be found in most of the large libraries in the 
country, such as Prof. Hall's Geology of New York ; Owen's, of Indiana ; Per- 
cival's, of Wisconsin ; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts ; each in quarto volumes. 

GEORGIA. Population in 1860 (including 462,198 slaves), 1,057,286. Act of 
''secession" passed Jan. 19, 1861. The state was occupied by Sherman's 
army in his great march, and Savannah surrendered to him Dec , 1864. Debt 
of the state in Oct., 1866, $5,706,5t,0. Georgia, the ancient Iberia, now a 
province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alexander, 323 b. c, 
but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome by 
Pompey, 65 b. c, but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was intro- 
duced into it in the 3d century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, 
Georgia was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 
1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, 
Georgia was successively held by the Persian and Turkish monarchs. In 1740 
Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of which the last 
ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1799; and in 1802 
Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. 

GERMANY, (p. 335.) 



iu 



THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 



German National Assembly- 
elected the King of Prussia 
emperor of Germany, (but de- 
clined) March 28, 1849 

Treaty between Austria and 
Prussia Sept. 30, 1849 

Treaty of Munich betw. Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Wurtembuvs. 

Feb 27, 1850 

German Confederation Assem- 
bly, at Frankfort Sept. 2, 1850 

Austrian and Bavarian demon- 
stration against Hesse-Cassel. 

Nov. 1,1850 

See Austria, Prussia, Hanover, &c. 



Conference at Dresden, for set- 
tling German affairs. 

Dec. 1850 to May, 18j1 

Great excitement throughout 
Germany in regard to French 
successes in Lombardy; appre- 
hension of French designs on 
German territory.. .May-June, 1859 

Meeting of new Li beral Party at 
Eisenach, in Saxe-Weirnar, 
proposing a strung central 
gov't., (no practical results). 

Aug. 14, 1859 



GETTYSBURG, Battle of, U. S. Fought July, 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Perm, 
near the Maryland line. Union forces 60,000 and 200 guns ; Confederate 
about 80,000. On the first day the 1st and 11th corps, (U. S. forces) were at- 
tacked and beaten by the superior numbers of the enemy : Maj.-Gen. Reynolds 
(U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th 3d and 2d corps came up, and 
the whole under command of General Meade formed line on Cemetery Ridge. 
No fighting until 4 P. M., when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the 
rebels, and fierce assaults made on the left and then on the right of 
the Union army. The contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when 
the enemy retired. On the third day the same furious charging and stubborn 
resistance was continued The Union army bravely held its ground, and at 
night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, 13,709 wounded, 6,643 
missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, the rebels lost 
3 guns, 41 standards, 13,621 prisoners, besides an enormous number of killed 
and wounded. Over 6,000 men, loyal and rebel, were buried on the field. 
The Union victory was of immense importance to the country at that critical 
period. 

GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method 
at the British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scien- 
tific ghosts in March, 1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the 
Royal Polytechnic institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 

GIRONDISTS. The name of a party, which played an important part in the 
French Revolution, and was principally composed of deputies from the depart- 
ment of the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the 
cruelty of Aug. and Sept., 1792, they labored strenuously to restrain the cru- 
elties of the Mountain party, to whom they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, 
Vergmand, and many others were guillotined, Oct. 13, 1193, at the instigation 
of Robespierre. Lamartine's eloquent " Histoire des Girondins," published in 
1847, tended to hasten the revolution of 1848. 

GLASGOW, Scotland, (p. 337.) Erected into a burgh, a. d. 1180. Its pros- 
perity dates from the union of the kingdoms in 1707, and was much increased 
by American trade. Population in 1707, about 12,000; in 1861, 394,857. 

GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the 
" sweet principle of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the " father 
of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat 
with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed in medicine 
and the arts. 

GNOSTICS (from the Greek, gnosis, knowledge). " Heretics," who appeared 
from the first rise of Christianity, and who endeavored to combine the simple 
principles of the Gospel with the Platonic and the other philosophies They 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 125 

were so called because they pretended to extraordinary illuminations and 
knowledge. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves as a heretic, in 3S4, 
for endeavoring to revive Gnosticism. 
GOLD MINES, (p. 339.) On April 28, 1858, a nugget from Australia, said to 
weigh 146 pounds, was shown to Queen Victoria. In 1858, gold was discov- 
ered in what is now termed New Columbia, British America. Said to have 
been found in Vermout, 1859. Australia produced as follows: 
1851. 1852. 1S56. 1857. 

£907,000 £9.735,000 £12,740,000- £11,764,000 

GOLD AND SILVER, (p. 339.) Chevalier estimated the total amount of gold 
and silver existing in various forms in 1848, at 8,500 millions of dollars, of 
which one-third was supposed to be gold. The annual gold product from 
1800 to 1850, was 16 millions of dollars. The IT. S. Mint received 41 millions 
in 1858, all but $400,000 being from California. The exports of gold from 
the U. S. in recent years were as follows (stated in millions of dollars). 

1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1S64. 1865. 1866. 
7*. 29£. 42|. 27*. 41. 56. 45. 69. 53. 64. 66|. 28. 36. 63. ■ 69. 54. 86. 

GORGET. The ancient breastplate, or gorget, was very large, and extended to 
the body and limbs of the warrior or knight, as armor ; but its size and weight 
varied at different periods. The present modern diminutive breastplate was 
in use at the period of the Restoration, 1660, or shortly after. 

GORILLA. A large ape of West Africa, in anatomical structure the nearest ap- 
proach to man of any known animal. It is a match for the lion, and attacks 
the elephant with a club. It is considered to be identical with the hairy peo- 
ple called Gorullai, by the navigator Hanno, in his Periplus, about b. c. 400 or 
500. Preserved specimens have been recently brought to Europe, and a living 
one died on its voyage to France. In 1859, Prof. Owen discoursed on Goril- 
las. The Gorilla was not known to Cuvier. Du Chaillu in his African adven- 
tures, 1860-1, killed 21 of them, and exhibited some of their skulls in London 
and the IT. S. 

GRANADA. A renowned city of Spain ; was subdued by the Moors in the 10th 
century, and formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. 1236, Mohammed- 
al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly 
prosperous till its subjugation by the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 
14y2. In 1609-10, the useful and industrious Moors were expelled from 
Spain by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country. Granada 
was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1S12. 

GREECE, (p. 343.) 



Harbor of Piraeus blockaded by 
British fleet under Admiral 
Parker, to enforce some mer- 
cantile claim p Jan. 18, 1850 

The dispute settled April 19, 1850 

Kupture between Greece and 
Turkey .March 18,1854 

Olympic aames proposed to be 
revivedT Oct. 1858 

The national assembly elects M. 
Balbis president, Jan. 29; and 
declares Prince Alfred of Eng- 
land elected King of Greece, 
by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes. 

Feb. 3, 1863 



Military revolt of Lieut. Canaris 
against Bulgaris and others, 
■who resign, Feb. 20 ; the as- 
sembly appoint a new ministry 
under Balbis Feb. 23, 1363 

The assembly decides to offer the 
crown to Prince 'William of 
Schleswig-Holstein, March 18, 
and proclaim him as King 
George 1 March SO, 1863 

Military revolt at Athens, sup- 
pressed Jui e 30, July 9, 1S63 

The King arrives at Athene, Oct. 
30 ; takes the oath to the con- 
stitution Oct. 31, 1863 



u GREENBACKS," TJ. S. A term given to legal-tender notes issued by the IT. 
S. Treasury, in 1S62. So called on account of the green print on their backs. 
All national bank notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint 



126 the wokld's progress. 

is that it cannot be photographed or in any way counterfeited. It was first dis- 
covered by a Canadian. The " American Bank Note Company" prist the notes. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, near London, built in reign of Charles II. 
The " Astronomers Royal," who have superintended astronomical observations 
here, were Flamsteed, 1675; Halley, 1*719 ; Bradley, 1742; Maskelyne, 1764; 
John Pond, 1811 ; Geo. B. Airy (the present A. R.), 1835. 

GUANO, or HUANO. (The Peruvian term for manure.) The excrement of sea- 
birds that nestle in prodigious swarms along the Peruvian shores. This sub- 
stance is found chiefly on certain small islands, called the Lobos, lying off the 
coasts of Peru and Bolivia. Humboldt was one of the first by whom it was 
carried to Europe, on ascertaining its value in agriculture. — McCulloch, It 
is also found on Jarvis's, Baker's, and Howland's islands, on the Pacific coast, 
from which it is brought by the American Guano Co., of New York, who im- 
ported in 1858, 15,000 tons, and exported in 1860, no less than 100,000 tons. In 
1857, the TJ. S. imported 213,000 tons, and Great Britain, 205,000 tons. 
In 1864, 4,131,358.tons. 

GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America; declared independent 1821 
President (1859), General Carrera, elected 1851. It is the most populous of 
five states of Cent. Amer., having 971,450 in 1851. 

GUIANA (N. E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the 16th, 
century ; explored by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The Erench set- 
tlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; and the Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara 
and Essequibo were ceded to Great Britain in 1814. 

GUN-COTTON, A highly inflammable and explosive substance, discovered by 
Professor Schonbein, of Basil, and made known by him in 1846. It is, to all ap- 
pearance, common cotton wool, and is purified cotton steeped in a mixture 
composed of equal parts of nitric and suphuric acid and afterwards dried. Dr. 
Boettenger and others also lay claim to the discovery. 

GUNTER'S SCALE. Invented by Edmund Gunter, an English mathematician, 
who died 1626. 

GUTTA PERCHA, is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a large 
forest tree, growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it. 
Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unkuown to European 
commerce. In that year two cwt. were shipped experimentally from Singa- 
pore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 
piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.); in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and in 
the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years 
of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped 
at Singapore, the whole of which was sent to England, with the exception of 
15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United 
States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, 
&c, to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thou- 
sands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the 
gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of 
their most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brook- 
lyn, N. Y., first applied it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of 
Newark, N. J., claims to have applied it thus at the same time or before. 
Charles Goodyear used it, in connection with caoutchouc, for various articles 
of common use ; a large boat made of gutta percha was exhibited iu New York, 
1858. 

GYROSCOPE. (From gyrare, to revolve.) The name of a new, popular, rotatory 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 127 

apparatus, invented by Fessel, of Cologne (1853), since improved by Professor 
Wheatstone, and Mr. Foueault, of Paris. It is similiar in appearance to the 
rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger, of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). The 
gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the centrifugal and centripetal 
forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either. It thus illustrates 
the great law of gravitation. 

H. 

HAARLEM. An ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland ; was 
taken by the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He 
violated the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was 
drained in 1849-51. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the IT. S. provides that this law (adopt- 
ed from that of England) " shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebel- 
lion or invasion the public safety may require it," 1787. President Lincoln 
authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the privilege if it became necessary, April 
27, 1861. In Sept. 1862, it was not allowed to relieve persons arrested by 
military authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized by express 
Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas 
corpus, to "continue throughout the duration of the rebellion," Sept. 15, 1863. 
C. L. Vallandigham, ex-member of Congress, being arrested for disloyal ut- 
terances, was refused the privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines, 
May, 1863. Great excitement among his friends and sympathizers in the 
country. 

HAx\ T OVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the 
Lutheran church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900 
men. 3,618 vessels of all kinds composed the merchant navy. This state 
was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against its will. 

HARPER'S FERRY, Va. A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shen- 
andoah. Population in 1860, about 5,000. The scene of "John Brown's raid." 
On Oct. 17, 1859, he with 16 white and five colored men seized the U. S. 
arsenal at this point, took 60 citizens prisioners, and gave out as his object 
"to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome on the morning of the 
18th. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. This af- 
fair created intense excitement throughout the country. At the breaking out 
of the rebellion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, April 18, 1861. 
Sept. 16, 1862, Col. Miles and 11,000 U.S. troops surrender to " Stonewall 
Jackson," at Harper's Ferry. In 1867 it was decided not to re-establish the 
arsenal there. 

HARVARD COLLEGE, U. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, Mass. Denom- 
ination, Unitarian. In 1S63, it had 44 instructors ; 814 students in all depart- 
ments ; 7,440 alumni, of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and 
endowments, over $2,000,000. Annual expenses of the University, $130,000. 
Its commencement occurs the third Wednesday of July. President : Rev. 
Thomas Hill, D. D. 

HAYTI. (p. 250.) Faustin I, deposed Dec. 25, 1858, and Gen. Geffrard made 
President of the Republic of Hayti. 

HEALTH, Board of, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Feb. 
26, 1866, establishing a " Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preser- 
vation of life and health, and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organ- 
ized March 5, 1866 ; Dr. E. B. Dalton, Superintendent. The district includes 
the counties of New York, Kings, Westchester, Richmond, and part of Queen3 



128 the world's progress. 

First annual report Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders requiring nuisancea 
to be removed. Death rate in New York city, 1 in 33.33 ; in London, 1 in 45. 
HELLENES. The Greek race which supplanted the Pelasgians from the 15th to 
11th cent. B.C., derived their name from Hellen, king of PlHhiotis, about b.c 
1600. From them came the Dorians, iEolians, Ionians, and Achasans. 

HELVETII. A Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Swit- 
zerland. The "Helvetian Republic" was established in Switzerland, in 1*798. 

HERCULANEUM. (p. 352.) The Antichita di Ercolano. 8 vols, folio, publish- 
ed by Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 

HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced in this country by 
the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the 
forage of their horses. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS (p. 327) (Greek, river horse). A native of Africa, known to, 
but incorrectly described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at 
Rome by Com modus, and others, about a. d. 138. The first in England, in 
1850, is now in the Zoological Gardens, London ; another, (a female, four 
months old), was placed there in 1854. Two young ones, born at Paris, in 
May, 1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 

HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized 
Dec. 10, 1804, and incorporated Feb. 1(), 1809. It now numbers nearly 
2,000 members. After occupying rooms many years in the New York Uni- 
versity Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a new fire-proof building on 2d 
avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated, Nov. 17, of that year. 
The society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes, particularly rich in 
historical works and manuscripts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection 
of antiquities, coins, medals and charts. Among its collections are a series of 
large tablets of Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. The 
Massachusetts Historical Society, founded 1791, is limited to fifty members. 
This society has a valuable library, including a very choice collection of books 
in English literature, bequeathed to it by the late Thomas Dowse, of Cam- 
bridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind in 
the country. The Massachusetts Historical Society has published about 30 
vols, of transactions and historical collections. There are historical societies 
also in nearly every state in the Union, several of which have valuable col- 
lections, and have published transactions. 

HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists in 
the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would 
produce a similar but not precisely the same disease, its fundamental prin- 
ciple being similia similibus curanlur — was introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, 
a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, died at Paris, 1843). The 
first periodical organ of the system was established 1822. Although violently 
attacked and ridiculed by " allopathic " practitioners the system was practised 
in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Europe, and 2,500 in the United States. 
It has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and about 30 societies in the U. S., 
and all these are numerous in England, France, and Germany. (1861.) An 
attempt to establish a State Homoeopathic Hospital, in Connecticut, was stren- 
uously opposed (1866). The matter was compromised, the Legislature allow- 
ing the Homoeopathists certain rights in the hospitals. 

HONDURAS. One of the republics of Central America (which see). Great Britain 
ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, 
general J. M. Medina, was elected for four years, Feb. 1, 1864. Population, 



Abyssinian 3,000,000 

Papuan 3 000,000 

Negrillo 3,000,000 

Australian 500,000 

Hottentot 500,000 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 129 

about 350,000 (1860). British Honduras, Central America, was settled bj 
English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 1667. They were 
often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 1*783. Balize 
or Belize, the capital is the great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the 
population was 25,635, and the revenue £35,757. 

HONG-KONG. An island off the coast of China. The British under Capt. 
Elliott took possession of it in 1839 ; founded the chief town, Victoria, in 
1S42; made it a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring was governor from 
1854 to 1859. 

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY of London. Founded 1804, Publishes annual 
volumes of transactions ; has had annual exhibitions since 1831. 

HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the 
names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000,000, are 
as follows : 

White 350,000,000 

Mongolian 300 000,000 

Malayan 120,00",000 

Telingan 00,000,000 

Negro 55,000,000 

Ethiopian 5,000,000 

HUNGARY. (See p. 359.) 

Kossuth, Bern, &c. escape to the 

Turkish frontiers, and are 

placed under the protection of 

Turkey, at New Orsova, (See 

Turkey) Aug. 21, 1849 

Komorn surrenders to the Aus- 

trians ; close of the war.. Sep 27 1849 
Batthyani tried at Pesth, and 

shot ; many other insurgent 

chiefs put to death Oct. 6, 1849 

Amnesty granted to the Hun- 
garian insurgents, who return 

home .... Oct. 16, 1849 

HYDROGEN (from hydor, water), under the name of combustible air was ob- 
tained by Paracelsus in the 16th century, In 1766, Cavendish described its 
properties ; and, in 1781, he and Watt hrst showed that in the combination 
of this gas with oxygen, which takes place when it is burnt, water is produced ; 
subsequently Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements. One volume of 
oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. Hydrogen 
is never found in the free state. Gf-melin. 

HYDROPATHY. A term applied to a treatment of diseases by water, commonly 
called the cold water cure. The system was suggested in 1828 by Vincenz 
Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia; and though he is considered 
as its founder, the rational part of the doctrine was understood and maintained 
by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851. 
Brands. Hydropathic Society formed in London, 1842. First Hydro, estab- 
lishment in U. S., at 63 Barclay st., N. Y., 1844. Those at New Lebanon, 
N. Y., and Brattleboro, Vt., opened 1845. 



Bern dies at Aleppo, ....Dec. 10, 1850 

The country remains in an un- 
settled state , many executions 1853-5 

UrownofSt. Stephen and royal 
ins gnia discovered and sent to 
Vienna Sept. 8, 1853 

Amnesty for political offenders 
of 1S4S-9 July 12, 1856 

The Emperor of Austria crowned 
king of Hungary, with great 
pomp June, 1S67 

Kossuth elected to Hungarian 
Parliament ". . . July,lS67 



ICE TRADE, the, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of 

Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 

Calcutta, in 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 

capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 1854, Boston shipped 15e,540 tons, 

6* 



132 the world's progress. 

and Cherokees, took sides with the Confederates. They furnished three 
regiments. The war upon the plains commenced in April, 1864, in Colorado. 
It was inaugurated by apparently too hasty action of the U. S. troops towards 
the Cheyennes. An Indian village was soon destroyed and 40 warriors killed. 
Fearful massacre of Indians near Fort Lyon, Nov. 28., 1864, by forces under 
command of Col. Chivington. After this several Indian tribes formed an alli- 
ance, and committed murders and depredations on the lines of travel. On 
Dec. 21, 1S65, the Sioux massacred a company of soldiers at Fort Kearny. A 
general Iudian War fairly begun in May, 1867. Gen. Sherman takes the man- 
agement of it into his hands. Gen. Meagher declares war against the Indians 
of Montana Territory, April 24, 1867. 

INDIA EUBBER. (p. 366.) See Caoutchouc. 

INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Ma- 
cartney stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually 
decreasing in India. On Nov. 12, 1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs 
to agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting iu the Punjab was held 
for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 

INKERMANN, Battle of, Crimean war, Nov. 5, 1854. See Battles. 

INQUISITION, (p. 369.) Restored by Ferdinand VII., July 21, 1814; Finally 
abolished by the Cortes, 1820. (Llorente states that in 236 years the total 
number in Spain of persons put to death by the Inquisition, was about 32,000; 
291,000 were subjected to other punishments. The last person burnt was at 
Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, being a woman accused of making a contract with the 
devil.) 

INSOLVENCY in the TJ. S. In May, 1837, a "commercial crisis" was at its 
height. The heavy failures in two months, in New York alone, amounted to 
260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount 
of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 16S failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 
12, 1837. New York city banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837. 
The New England banks generally, immediately after. See Bankruptcy. 

INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. Iu 1793, the Academies of Inscriptions and Belles 
Lettres and of the Sciences, were combined in one body under the above 
title. 

INSURANCE. The marine risks assumed by the Insurance companies of New 
York alone, in 1860, amounted to $80,379,892 ; in 1866, they were $378,880,- 
003. The fire risks in 1S60, were $1,049,551,594; in 1866, $2,753,793,107. 
The losses paid in 1866, were $15,312,750. 

INSURRECTIONS in the United States. Shays's Insurrection in Massachusetts, 
(caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in 
Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794 See the accounts of Conspi~ 
racies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 

INTEREST OF MONEY in the United States. The rates vary in different States, 
viz. : In La., five per cent., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., 
Del., Md., Va., N. C, Tenn., Ky., Ind., 111., Mo., Ark., and the United States gov- 
ernment claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. C, Mich., and Wis., seven 
per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss., and Fla., eigbt/>er cent. Laws against usury, with 
penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. 
Forfeit of the usury and double, or treble the usury in 14 other States. Usurious 
contracts void in Md., N. C, Ga., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 

INUNDATIONS, (p. 371.) Disastrous one in the centre and south-west oi 
France, on the Loire, &c, damage over £4,000,000 sterling, Oct., 1846. In 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



133 



south of France with immense damage, May and June, 1856. At Ham- 
burg, the city half flooded, Jan. 1, 1855. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). The Republic of the Seven Islands, 
Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, St. Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo, which were 
colonized by the Iones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek people; 
were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in the 14th to Venice, which 
ceded them to France, in 1*797, by the treaty of Campo-Formio. They were 
seized by the Russians and Turks in 1800 ; and formed into a Republic. 
They were restored to the French in 1807, but retaken by the English in 
1809. A new and very liberal constitution was granted in 1845. They are 
now among the free states of Europe ; Corfu is the seat of government. 
Population in 1856, 49,663. 

IOWA. One of the U. S. (territory 1838), admitted into the Union as a state, 
Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881 ; in 1856, 519,- 
148, and 271 colored ; in 1860, 682,000. In 1863 she had 800 miles of rail- 
road completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in 1862, $8,200,- 
000. Population in 1865, 754,732, of whom 3,607 were black. The State 
furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,- 
216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the 
insane and blind in the State. 

IRON. The value of the annual product of the P. S. in 1860, was about 
$7,000,000, or about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in 
the U. S. in 1866, was 939,956 tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into 
new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds 
weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000 
tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 years. 

ITALY (p. 374). 



' Napoleon III. et Tltalie," published 

Feb., 1859 

The Austrian ultimatum rejected by 
Sardinia April 26, 1859 

The Austiians cross the Ticino, April 
27 ; and the French enter Genoa, 

May 3, 1859 

Peaceful revolutions at Florence, 
April 27 ; Parma, May 3 ; Modena, 

June 15, 1859 

The Austrians defeated at Montebel- 
lo, May 20; Palestro, May 30 31; 
Maaenta, June 4 ; Mariguano, June 
8; Solferino June 24, 1859 

Provisional governments established 
at Florence, April 27 ; Parma, May ; 
and Modena. (The sovereigns re- 
tire.) June 15, 1859 

Insurrections in the Papal States : Bo- 
logna, Ferrara, &c June 13-15, 1S59 

Massacre of the insurgents at Peru- 
gia by the Swiss troops June 20, 1859 

Armistice between Austria and 
France July 6, 1859 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Vil- 
lafranea ; Lombardy surrendered to 
Sardinia July 12, 1859 

Italy dismayed at first at the peace; 
great agitation at Milan, Florence, 
Modena, Parma, &c July, 1859 

Grand Duke of Tuscany abdicates 
about July 28, 1859 

The Pope appeals to Europe aaainst 
the King of Sardinia July 12, 1859 



Garibaldi becomes commander of the 
Italian army, and exhorts the Ital- 
ians to arm July 19, 1859 

Constitutional assemblies meet at 
Florence, Aug. 11, and at Modena, 

Aug. 16, 1859 

Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the 
Romagna declare for annexation to 
Piedmont Sept. 3-7, 1859 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; 
subscriptions in Italy and elsewhere 
to supply arms for the Italians.. Oct., 1859 

Garibaldi, with a force of abou^ 1 ,200 
men, in two small steamers, em- 
barks from near Genoa for Sicily, 

Way 6,1860 

Garibaldi lands at Marsala, May 10 ; 
and after several victories takes 
possession of Palermo, May 27 ; and 
establishes a provisional govern- 
ment for Sicily, which is entirely 
evacuated by Neapolitan troops, 

June 8, 1860 

Garibaldi victorious at Meiazzo, 

July 20-1, 1860 

Garibaldi lands in Calabria, Aug. 8; 
enters Salerno, Aug. ; enters Na- 
ples Aug., 1860 

Francis II., King of Naples, retires 
to Gaeta, Aug.; siege of Gaeta 
commenced by Victor Emanuel, 

Oct.. 1860 

Gaeta capitulates Feb. 14, 186] 



134 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

IRVINGITES, or the followers of the Rev. Edward Irving, in England, who now 
call themselves the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy 
(framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1853), and have church officers named apos- 
tles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852, lights on the magnificent altar and 
burning of incense during prayers were prescribed. Their Gothic church or 
cathedral in Gordon square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It is said that 
all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and exten- 
sion. They had 30 chapels in England in 1861. 



JAPAN. TJ. S. exped. under Com. Perry (7 ships of war), entered the Bay of 
Yeddo, Feb., 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships 
wrecked on the coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce, which w r as agreed 
upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki, 
Sept., 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed ; and the Dutch 
made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for 
the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, 
and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in 
Yeddo in 1858, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening sev- 
eral ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August, 
1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, 70 persons), reaches 
San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9; 
New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; 
embarked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. 10, 
1860. A troup of Japanese jugglers arrived in the IT. S. in 1866. In the 
spring of 1867, their performances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their 
proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commission- 
ers from Japan agaiD visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of 
large quantities of school books for public schools in Yeddo, and also bought 
from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,000. 
Ministers of the U. S., England, France, &c, notified May, 1867, that Yeddo 
and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868. 

JEDDO, or Yeddo (p. 376). Severe earthquakes, Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 
1855; during the latter 57 temples, 100,000 houses, and 30,000 persons were 
said to have been destroyed. 

JESUITS (p. 377). In 1851 this body published in Italy a " Catechismo Filoso- 
fieo" or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for 
kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises 
made to their people. 

JEWS (p. 378). Alderman Salomons, first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, 1855 
Seizure of Mortara, a Jewish child, by the Cath. Archbp. of Bologna, June 24 
1858. Baron Rothschild takes his seat as M. P. for London (first Hebrew in 
Brit. Parliament), July 24, 1858. 

JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. City in the summer of 
1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the 
breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course 
have been laid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr Jerome. 
The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentuc- 
ky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25. 

JUGGERNAUT (p. 380). The state allowance to the temple was suspended by 
the Indian government in June, 1851. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 135 



KAFFRARIA, An extensive country in South Africa extending from the north 
of Cape Colony to the south of Guinea. The Kaffirs or Caffres first invaded 
the British colony at the Cape in 1831, and continued a warfare up to Dec. 
20, 1852, when they were defeated and sued for peace. 

KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory, May, 
1854, and by the same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared 
" inoperative and void " in both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companiea 
from Mass. began to arrive in July and founded the town of Lawrence. An 
association formed in Missouri, July 29, to "remove all emigrants" coming 
" under the auspices of northern emigrant aid societies ; " another formed 
Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., app. governor, arrived 
Oct. 6. Election for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29; the polls mobbed by armed 
bands from Missouri; another election March 20, 1855, similarly controlled; 
Reeder superseded July 26 by Wilson Shannon of Ohio ; Topeka (" free State ") 
Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11; collisions, with bloodshed, 
between the "free state" and "pro-slavery" people commenced at this time, 
and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by 
the people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15, 
1856. Armed men from Ga., Alabama, &c, arrived in the territory April, 
1856. Report of H. Repres. of U. S. on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and 
violence of pro-slavery invaders. Robinson arrested for treason, May 5, and 
imprisoned four mouths for taking office under Topeka Constitution. Raid of 
pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Fight at Potawatamie May 
26, and several other collisions for several months. Free State legislature at 
Topeka dispersed by U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. Shannon re- 
moved, and John W. Geary of Pa. appointed in his stead Aug. A party led 
by Ex-Senator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an attack on Osawatomie Aug. 29. 
Free state men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth, Sept. 1. Robinson 
and others released on bail Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to free 
state men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 1857 ; 
the Speaker and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-Slavery legislature at 
Lecompton provides for a convention. Geary resigned in consequence of ille- 
gal acts of Lecompte, TJ. S. judge, 1857. Robert J. Walker appointed gov- 
ernor, and F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. Parrott elected del- 
egate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution promulgated, and caused great ex- 
citement Dec, 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because 
the Const, is approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Cal. app. governor 
Dec, 1857. Lecompton Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by 
10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery, 
July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 majority), Oct. 4. Under it 
Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. Kansas admitted into the Union 
under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 69,950; 
in 1860, 143,645. Act establishing an "Agricultural College" passed Jan., 
1863. The state furnished 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the 
internal condition of the state are being made by the legislature every year. 
Asylums for the deaf, blind, and insane, have been organized. 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, defended 5 mos. by the Brit, under Gen. Wil- 
liams against a Russian siege, June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. 

KENTUCKY. Population in 1850, 771,424 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707, 
and 225,902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. oi 



136 the world's progress. 

slaves 7 per cent. There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by 
the war, in 1865. The state sent 63,995 white and 20,400 colored soldiers 
(Union) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,155,668. 

KINDER-GARTEN" (children's garden). A system of education devised by Fro© 
bel, but practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, in 1849, 
and in England in 1851. The system, founded mainly on self- tuition, and en- 
livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in Ronge's " Kinder-Garten," 
published in 1S58. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, or the " American party." A political organization in the 
U. S., 1853, to insist that the Americans shall rule America. 



LACE. (p. 3S8.) This manufacture has been so advanced by improvements, 
that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost £17, may now be had for 7s. lire. 

LANGUAGE. Hon. George P. Marsh, in a recent lecture, stated that there 
were nearly 100,000 English words found in use by good writers, but that no 
single writer employed more than a very small proportion of the whole. Few 
scholars used as many as 10,000 English words, and ordinary people not 
more than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, and in 
all Milton but 8,000. TSere were but 800 of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 

LAW. (p. 391.) The numbe." of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, 
was 21,979, or about one to every fifteen hundred inhabitants. Monthly Law 
Magazine. Estimating their average receipts a $1,000 per annum, their ag- 
gregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty two millions of dollars. 
In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in 
Ohio, 2,031 ; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066: and in Georgia, 
908. Livingston's Law Register. 

LEGACY DUTY, Internal Revenue, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62- 
63, Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5. is 
imposed on " every hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such prop- 
erty." In 1863, the revenue from legacies to parent, child, &c, was $25,869, 
to nephew, niece, &c, $11,333, to uncle, &c, $921, to corporations, strangers 
&c, $18,470. Total Revenue from legacies and successions in 1864, $310, 
836; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979. 

LIBEL, Law of, U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a 
newspaper edited by another, though the publication was made without the 
knowledge of such proprietor. 

LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860, was about 10,000; na- 
tives under jurisdiction of the republic about 250,000. In 1 856 the sugar cane 
was introduced, and in May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm 
oil reported in 1859, $500,000. A college, several schools, 2 newspapers, and 
several churches have been established (1859). Population in 1863, 422,000, 
of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued from slave-ships. 
The government is republican. Capital Monrovia. Revenue of the Republic 
in 1861, $149,550 

LIBRARIES. The Astor Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who left, by 
will, $400,000 "for the establishment of a public library in New York," 
" which should be open at all reasonable hours, free of expense, to persons re- 
sorting thereto." The original building opened to the public Jan. 9, 1854. 
Another building of similar style and extent was added by W. B. Astor, 1860. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 137 

The whole contained in 1860 about 120,000 volumes, including the most val- 
uable, rare, and costly works purchasable. The free Public Library in 
Boston, opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind found- 
ed at a similar expense by several munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the 
public, and about 30,000 volumes are provided, which may be taken from the 
library by any resident of Boston. It is a remarkable fact that these 30,000 
volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or damage to 
the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S. 
of over 100,000 volumes, distributed among 23 of the states and containing 2 V - 
404,000 books, or about £ the total number in all the public libraries of the 
country. The Church and Sunday-School libraries were estimated to contain 
from 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work entitled " Private Libraries of 
New York " (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections of 4,000 and 
12 with 10,000 volumes (1864). In 1S59 the following statistics were com- 
piled : Number of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, es- 
timated, 1,593; libraries of common schools, 18,000; Sunday-Schools, 30,000; 
total, 50,890 libraries, number of volumes, 12,720,686. 

LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Total receipts 
from this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1864, $7, 145,389 ; in 1865, $12,613,- 
478 ; in 1866, $18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was received from 
wholesale dealers, $5,428,345. Betail dealers in liquors paid $2,S07,225. Re- 
ceipts from bowling alleys were the smallest, $19,749. 

LIGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the 
TJ. S., including the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to govt, being $932,- 
000. The No. of buoys and beacons was about 5,000. A large number of the 
lighthouses from Cape Henry to the Rio Grande, were destroyed by the Con- 
federates in the late war. 

LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in 
support of the war against the Rebellion. 

Name of Loan. Length of Loan. Amount Issued^ 

Loan of Feb 8, 18C1 20 years $18,415,000 

7.30notes 3 " 139,939,750 

Five-Twenties 5 or 20 years ■ 514,780,000 

Ten-Forties 10or40 " 172,770,100 

Five-Twenties 5 or 20 " 91,7S9.000 

Treasury Notes 3 years 17S,750.000 

7.30 Notes " " 234,400,000 

"" " " " 437,210,400 

See Appletonh Annual Cyclopozdia, 1865. Finances- 

LONDON, (p. 402.) The population of London in 1861 was 2,803,034. 

LONGEVITY, in the U. S. In 1860 there were 2,960 persons over 100 years 
of age. In the State of N. Y. (1865) there were 108. 

LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be 
" public nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pro- 
nounced illegal, as a lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez 
for building a Presbyterian church. At other times colleges, roads, ferries, 
hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They were still tolerated in 
Maryland, Georgia, and perhaps other States (1861). The " Crosby Opera 
House" Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the " opera house "at 
Chicago, was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent 
to their amount immediately on payment. The proprietors made large 
profits, as subscriptions came in from all parts of the country. 

LOUISIANA, (p. 404.) Population in 1850, 517, 762. In 1855, by state census, 



138 the world's progress. 

581,114:, including 244,000 slaves. In 1860, 066,413, including 312,186 slaves. 
Ordinance of secession lVom the U. S. passed by Convention, Jan. 26, 1861 
Motion to submit the question to the people was defeated by a large ma« 
jority. The principal portion of the state came under the authority of the 
Government before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the 
Union army, mostly blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, $13,358,000. 

LOUYRE. (p. 404.) The magnificent buildings of the New Louvre begun by 
Napoleon I., and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the latter 
in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 

LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the 
legal authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who ex- 
ercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the " dismal 
swamp," North Carolina, when they committed outrages upon persons and 
property which the colonial law could not promptly redress. This mode of ad- 
ministering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and has prevailed 
more or less in recent years in the western border of southern states. 
Lynch Law, "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob, 
inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of 
some offence. In England this is called Lidford Law." — Bouuier. 

M 

MACADAMIZING. The inventor of this system of repairing roads (Mr. John 
Macadam), received a grant from Parliament in 1825 as a reward. 

MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during 
the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, b. c. 167, when Mattathias, a priest, 
resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son Judas Maccabeus defeated the 
Syrians in three battles, b. c. 166, 165 ; but fell in an ambush, b. c. 161. 
His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, 
and after an able administration, was treacherously killed at Ptolemais by 
Tryphon, b. c. 143. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
b. c. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called 
also Aristobulus, took the title of king, b. c. 107. The history of the Macca- 
bees is contained in five books of that name, two of which are included in 
our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, 
but not by Protestant communions. 

MADAGASCAR, (p. 411.) The French were defeated in an attack on this 
island, Oct. 19, 1855. The native Christians have suffered much persecution, 
although the prince, the son of the reigning queen, embraced Christianity in 
1846. The Rev. W. Ellis in 1858 published an interesting account of his 
three visits to the island, on behalf of the London Missionary Society in 
1854-5-6. 

MADEIRA, (p. 408.) Since 1852, the vintages here have been totally ruined 
by the vine-disease. 

MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French 
and Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis 
Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest 
of the fight. It is said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Aus- 
trians were engaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4,000 killed and 
wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7,000 prisoners ; these numbers 
are still doubtful. The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
The emperor and king entered Milan on June 8 following. MacMahon and 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 139 

Regnaidt d'Angely were created marshals of France for gallantry in the 
action. 

MAGNETISM. In 1831 electricity was produced from a magnet by Professot 
Faraday, who has since published his researches on the action of the magnet 
on light, on the magnetic properties of flame, air, and gases (1845), on dia- 
magnetism (1845), on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnet- 
ism (1850), and on the magnetic force (1851-52). In the present century 
our knowledge of the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly increased 
by the labors of Arago, Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggeudorff, 
Sabine, Lamont, Tyndall, Du Moncel, &c. 

MAINE, (p. 410.) Population in 1850, 583,169; increase in 10 years. 16 per 
cent. Population in 1860, 619,958 ; increase in 10 years 6-J per cent. No. 
men furnished to the army and navy 1S61-5, 71,558. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which 
the Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French 
and English attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48 
hours were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed 
and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French 3,33S killed and wounded. On Sept. 
8, the French again attacked the Malakhoff; at 8 o'clock the first mine was 
sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt In 
the Malakhoff aud Redan were found 3,000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, 
and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 

MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, an important military position, where the 
Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. 
It was held by the rebels under Beauregard in 1861, when they were attacked 
by General McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and 
gained some advantage on the 18th at Centrevilie. On the 21st was fought the 
first battle of Bull Run. McDowell had the advantage till about three o'clock, 
p. M., when the rebel Gen. Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first 
were taken for Union troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized 
with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in dis- 
graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. 
The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing. 
The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. in March, 1862, 
when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir- 
ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at 
Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle 
between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall" 
Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun- 
tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed 
his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th General R. E. Lee (who had defeated 
McClellan before Richmond, June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his 
army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con- 
flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com- 
pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centrevilie, where they were 
once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the 
lines of Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan 
resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed 
the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States. 

MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the 
authority of the pope. They live near Mt. Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damas- 



140 the world's peogeess. 

ens. and other places. They suffered severely in the massacre by the Diuses 
in 1860, and some accounts make the Marouites the original aggressors. 

MAROONS. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island 
was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by 
their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu- 
lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1*730. In 
1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and transported to 
Nova Scotia, Bran.de. They were also sent to Sierra Leone ; and many of 
them are among the Dutch of Surinam. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, 
who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They 
were visited by Cook in 17*74, and were taken possession of by the French 
admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842. 

MARRIAGE, (p. 414.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in 

1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96,883 1850 was 152,744 

1800 " 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207 

Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrars' returns, that 
47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the 
marriage register with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been 
attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceased wife's sister, without success. 
A bill for this purpose passed the Commons, July 2, 1858, but was rejected 
by the Lords, July 23 following. 

MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to 
Rouget de Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of 
Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army 
then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its name from the circumstance of 
some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when 
it was little known there, in 1792. Brande. 

MARYLAND, (p. 415.) Population in 1850, 583,034, including 74,723 free 
colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the 
population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 
years, 11 per cent,; decrease of slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at- 
tempts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the " Con- 
federacy" and to betray the National cause — but they were defeated by the 
predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis- 
fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops 
furnished for the war . Disbursements for Union troops, $4,212,479. 

MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per 
cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. 
These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in population, In 1860 the 
population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial 
production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- 
roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war 
in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 
1,267,329. 

MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun 
dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about $1,000,000. 

* In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As 
respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which are very minute and curious, furnish the 
following classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : — Bachelors and maids, 6,456; "bachelors 
ffl^.d widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; "widowers aod widows, 222. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 141 

MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S. There were 54 medical school*! and colleges ia the 
17. S. in 1862. The oldest is the University of Penn. at Phila., 1765. 

MEDTCI FAMILY. Illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in 
Italy ; were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which 
year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was re- 
called, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' 
Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence 
from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo. 
Roscoe. From 1569 to 1737, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of 
Tuscany. 

MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypt, (" of which the very ruins are stupendous ;") 
is said to have been built by Menes, 3890 b. c. ; or by Misraim, 2188 b. c. It 
was erected by Alexander, 332 b. c. ; and restored by Septimus Severus, a. d. 
202. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 b. c, began, and the founding of Alex- 
andria, 332, completed the ruin of Memphis. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in 
the 13th century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe 
and embraced many communities ; but at length by a general council, held by 
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders — Dominicans, 
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched 
off. 

MENU, Institutes of. The very ancient code of India. Sir W. Jones, who trans- 
lated them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between 
Homer (about 962 b. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 b. c). 
Haughton's translation appeared in 1825. 

MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, 418-752. 

MESMERISM. So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, 
of Mersburg. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766; con- 
tending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused 
through the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- 
mated beings. Quitting Vienna 1'or Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous pro- 
selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 
livres. The government at length appointed a committee of physicians and 
members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among 
these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared 
in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility of animal 
magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesmer. 
Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau 
and others announced their belief in it.* 

METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi- 
nese as early as 644 b. c. ; by Greeks aud Romans (a few only) ; by Kepler 
(1623), Halley, Humboldt, Cavallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 1719, 1783, 
1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delaware, &c, July 20, I860. 
Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov. 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till 
1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These were described by Prof. Olmstead 
of New Haven. 
METHODISTS, (p. 422.) The first Methodist organization in the U. S. was at 
Baltimore, 17S4, Wesley sanctioning it as the " Meth. Episcopal Church of 
America." Introduced in S. Carolina and Georgia, 1785. Secession of Anti- 

* In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, Archbishop "Whately 
being president, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes among the vice 
presidents. 



142 the world's progress. 

Episcopal branch, 1880. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the 
"Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1S44. The northern branch had in 

1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual conferences," 
24 colleges, 2 biblical institutes, and 120 seminaries. The "M. E. Church 
South" in 1845, had 6 bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 124, 
811 colored members, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership wag 
721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 2S colleges and 27 high schools for females ; 
and a publishing house at Nashville which issued 600 million pages in 5 years. 
The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,000 ministers. 
No. of Methodists in U. S. in 1863, 1,650,000 ; number of churches, 11,638 ; 
ministers, 10,911. 

MEXICO, (p. 423.) Herrera, president, 1848; succeeded by Gen. Arista, Jan. 15, 
1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna was 
recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez, 
Jan. 1S54 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27 
days. Alvarez made president by a Junta, but after a few weeks resigned in 
favor of Comonfort, who confiscated Church property, March, 1856. New 
constitution promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and 
a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zuloaga to 
the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to Vera 
Cruz, May 4, 1860, assuming there to be the "Constitutional president." Zu- 
loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church 
party leads a war against Juarez, which ends in the triumph of Juarez, Jan. 

1861. In July, 1863, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared 
Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke 
of Austria, who accepted it; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864; defeated 
the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops 
who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by 
whose assistance Maximilian had established himself in Mexico, were with- 
drawn. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximilian 
in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared 
him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place, 
against the protest of all foreign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and 
Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of anarchy has existed 
in Mexico for years, and Maixmilian's object was to reduce the counti-y to order 
under a monarchy. The contest was waged with great bitterness and cruelty. 
City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. 

MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman 
Catholic Church, under the title of " St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael 
is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This 
feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord- 
ing to Butler, was A. D„ 487. 

MICHIGAN, (p. 423.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 
1840-50, 87 per cent. ; 1850-60, 89 per cent. ; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864, 
600,000,000 feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to 
the army in 1861-5, 90,119. 

MILITIA, (p. 424.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri. 
mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. U. S. The mili- 
tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertained from 
official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non- 
commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates ; a total of 2,090,109 
men. Since the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 143 

a more efficient system than formerly. Volunteers ir the war are exempt from 
duty for a certain period ; in Conn, for 3 years. 

MINCIO. A river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French 
under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800 ; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8J 1814. The 
provinces of Verona and Mantua are watered by the Mincio. 

MINES, (p. 425.) The deepest coal pit in England was opened about 1860, after 
nearly 12 years' labor. The shaft is 680^ yards deep, and its sinking cost 
some $500,000. The seam of coal is 4 ft. 8$ in. thick, and is calculated to 
yield 500 tons a day for 30 years. The shaft is 12-J- feet in diameter, and near 
the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. TJ. 
S. The famous Hay ward gold mine, in Amadon county, California, extends 
1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In thirteen years, $7,000,000 have 
been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock 
lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 different 
companies. The length of mining shafts in the West varies from 500 to 1,000 
feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly 
$150,000,000. 

MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 
1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d' 
escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac- 
curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and 
•with various modifications by the British army in 1852. 

MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territory, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
1857. Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860, 176,535 ; 1865, 248,848. A terrible 
Indian massacre occurred m this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a 
body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur- 
dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destroyed. Their depre- 
dations extended over an area of 20,000 square- miles in the western part of 
the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners 
■were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000 
fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. 

MINT. (p. 426.) In England, first regulated by Athelstan, about a. d. 928. See 
Coinage. 

MIRRORS, (p. 427.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering 
glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercury. 

MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world 
in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as follows: North America, 125 ; 
South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218; Northern Africa, 6 ; 
West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon, 
419 ; Burmah and Siam, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above 
must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,737 native helpers (1860). 
Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a 
written language. 20 dialects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 500,000 
persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. Roman Catholic. 
The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the 
Propagation of the Faith, for 1857, from ail parts of the globe, amounted to 
$838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia, 
$284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas, 
$73,000. The whole amount contributed on this continent was about $32,- 
000. It is stated that Protestants in the U. S. alone, give more for 
foreign missions than the one hundred and fifty millions of Catholics in all parts 
of me world. 



144 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

MISSISSIPPI, (p. 426.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?) 
Population 1850, 606,326 ; 1860, 836,658 ; increase from 1840 to 1850, 61 
per cent. The literal translation of the aboriginal name is Great River ; the 
Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it 
"Atissoissippy /" Hennepin " Meschasipi." Sape is river, running water ; the 
prefix means " great," " big." "Ordinance of Secession " from the U. S. 
passed Jan. 9, 1861. VVm. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, 
June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for the 
pardon of Jelferson Davis, Aug., 1865. 

MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 81,422 slaves. In 1856 
911,001, including 101,605 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1830 
to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. I860, 1,201,214, including 115,619 slaves. 
Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession, but 
they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicts 
and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United 
States and Battles. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865, 
$678,660. 

MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring 
the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were 
offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. 
Northouck. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis- 
covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival 
of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to 
John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and 
have held them ever since — except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub- 
ject to the English. 

MONACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the 
prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex- 
amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish 
sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. 
About the time of Constantino (a. d. 306-322) numbers of these ascetics 
withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ; of 
whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the 
founder of the Stylilse (or pillar saints), died a. d. 456. He is said to have 
lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism, 
published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, about a. d. 
529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c, are so many varieties of Bene- 
dictines. 

MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James 
Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European 
power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South 
America. Upon this doctrine the U. S. protested against the establishment of 
French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. They were finally withdrawn in 1867. 

MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians 
June 9, 1S00, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May 
20, 1859), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the 
Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The 
French lost about 700, including general Beuret. 

MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was con- 
quered by Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and establish 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 145 

ed an hereditary hierarchical government in the family ofPetrovitsch Njegosch, 
endured, but not recognized by the Porte. 

MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict 
with the Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, 
were first established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 
1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which 
was permitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete were not established in 
France till 1777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 
1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Pawnbroker, p. 464. 

MONUMENT of LONDON, begun in a. d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The 
pedestal is forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the 
distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com- 
menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost 
about £14,500. 

MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Hungary was completely de- 
feated by the Swiss, June 20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones 
of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone 
column in its place. 

MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 
5,760 members. 

MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was 
made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The U.S. chief justice being repu- 
diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned, Col. Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap- 
pointed governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the 
U. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred 
Cummings appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S. 
troops, Oct. 5. His trains were attacked and open rebellion proclaimed ; but 
in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army 
withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath- 
ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially 
among the Waldenses ; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to 
have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, 
about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co., 
Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who 
copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormons 
has been estimated as high as 100,000 ; and some are reported in Asia, Africa, 
and Polynesia. Their number in Utah was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and 
composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them- 
selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latter Day Saints." Their church organ- 
ization is composed of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres- 
idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, 
and Daniel H. Wells; next the Twelve Apostles ; then the quorums of Seven- 
ties, of which t'tiere are said to be 62 organized in the territories, each having 
seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders, 
Priests, Teachers, and Deacons. A somewhat anomalous office is that of pa- 
triarch, which has been conferred on John Smith (son of Hyrum and nephew of 
their first prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each 
settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each 
ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. {National Almanac.) 
Reported schism among the Mormons, 1867. 

MORTALITY IN "WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a com 



146 the world's progress. 

plete list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg- 
iment from all the Northern States duiiug the war. This record shows that 
280,751 officers and men lost their lives in the service; of whom 5,221 com- 
missioned officers and 90,886 enlisted men were killed in action or died of 
wounds, and 2,321 commissioned officers and 182,329 men died of disease. 

MOSQUITO COAST (in Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast 
have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a 
group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States 
has long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove- 
nanted not to " occupy or fortify, or colonize, oi* assume, or exercise any do- 1 
minion over any part of Central America." 

MOUNT VERNON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased 
for the nation for the sum of $200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi- 
nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina, 1858-60. During the 
war of secession this place was carefully protected by the government. 

MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Germany, 
was founded, it is said, a. d. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden, in 1632; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743; and by the 
French, under Moreau, July 2, 1800. Munich abounds in schools, institu- 
tions and manufactories. The University was founded bv king Louis in 
1826. 

MURFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between 
the U. S. troops under Rosencrans and the Rebels under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, 
and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated. 

MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged public attention first through the 
theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washington's ad- 
ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe 
appeared in New York, under Signor Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran, 
his daughter, met with great success as an opera singer. Other Italian troupes 
followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New 
Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer- 
ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success 
has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in 
all large towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged. 
The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent players 
are Gottschalk, Mason, Mills. About $15,000,000 worth of Pianos are man- 
ufactured yearly. See Pianos. 



NAPLES (p. 434). 

Italian refugees, under Count Pisac- 
eane, landing in Calabria, are defeat- 
ed, and their leader killed, June 27- 

July 2, 1857 

Death of Ferdinand II., af;er dreadful 
sufferings May 22, 1859 

Accession of Francis II 

The city of Naples surremleis to Gari- 
baldi without, a struggle, and the 
king ret : res to Gaeta.T Sept., 1860 

Gaeta surrenders to the Sardinians, 
and the king takesrefnge in a French 

vessel ". Feb. 13, 1861 

See Italy and Sicily. 

NASHVILLE, U. S. The capital of Tenn., occupied by the Union forces, Feb. 
23, 1862. Great battle fought here Dec. 15, 1864, between the forces of 



Amartial anarchy prevails Dec, 1849 

The chiefs of the Liberal Party arrest- 
ed in 1849 

Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and 
others, after a mock trial, are con- 
demned, and consigned to horrible 
dungeons for life June, 1850 

.After remonstrances with the king on 
his tyrannical government (May), 
the English and French ambassa- 
dors are withdrawn Oct 28, 1856 

Attempted assassination of the king 
by Milans Dec, 1856 

The Cagliari seized..., June, 1857 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



147 



Gen. Thomas (Union) and Hood (Confederate). The former had been be* 
sieged for several days when he marched out and attacked Hood, taking 16 
guns. On the 16th he completely routed him, taking 20 guns. This was the 
last campaign of the Southern army of the West. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the Emperor Frederic I., 
about 1180, for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 
are descended the royal house of Orange now reigning in Holland and the 
present Duke of Nassau. Population of the duchy in 1857, 434,064. Wies- 
baden was made the capital in 1839. In 1866, after the war, this duchy was 
annexed to Prussia. 

NATIONAL ACADEMY of Design (at New York), founded 1826. The first 
President was Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Durand in 
1845, and he by D. Huntington in 1862. Corner stone of new Academy 
building laid Oct. 21, 1863. Building opened and inaugurated April 17, 1865. 
See Design, Paintings. 

NATIONAL DEBT of England. The annual interest in 1850 was £23,862,257; 
and the total interest, including annuities, amounted to £27,699,740. On 
Jan. 1, 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 
£769,272,562 ; the charge on which for interest and management was 
£27,620,449. On Jan. 1, 1852, it was £765,126,582; the charge, £27,501,783. 
Mr. Gladstone's Estimate : 



England $3,995,000,000, or $125 per head. 

United States 3,000,000,000, or 100 " 

France 2,400,000,000, or 53 " 

Austria 1,5S0, 000,000, or 45 " 

Russia 1,395,000,000, or 43 '« 

Italy 760,000,000, or 34 " 



Spain $725,000,000, or $46perhead. 

Holland 425,000,00(1, or 12 L " 

Turkey 255,000,000, or 115 a 

Prussia 215,000,000, or 12 u 

Portugal 175,000,000, or 40 M 



Great Britain's revenue has never exceeded £70,000,000 per year; but the 
United States Government are now raising $540,000,000 per year. United 
States. At different times: See Loans. 

In 1830 the debt was $48,565,406 

In 1635 " " 37,733 

lnlS45 " " 16,801,647 

In 1848 " " 65,804,450 

Aug. 31, lS65itwas 2,757.689,571 

(It reached its highest figure at this date.) 

Jan. 1, 1860 it was 2,716,581,536 

Nov. 1,1866 " 2,551,310,005 

May 1,1867 " 2,520,786,096 

Sept. 1867 " 2.500.000,000 



In 1791 the debt was $75,463,476 

In 1800 " " 82,976,294 

In 1810 " " 53,173,217 

In 1816 " " 127,334,934 

In 1820 " " 91,015,566 

Jan. 1, 1865. it was 66,243,721 

Dec. 1, 1S61 " 267,654,153 

Jan. 1, 1863 " 764,535,854 

Dec. 1, 1863 " 1,293,243,544 

Feb. 13, 1865 " 2,279,582,484 



NATURALIZATION Laws, U. S. By the Constitution, Congress has power to 
establish " one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts 
have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re- 
sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the 
city of New York between 1850 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu- 
ralized. 

NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as 
plants, mosses, feathers, &c, into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it 
were, to engrave themselves; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for 
printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and 
in the same year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to 
the impressions. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressions 
of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process in England 
was in " The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley. 



148 



THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. 



NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded during the Presidency 
of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr. George Bancroft, Secretary of the 
Navy. During the war it was removed to- Newport, R. I. It has since been 
re-established at Annapolis. 

NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. in the war of 

The Confederate forts at Hatteras 
Inlet, N. C, bombarded by fleet 
of Com. Stringham, and taken by 
land forces of Gen. Buller.Aug. 28, 29, 1861 

Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Com. 
Foote Feb. 6, 1862 

Great naval action in Hampton 
Roads, Va., March 8, 9, 1862. The 
Confed. ram Merrimao from Nor- 
folk, attacks the U. S. frigates 
"Cumberland" and " Congress," 
and sinks them. On the follow- 
ing day the U. S. " Monitor " 
(battery of 2 guns), arrived in 
time to save the frigate Minneso- 
ta, and finally forced the Merri- 
mac to withdraw in a disabled 
condition. 

Com. Farragut, with a fleet of 50 
vessels and 286 guns, passes forts 
Jackson and Philips, destroys the 
enemy's rams, and takes New Or- 
leans April 18,28,1862 

Grand military and naval expedi- 
tion, under Dupont, captures 
forts at Hilton Head, 8. C Nov. 7, 1861 

Fierce action at Port Hudson, Miss. 
Admiral Farragut, in attempting 
to pass the batteries, loses his 
flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863 

Combined attack of ironclads upon 

NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 440). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 sailing ves- 
sels, carrying 9,594 guns; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns; also 
155 gunboats, and 111 vessels on harbor service. 

NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 440) has been greatly increased by the present empe- 
ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 37 
steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449. 

NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p.' 439). In 1860 consisted of 10 ships of 
the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw 
do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeships, 6 re- 
ceiving ships — total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there 
were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted 
of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In 1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268 
guns; in 1863, 588 vessels, 4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At 
the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total 
number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels 
were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing 
$18,366,681. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to 
June 30, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by 
Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the 
navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029 
guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866, 
13,600. 

NEBRASKA, U. S. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area 



Secession : 

Fort Sumter, S. C, five disabled, 
the fort receiving no great injury. 

April 7, 1863 

The Confed. ram Albemarle at- 
tacks U. 8. gunboats at Plymouth, 
N. C, sinks one, and disperses 
the rest April 19, 1864 

Brilliant engagement off Cher- 
bourg, France, between U. S. 
gunboat " Kearsarge," and Con- 
fed. privateer "Alabama." The 
latter sunk in two hours June 19, 1864 

Admiral Farragut, with 32 vessels 
and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay, 
silencing the forts, and capturing 
two heavy ironclads. One TJ. 8. 
Monitor sunk by a torpedo.... Aug. 5, 1864 

Gunboat fight near Memphis, 
Tenn. . The Union fleet com- 
pletely routed the enemy's, cap- 
turing 3 and disabling 4 of their 
vessels June 6, 1864 

Formidable fleet of ironclads and 
frigates with 300 guns, under 
Admiral Porter, attack Fort 
Fisher, N. C. Under cover of 
the terrible fire, land forces 
storm and capture the fort. . . .Jan. 15, 1865 

For list of minor engagements, see 
Greeley's " Amer. Conflict," Vol. II. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 149 

about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indians. 
Admitted into the Union, March 1st, 186*7. 

NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Oarsou 
City. Area, about 80,000 square miles. Population, I860, 50,568, of whom 
16,260 were Indians on reservations, and 7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted as 
a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. 

NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1536 conquer- 
ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- 
gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic 
of Colombia in 1819. After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic of 
New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which 
includes Bolivar, Antioguia, Panama, and other small States. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 441). Population in 1850, 317,976; increase in ten 
years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,072; increase, 3 per cent. Number of 
troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427. 

NEW JERSEY (p. 442). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored 
persons. In 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 years, 35 per cent. Number of 
troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population, 
1865, 773,700. 

NEWSPAPERS (p. 445). Some of the chief dailies : 

N. Y. Herald founded 1835 | Times 1850 | Evening Post 1801 

Tribune 1841 | Sun 1833 | Commercial Advertiser.1797 

Washington Intelligencer... .1801 

In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were 
in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219 
in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in 
Germany, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in 
U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State 
of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. Great Britain (p. 445). In 
1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes. 
In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-office. 

ESTABLISHMENT OP THE PRESENT PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. 

Daily. 

Public Ledger 1759 I Times 1788 I Standard 1827 

Morning Chronicle 1770 Sun 1792 Daily News 1846 

Morning Post 1772 | Morning Advertiser.. 1S03 | Daily Telegraph 1855 

Morning Herald.. 17S1 | Globe 1803 | Morning Star 1S56 



Weekly. 



Observer 1792 

Bell's Messenger...... 1796 

Weekly Dispatch 1S01 

Examiner 1808 

Literary Gazette 1817 

John Bull 1820 



Bell's Eif" in London. 1820 

Sunday Times. . . . 1822 

Atlas 1826 

Athenaeum 1828 

Spectator 1828 

Illustr'd London Newsl812 



Lloyd's Weeklv Paper .1812 

News of the World 1843 

Economist 1843 

Leader 1850 

Press 1853 

Saturday Review 185- 

NEW MEXICO, U. S. Ceded to the U. S. in 1848. Organized as a territory, 
1850. Capital, Santa Fe. Population in 1860, 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal 
Indians. 

NEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 444.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the 
" Crescent City " on account of the circular bend of the river on which it 
stands. Founded by the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1S03. 
Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom 13,. 
300 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered to the 



150 the world's peogeess. 

TJ. S. forces, — the naval commanded by Admiral Farragut, and the land force3 
commanded by Gen. B. F. Butler, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations aa 
to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by 
Haydn (p. 513), and believed in England, have been long since exploded. 
Butler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the 
Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canby appointed to the post, 1864. 
Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the " Radical Conven- 
tion," July, 1866. 

NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. 
In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. la 
1865 it was re-established at Annapolis. 

NEW YORK, State of. Population in 1860, 3,851,563 ; increase in ten years, 
24 per cent. No. of school districts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,- 
533. Volumes in school libraries, 1,360,50*7 (1860). Population in 1865, 
3,831,777 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom 
583,611 were natives. The number of widows in the State — principally a re- 
sult of the war — was 13*7,980. It sent 4*73,443 troops to the war. Number 
of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,8*73. City of. Population in 1850, 
514,54*7 ; in 1860, 805,651 ; in 2865, 726,386. The density of the popula- 
tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of 
parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $51,000,000. Value of real and 
personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads 
in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 
1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the 
previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same 
period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,821,625. 

NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili- 
buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united efforts of the con- 
federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. 

NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung 
from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a 
vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to 
keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to marry 
any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main- 
tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things 
in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ. 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng- 
land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they 
rendered invaluable services to the army in the Crimean war: a fund was raised 
in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the 
training of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 
£44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 

NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see Assyria), founded by 
Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 b. c. Ninus reigned in Assyria, 
and called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 b. c. Abbe Lenglet. 
Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b. a), which was taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b. c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the 
neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, 
have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries has 
not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had 
long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, 
religion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 151 

before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the 
sculptures brought to England and now with Br. Museum is the bas-relief of 
the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation of the Assy- 
rian god Nisroch (from Nm% an eagle or hawk), whom Sennacherib was in the 
act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b. c. 
2 Kings xix. 3*7. In 1848 Mr. Layard published his " Nineveh and its Remains," 
and in 1853 an account of his second visit in 1849-50. A collection of bas- 
reliefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr. Jas. Lenox, of New York, and 
presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?) 

NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirable ele- 
mentary gas. Before 177*7 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the 
nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the 
atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro- 
gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off by decomposing 
animal and vegetable bodies. 

NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites, 
679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of "secession" passed 
May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, $250,000,000. Gen. Sherman 
marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was 
appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces- 
sion " null and void " Oct. 7, 1865. 

NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 448.) The honor of actually effecting the north- 
west passage was achieved by Capt. McClure, in the British ship Investigator, 
which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. Collinsou, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty 
chart showing the discovery published 1853. 

NOVARA (Sardinia), Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal 
Radetzky totally defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. 
The contest began at 10 a. m. and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austriana 
lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; the Sardinians lost between 
3,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia 
soon after abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king 
(1867). 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which 
began 111 b. c, and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last 
king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b. c, 
when Numidia became a Roman province. 

NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the 
study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkerton 
(1789), published works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on 
British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was 
founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr. 
Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introductiou to the 
science. Other foreign works are numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on 
the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with later editions. Works by Bushnell, 
Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snowden at Philad. 

O 

OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834 
at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three 
and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was 
placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab- 
lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof. E. Loomis. In 1840, 



152 the woeld's pbogkess. 

one at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at West Point, for 
the U. S. Military Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory pas« 
sed Congress, Aug., 18-12. In 3 844, under the superintendence of Lieut. Gilliss. 
U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished 
■with European instruments. Lieut. Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. 
Capt. Gilliss appointed iu 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro- 
nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley 
Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at 
Cincinnati founded by Prof. Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845. 
Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest 
telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret 
for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private 
individuals; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Miss 
Mitchel. 

OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. 
April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered 
Ohio. Population in 1860, 2, 377, 917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. 
Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5, 317,133. In 1866 there were 
erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,8S9,900, 4,850 houses, 1,158 barns, 78 mills, 
311 factories. 

OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, were discovered at Titusville, 
Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There 
were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per 
day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by 
the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley 
of Oil Creek, Pa. ; 30oO barrels were obtained from a single well in one day. 
Wells were discovered later iu Ohio, California, Kentucky, and West Virginia. 
From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000. 
In 1862, $60,(/ 00,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. 
The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717 
barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number- 
less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan. 1862, the price 
of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10 ; 
in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1S66-7 the petroleum fever had greatly 
diminished. 

OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 452). In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave 
funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece. 

OMNIBUSES (p. 452). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni- 
buses with 204 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 
down the city. 

OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs. of opium 
were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that 
not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and 
physicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending 
every year. The duty on opium is $2.90 per lb. ; on opium prepared for smok- 
ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5). 

OREGON (p. 455). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in 
1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000. 

ORGANS (p. 455). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, 
England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru- 
mental performers. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall at 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 153 

Boston, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beechcr's church a* 
Brooklyn, 1866. 

OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (West- 
ern Goths) about a. d. 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c, their 
great leader, Theodoric, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 
493 to 553. 

0TJDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by 
the vizier of the Great Mogul. On the dismemberment of his empire about 
1*760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal 
family. 

YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez, hear ye ! The term used by a public 
crier in law courts, &c, to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the 
date not known. 

OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The ovster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 
was valued at $20,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 worth was 
distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conn., 
is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters. 

OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein 
of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis- 
charge. It is considered to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur- 
ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action 
of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by 
Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Schonbein has since discovered 
another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone. 



PAINTING, in the U. S. (p. 458.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New 
York, historical painters. More recently, Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in land- 
scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and Elliot in portrait. In landscape paint- 
ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made ; and the 
works of Church, Bierstadt, Gilford, and others have won fame and honor 
beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index, 
also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Biog. Hist, of Fine Arts, etc. 

PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of 
the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of Geol- 
ogy. Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of 
the present century, may be reckoned as the fathers of this science. The 
Palseontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British 
organic remains, was founded in 184*7. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the 
author of an elaborate work on the Palaeontology of New York. A Professor- 
ship of Palaeontology established at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by 
Geo. Peabody, Esq. 

PALESTINE. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- 
taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the 
wars of the Crusades, and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman 
empire by Selim I. in 1516. 

PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. A new State, 
named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres- 
ident (I860) is Jose de Osbaldin. The Panama Railroad opened 1855. 

PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers in the United States 
7* 



154 the world's progress. 

lias been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, 
especially in Conn., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the 
best in England. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima- 
ted at $20,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated, 
but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great Britain. 
Mass. manufactures more paper than anv other State. Number of mills in 
1865, 77 ; value of stock $5,381,671 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for 
makiug paper in the U. S. are various, such as rags, flax, worn-out bagging, 
cable-rope, straw, hay. hemlock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canea 
and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U. S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro- 
ducing 280,000,000 lbs., which at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,000,000. 
The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000 
lbs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in- 
terested in the manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United 
States, for the year 1865-'66 gives the following results: Total income of 
ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora- 
tion reported an income of $178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of 
$314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro- 
duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. 

PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other 
banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188,385,000; France, $121,070,000; 
United States, $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the 
U. S. was $238,677,218. 

PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive 
and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has 
rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as 
great in 18?>6 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated : 
(from I79u to 1850 the whole No. was 16,296): 



Years. 
1843... 


Applied for. 
819 


Granted. 
531 


Years. 
1857 


Applied for. 
4771 


Granted. 
2710 


1850... 


2193 


995 


1859 


6225 


3710 










1856... 









The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 1859. 
Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 
being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign 
applicants. No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,378. 
Expenditure $189,803. 

PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug- 
gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings- 
land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by 
the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as- 
sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city, 
Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 59th to 106th St. : in 1S59 it was 
extended to 110th St., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2^ miles long, 
■J mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 
was assessed on adjoining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever 
before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice 
the size of Hyde Park in London ; but of its area 142 acres is occupied by the 
two Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (1856) were follow 
ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1858, and the ap- 
pointment of Mr. F. L. Olmstead as Superintendent and " Architect-in-chief. " 
Work on this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3500 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 155 

persons have been employed to this time (1867) under the general direction 
of commissioners appointed by the Legislature. A park of about equal extent 
to the " Central Park," is projected but not yet (1867) completed for the City 
of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1860. The " Common " at 
Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en- 
closures in the world. 

PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of paper pulp combined with gum and 
sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German 
snuif-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1*740. 
In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon 
spread over that district. Papier mache is now largely employed in ornament- 
ing the interior of buildings, &c. 

PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ; 
in 12 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of £10, and his 
widow £8 more as full payment for the copyright. 

PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 
1526; and conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, 
who established an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion 
in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. 
Francia was elected dictator, succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 
1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The present 
(1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized 
as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great 
Britain in 1853, by the U. States in 185- 

PARSEES, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle 
of Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- 
hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, 
but others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, where 
they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, 
has been several years professor of Gujerati at University college, London. 

PARIS, (p. 461.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napoleon, 
1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by 
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855, the first visit of an English 
sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 1422. The great Ex- 
position of 1867, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of 
the world — and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of 
Prussia, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c. 

PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono- 
rius, archbishop of Canterbury, a. d. 636. The parishes of England and Wales 
now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced a. d. 1538 

PARLIAMENT, (p. 462.) 

The Peers took possession of their 
house, that portion of the palace 
being ready April 15, 1847 



The members of the Commons' 
House of Parliament assem- 



bled in their new house 

Nov. 4, 1852 

Baron L. Rothschild, the first 
Jew admitted July 26, 1858 



PARMA, (p. 462.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose, 
and established a provisional government, May 3 ; the duchess-regent retired 
to Switzerland. On Sept. 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another 
without the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was some- 
what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 



156 the world's progress. 

6s. to <5d. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1S59; in Sweden in 1860; 
and (with regard to British subjects) in Fiance, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Italy, June 
26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863; and are falling into disuse in other 
countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United States 
dnring part of the war of 1861-4. 

PASSAU, Treaty of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es- 
tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles V. and 
the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12,1552. By this pacification the 
Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault. In 1662 
the cathedral and greatest pa,rt of the town were consumed by fire. 

PAWNBROKERS, (p. 464.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of 
pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to 
publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres- 
ent street of bankers in London. They have been humorously described as 
meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would 
never be redeemed. 

PEABODY FUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American 
merchant, gave £150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A 
large pile of buildings, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as 
homes for working classes. In U. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S. 
donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund 
for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus- 
tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. 
Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of 
Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr. 
Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the amount of his gift, March 4, 1867. 

PEACE SOCIETY, American. The first peace society in the world was found- 
ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A similar society was founded at Paris in 1821. 
Peace Society in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni- 
versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of 
the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at 
Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years, Bright, 
Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part. 

PELASGI. The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the 
Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 b. c. and in Italy 
about 1600 b. c. They have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, 
&c. From the Pelasgi come the Dorians, iEolians, and Ionians ; all three 
being Hellenes or Greeks. 

PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279; and by 
Yong-lo, 1471 ; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793; surrendered to the allied 
English and French armies, Oct. 12, 1860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 
following, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very 
desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000. 

PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the roll3 
in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their 
payment, $1,183,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in- 1860, 
In 1866, only 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, 
$300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro- 
duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866, 
was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, 
$13,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1S66). 



SUPPEMENT, 1851-( 



157 



PENNSYLVANIA. Population in 1860, 2,906,113. Number of common schools 
in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 362,284 soldiers for the war. 
It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having 
been made by the legislature to support such. 

PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con- 
version of 2f tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the 
first, gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for £7 4s ; now the commonest 
pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are 
now made to a large extent in the U. S. 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. 

PERSEPOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been 
falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 b. c. The fire is said 
to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist. 

PERU. 



Marshal San Eamon president, 

Oct. 24, 1862 

General J. A.' Pezet president, 

April 3, 1863 

The Spanish admiral Pizon took 
possession of the Chincha isles 
(valuable for guano), belonging 
to Peru, stating that he would 
occupy them till the claim of 
his government on that of Peru 
was satisfied April 24. 1864 

Congress at Lima : plenipoten- ' 



tiaries from Ohili and other states 
meet to concert measures for de- 
fence against European powers.. Nov. 1864 

Negotiations followed by peace with 
Spain, Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands re- 
stored Feb. 3, 1865 

Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 
2S ; several provinces soon lost.. May 1865 

The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet 
flies, and Canseco becomes president 

Nov. 1865 



PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera- 
tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the 
Romans, 309 and 295 b. c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe- 
rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo 
X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in- 
surrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, 
Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal 
soldiers was afterwards indemnified. 

PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of 
grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution. Petitions 
are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitions be- 
gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable numbers. In 
183*7, there were presented to parliament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 
persons ; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 persons. This right defended 
by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented 
a petition for dissolution of the Union. 

PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many 
parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-spring3 
were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now 
termed " Petrolia," and others have been since discovered in Ohio and other 
states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells have 
been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. 
In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this country, 
and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at Ifjw 
temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum " was passed in July, 
1862. 

PETROPAULO VSKI. A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtschat 



158 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repulsed, Aug. SO, 18B4. 
It was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destroyed. 

PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation: 
about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reading-pew with 
a date, is one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. 

PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of drugs 
and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon- 
don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in 
New York founded in 184-. 

PHILADELPHIA, City of. Population in 1860, 585,529. During the war fot 
the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot 
ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably 
entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made 
for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Clubs. 

PHILOSOPHY, (p. 470). 



MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Ancient Schools. — Pythago- 
reati, about b. o. 500 ; Platonic, 
(the Academy), by Plato, 374; 
Peripatetic (the Lyceum), by 
Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by 
Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic, by Diog- 
enes, 330: Epicurean, by Epi- 
curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno, 
290 ; Middle Academy, by Ar- 
cesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, 
by Oarneades, 160. 

Modern Systems, — Rational, Ba- 
con, ab't a. d. 1624 ; Cartesian, 
Descartes, about 1 650 ; Reflec- 
tive or Perceptive, Locke, ] 690 ; 
Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; Elec- 
tive, Leibnitz, 1710 ; Common 
Sense, Reid, 1750-70; Tran- 
scendental, Kant, 1770-1860 ; 
Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; Ab- 
solute Identity, Schelling, 1800- 
20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 
1810-30; Utilitarian, Bentham, 
1790-1830 ; Positive, Comto, 
1830. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek and Latin. — Thales, about 
b. c. 600 ; Pythagoras, 590 ; 
Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Eu- 
clid, 300; Archimedes, 287; 



Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, ahout 
100 ; Julius Cffisar, 50 ; Ptolemy, 

A. D. 150. 

Middle Ages. — Arabians ; Ben Musa, 
800; Alhazen ; &c, 1100. Gerbert, 
Decimals, 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus 
Majus, 1266. 

INDUCTIVE philosophy. 

Copernicus's system published 1543 

Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 

Kepler's Laws 1609-18 

Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 

Galileo's Dialogues 1632 

Royal Society begimiwhich see) 1645 

Otto Guericke — Ai r-pump 1654 

Huyghens on Pendulums 165S 

Newton — Fluxions, 1655 ; Analysis of 
Light, 1699; Theory of Gravitation, 
1684 ; Principia published 1687 ; 

Death 1727 

Bradley discovers aberration 1727 

Euler on Perturbation of the Planets 1748 

Black on He:it 1 76i 

Laplace on Tides 1775 

Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique 178S 

Galvani's and Volta's researches 1791 

Laplace, Mechanique Celeste 1799 

(See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
Electricity, &c. 



PHOENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent 
navigators and traders of antiquity ; their cities being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, 
Tripoli, Byblos, and Ptolemais of Acre. From the nineteenth to the thir- 
teenth centuries before Christ, they established colonies on the shores or isles 
of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, Panormus; and are 
said to have visited the British isles. Phoenicia was conquered by Cyrus, 537 
b. c. ; by Alexander, 334 ; by the Romans, 47 ; and was added to the Otto- 
man empire, a. d. 1392. 

PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek, phone, sound). The English Phonetic So- 
ciety, whose object is to reform our mode of writing and printing by rendering 
it more consonant to sound, was established March 1, 1843 ; Isaac Pitman, 
pecretary, he being the inventor of the system which was known in 1837 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 159 

Among other works published by the promoters of this system was the ' Pho- 
netic News." 

PHOSPHORUS, (p. 470.) The consumption of phosphorus has immensely in- 
creased since the manufacture of lucifer matches. In 1805, Schrotter of 
Vienna, made the important discovery of what is termed allotropic or amor- 
phous phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phos- 
phorus. 

PHOTO-GALVANOGRAPHY. The art of producing engravings by the action 
of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore 
Niepce, and presented by him, in 182*7, to the great botanist, Robert Brown, 
in Eng. Great advances have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de 
St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, 
H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, Paul Pretsch patented in England a process which 
he called " Photo-galvanography," and a company was formed to apply it to the 
benefit of the public. 

PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVING (a process by which the light actually etches a 
picture on a plate that may be and has been printed from), was invented by 
Mr. Fox Talbot, in Eng. in 1859. 

PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early 
as the sixteenth century. The phenomena were studied by Scheele (1777), 
Senebier (1790), Ritter and Wollaston (1801). From the results of these in- 
vestigations, experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry 
Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first 
photographer. His paper was entitled "An Account of a method of copying 
paintings upon glass, and of making profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate 
of silver." Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and Sir J. 
Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824; and in 
1826 joined Niepce, and worked with him till the death of the latter in 1833. 
The production of the Daguerreotype plates was announced in Jan., 1839; 
and the French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to 
Isidore Niepce (the son). In 1839, also, Henry Fox Talbot first published his 
mode of multiplying photographic impressions, by producing a negative pho- 
tograph (i. e. with the lights and shades reversed), from which any number of 
positive copies may be obtained. His patent for producing the Taibotype or 
Calotype (on paper), is dated Feb. 1841. From this time improvements have 
been made with great rapidity. In 1851, Collodion was applied to photography 
by Mr. F. Archer. Photographic Society of London, established Jan. 1853. 
It publishes a journal. Celestial Photography began with Professor Bond, the 
astronomer of Cambridge, IT. S., who exhibited a photograph of the moon in 
1851. In the U. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photog- 
raphy in the U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in the 
course of a lecture at the Broadway Tabernacle, early in that year. Pro- 
fessors Morse, Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, before the end of the 
year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 applied it to portraiture. 
Ambrotypes were introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851, 
although very little was done in the business way until 1854. Early in 1855, 
Mr. C. D. Fredricks made the first successful life-sized photographs, with an 
apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. Snelling. Professor Bond, of Cambridge, 
Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. Photographs of 
rapidly-moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a second. Ingenious 
counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography. 

PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs, 



1G0 the world's progress. 

McKaye & Co. ; among the earliest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farra 
gut, Greeley, and others. 

PIANO-FORTES. Those made by Stein way of New York, and Chickering of 
Boston, received the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of 
1867, July 1. This manufacture has advanced very largely in the last 15 
years, and is one of the most important branches of American industry. 
There are in New York city alone 113 piano-makers (1867). 

PIEDMONT {Pedemontium, Latin, foot of the mountains). A region in North 
Italy, seat of government of the modern kingdom of Sardinia, which see. 

PINS. (p. 472.) Pins were first manufactured by machinery in England, in 
1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wight, of the TJ. S. — Haydn. 

PISTOLS, (p. 472.) Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylin- 
drical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, 
and bringing them in succession into a line with the barrel for firing. The 
earliest model for this kind of arm is to be found in the United Service 
Museum, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. The manufac- 
ture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into England from the 
United States, in 1853, by Col. Colt, the inventor of the celebrated Colt pis- 
tol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to Eng- 
land. The perfection and economy of this system of manufacture induced the 
British Government to establish the Enfield Armory in the year 1855. — Haydn. 
In 1835 Colt patented his revolving chambered breech ; and in 1852, founded 
his manufactory at Hartford, Conn., where the Colt Arms Co. make revolving 
pistols of several sizes, costing from $10 to $25 each, at the rate of 300 and 
sometimes even 500 each day. This revolver has 14 parts, besides screws, 
and these pass through (in all) 460 separate processes before the pistol is 
completed. Various other revolving pistols have been invented, but none so 
successful. The Derringer pistol is single-barrelled, throwing a small ball. 

PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862 
a great battle was fought between the U. S. troops under Grant and Prentiss, 
and the rebels under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter 
began the attack and were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. 
Grant was reinforced the next day and renewed the attack ; the rebels main- 
tained their ground ; but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 

PLANETS. See Astronomy. Asteroids have been discovered as follows : 



Eygeia, by A. de Gasparis. April 12, 1849 
Parlhenope, by the same.... May 11, 1S50 

Victoria, by J. R. Hind Sept. 13, 1850 

Egeria, by A. de Gasparis...lSrov. 2, 1850 

Irene, by 'J. R. Hind May 19, 1851 

Eunomia, by A. de Gasparis.July 29, 1851 

Psyche, by the same March 17, 1852 

Thetis, by R. Luther April 17, 1852 

Melpomene, by J. E. Hind. . .June 24, 1852 
Fortuna, by the same Aug. 22, 1852 



Massilia, by A. de Gasparis 

Sept. 19, 1852 
Lutetia, by H. Goldsmith. Nov. 15, 1852 

Calliope, by J. R. Hind Nov. 16, do 

Thalia, by the same Deo. 15, do. 

4 in 1853 ; 6 in 1854 , 4 in 1855 ; 5 in 
1856 ; 9 in 1857 ; 5 in 1858; 1 in 1859; 
5 in 1860 ; 9 in 1861 ; 5 in 1S62 ; 2 in 
1863 ; 3 in 1864 ; and 3 in 1865. 



PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY (England) conveys letters and parcels 
through tubes by means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
pany's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid down inThreadneedle 
street on Sept. 12, 1860 ; and on Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiments were 
performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the Euston rail- 
way station to the N. W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863, 
the conveyance of the mail bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid 
down between Euston railway and Holborn ; and on Nov. 7, several persona 
travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 161 

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN". A body of Christians calling themselves " the 
Brethren," which first appeared at Plymouth, England, about 1830. In 1851 
they had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. They object tc 
national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters as too sectarian. 
They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy Ghost 
as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant 
churches, but they recognize no order of ministers. 

POET-LAUREATE— England. Alfred Tennyson, appointed 1850. 

POLICE. The "Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and sub- 
urbs, passed 1857, resisted by the mayor (Wood), and a serious collision re- 
sults between the old and new police force, June 16, 1857. The new law 
pronounced to be constitutional by the Court of Appeals, July 2, and the old 
force is disbanded next day. The present police force of New York (1861), 
is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever been 
organized on this continent. In 1866, the police force consisted of 26 cap- 
tains, 105 sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 door- 
men. There are 26 Police districts. Expense to the city for supporting this 
force in 1866, $1,836,120. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, (p. 418.) In the U. States, the most elaborate works on 
this subject, are those of Mr. Henry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as 
a protectionist), several volumes which are highly esteemed also in Europe. 
Works favoring free trade, have also been issued here by Opdyke, and others. 

POLYNESIA. A name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 

PONTIFFS (Latin, Pontijices). The highest Roman sacerdotal order, established 
by Numa. The college first consisted of 4 Patricians ; to these 4 plebeians 
were afterwards added. Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 majcres, 7 
minores). The chief was called the Pontifex Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a 
plebeian, obtained this office, 254 b. c. 

POPULATION of the Globe, (p. 481.) Professor C. F. W. Dietrich, of the 
University of Berlin, has furnished the Academy of Sciences in that city with 
the most recent and reliable tables on this subject, giving the following results, 
with his grounds for them. 



Population of Europe 272,000,000 

" "Asia... 755,000,000 

" " America 200,000,000 

" " Africa 59,000,000 



Population of Australia, etc 2,000,000 

Total 1,288,000,000 



or more than twelve hundred millions. Reckoning the average death as 
about one in every forty inhabitants, 32,000,000 die in a year ; 81,611 in a 
day ; 3,653 in an hour ; and 61 in a minute. Thus one human being dies on 
an average every second, and more than one is born. Of the U. S. In 1850, 
23,191,000 ; in "i860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the following cities had over 100,- 
000 -.—New York, 805,651 ; Philadelphia, 585,529 ; Brooklyn, 266,661 ; 
Baltimore, 212,418 ; Boston, 111,812 ; New Orleans, 168,615 ; Cincinnati, 
161,044 ; St. Louis, 160,113 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofficial hut reliable 
estimate taken by an officer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total popula- 
tion of the U. S. was found to be 34,505,882. 

PORTLAND, Maine. Population in 1860, 26,342. See Fires. 

PORT ROYALISTS. The came popularly given to the learned members of the 
celebrated convent of the Port Royal des Champs (founded about 1204 ; ana 
refounded in 1626), who occupied their time therein religious exercises, and in 
instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were expelled by 



162 the world's progress. 

Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguished names con- 
nected with the Port Royal are those of Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de 
Sacy and Tillemont. The school books which were published for the use of 
that institution were greatly esteemed. 
PORTUGAL, (p. 485.) 

An American squadron arrives 
in the Tagus to enforce claims 
against the Portuguese govern- 
ment June 22, 1850 

Death of the queen Maria II. 

Nov. 15, 1853 
King-consort recognized as re- 
gent Dec. 19, 1853 

The young king visits England 

June, 1854 

And France May, 1855 

All the slaves on the Royal do- 
mains declared free.... Dec. 30, 1854 
Inauguration of the king. Sept. 16, 1855 
Resignation of the Saidanha 
ministry June 5, 1856 



First Portuguese railway (from Lis- 
bon to Santarem) opened Oct. 26, 1S58 

The French emigrant ship for negroes 
Charles-et-Georgcs, seized Nov. 29, 1851 

Anger of the French government ; its 
ultimatum sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships 
of war to the Tagus ; the vessel re- 
stored Oct. 2?, 1853 

1853. Peter V. (Don Pedro), born 
Sept. 16, 1837 ] the present (lc59) king 
of Portugal. Married to the princess 
Stephania, of Hohenzollern Sigmar- 
ingen, May 18, 185S ; who died 

July 17, 1859 

[Heir, Prince Louis-Phil ; p, the king's 
brother, born Oct 31, 1S38.] 







do .... 


" 21 do 


do 


" 3 do 


do 


» 3i do 


do 


«' 4| do 


do 









POST OFFICE. U. S. (p. 484.) For the year ending June 30, 1859 : number 
of post-offices, 28,539 ; increase, during the year, 562 ; mail routes, 8,273 ; 
aggregate length, 260,052 miles ; annual transportation, 82,308,402 miles, of 
which by railroads, 26.010 miles, total, 27,268,384 miles, at 11.9 cents per 
mile ; by steamboats, 19,209 miles, total, 4,569,962, at 25.3 cents per mile ; 
by coaches, 63,041 miles, total, 23,448,498 miles, at 13.3 cents per mile ; by 
inferior modes, 151,792 miles ; total, 27,021,658, at 7.1 cents per mile. Ex- 
penditures of the department for 1859, $14,964,493; revenue, $7,968,484 ; 
deficiency, $6,996,009. See Tab'e in Appendix. Nearly 2,000,000 "dead 
letters " annually fail to reach the persons addressed. The Post Office re- 
ceipts were in 

1854 7 millions . 

1855 7i 

1856 7 A 

1857 8 

1858 8 

1859 Si 

I860.: 8* 

Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, 
$11,163,000 ; expenditures, $11,314,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of 
postage stamps were sold ; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes ; $23,315 
worth of stamped wrappers. 467,500,000 letters were conveyed in the mails, 
of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4,368,000. 
There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,12 2. The 
revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the highest annual receipts from all the 
states previous to the rebellion by $6,038,090. The most money that can be 
sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867, 
180,900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30, 
1865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase 
being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre- 
vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $12,099,787 were sold, also 
$724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It 
is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of 
which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was 
4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,860,- 
122. The average annual increase of the revenue for the last four years over 
the preceding four years was $3,533,845. The Postmaster-General thinks 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 163 

that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted by 
Great Britain. 

POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 300 new money-order offices 
were added, making TOO such post offices. The largest amount that can be 
sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed — the 
charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to $20 ; and 25 cents od 
any order over $20. 

POST OFFICE, British. The net revenue was in 1853, £1,104,000 ; in 1857, 
£1,293,971. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 1837, and 
adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of the old system 
was, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 millions ; in 1858, it was 523 
millions. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post, 
at the rate of Id. for 4 oz. The number of letters annually passing through 
the Post offices of Great Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system, 
is four times as great as in the United States, as by the following table : 

No. of Letters per Postal Postal 

Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues. 

United States 25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792 

Great Britain 30,000,000 410,817,489 13,693 14,884,800 9,245,000 

Prance 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900 

Spam 14,000,000 30,775,686 2,209 1,095,398 1,281,761 

Belgium 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648 

Holland 3.200.000 13.349,553 4,357 156,785 288,162 

Switzerland 2,300,000 19,773,671 8,299 341,028 447,752 

PRAETORIAN" GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (b.c. 13), 
and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first 
supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, 
actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in a.d 193 when it was 
bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and 
were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. 

PRESBYTERIAN'S, (p. 488.) The Presbyterian church in the United States 
was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850, 
the aggregate No. of churches was 4,5S4, accommodating 2,040,000 persons. 
The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization, 
Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu- 
tions "that to support the President and the Government of the U. S. is relig- 
iously the duty of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old 
School" Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers, 
2,301; churches, 2,629. "New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers, 
1,694; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 1862, 200,000. 
Contributions of " Old School " in 1865, $2,400,000 ; " New School," $2,200,000. 

PRESS, freedom of the, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1861 
for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y. " Journal of Commerce," 
"News," "Day Book," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand 
Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara- 
tions ; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails, 
Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of 
military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the 
" Chicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed 
for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers 
passed resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten- 
dency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did not express trea- 
son or give information to the enemy. 

PRINTING, (p. 490.) In the United States this important art has made great ad- 



164 the world's progress. 

varices during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam* 
brige, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens, 
nearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence haa 
been especially aimed at of late in this country, while economy and cheapness 
have been more studied in England. 

PRINTING TYPES first electrofaced with copper, about 1850. 

PRINTING IN COLORS was first commenced by the employment of several 
blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of 
Faust, a.d 145*7, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro 
soon followed (" Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 
1519. in Germany ; others, by Ugo da Carpi in Italy, 1518). In 1819-22, Mr. 
William Savage published in England " Hints on Color Printing," illustrated 
by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly 
admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter 
produced beautiful specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, 
which expired in 1855. Since then great improvements have been made in 
the art. It has been applied to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In 
1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by 
means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851, he 
commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ; 
and also electrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as 
well as durability. — Haydn. This art is also practised considerably in the U. 
S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print- 
ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Phila., about 1848, has been 
carried to great perfection. 

PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 488.) The largest presses more recently constructed by 
Hoe & Co., of New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These 
are the "ten-cylinder type-revolving printing machines." Two of these have 
been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four 
daily newspapers in New York. The cost of each press is about $30,000. Of 
the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great 
Britain, 4 in Paris, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now 
manufactured by Hoe & Co. 

PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States in 1865, 25. 

if No two are alike in their general construction. Average number of prisoners 

n them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in 

pratice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly 

promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850. 

PRISONERS. During the "Rebellion," U. S., at the close of the war, 174,223 
were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government 
also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1863, there was a general ex- 
change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for 110,800 Union 
soldiers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. From 
1861 to 1864, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Rich- 
mond. 35,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed- 
erate) tried at Washington, D. C, for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at 
the latter place, and executed Nov. 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoneis) placed 
under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C, in retaliation for bombarding 
the city, 1864. 

PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing 
with a license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships 
of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war betweei; 



supplement, 1851-67. 



165 



Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was 
very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856; but the U. S. govern- 
ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250 
privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from 
New York, 40 from Salem, and 31 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British 
vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers. 
About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See 
CoggeshalVs Hist, of Am. Privateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863) 
passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabling the President to cover every sea with 
Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently 
effective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. 
Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American 
merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many millions. The fleetest of 
these Privateers were of French and British build, and some of them manned 
by seamen from those nations. 

PjJIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 1861 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 
Rebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis- 
tribution among seamen $20,501,927. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk 
the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece. 

PROPERTY in the U. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the U. S 
was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11, 317,611, 6*72 (more 
than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,- 
726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiar prop- 
erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions. 

PRUSSIA, (p. 494.) 

Prince of Prussia made permanent 
regent Oct. 7, 1 858 

Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
arms to protect G-erm'y. May & June, 1859 

Death of the king and the accession of 
the Prince of Prussia, as William I. 

Jan. 2, 1S61 

War was declared by Prussia and Italy 
against Austria ; Bavaria, Saxony, 
and Hanover sided with 'Austria; 
The Prussian army occupied Hano- 
ver and Saxony. (See Battles, Austrian 
and Prussian) June 17, and 18, 1866 

Negotiations for an armistice com- 
menced July 12, 1S66. Prussian ad- 
vance in sight of Vienna, July 22. 
Treaty of Peace signed Aug. 30; 
Prussia acquired Hanover, Schles- 
•wig-Holstein, Pxesse-Cassel, Nassau, 
Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and 
Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa- 
tions her population became 23,583,- 
000 ; the strength of Austria remain- 
ed united, but she paid Prussia $28,- 
000,000 ; Venetian Province ceded 
to Italy : a vote on the question of 
annexation of Venetia to Italy was 
held in that province, resulting in 
641,758 affirmative, 68 negative. 

Oct. 19, 1868 

The King of Italy entered Venice, 
amid great demonstrations of joy 

Nov. 7, 1888 



The king takes the oath required 
by the new constitution. Feb. 6, 1850 

Treaty of peace between Prus- 
sia and Denmark July 2, 1S50 

Decree, calling out the whole 
Prussian army, 223,000 infan- 
try, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 
artillery,with 1,0S0 field-pieces. 

Nov. 7, 1850 

The Prussian troops commence 
their retreatfrom Hesse-Cassel 

Dec. 5, 1850 

The king celebrates by a grand 
banquet the 150th anniversary 
of tb e Prussian monarchy, 

Jan. 18, 1851 

The king revives the council of 
state as it existed before the 
revolution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852 

A Prussian Industrial exhibition 
opened at Berlin May 28, 1852 

Prussia repudiates a customs 
union witli Austria June 17, 1852 

But agrees to a commercial 
treaty Feb. 19,1853 

Continues neutral in the war. . . . 

Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 1854 

^Excluded from the conferences 
at Vienna Pub. 1855 

Alarming illness of the king, the 
prince of Prussia appointed 
regent for three months Oct. 23, 1857 

Prince Frederick William of 
Prussia, married to the prin- 
cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1858 



166 T^ZE WO.RI.T.'s PEOSESeS. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a. d 
140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that 
the sun, moon, and stars moved around once in twenty-four hours. This 
system (still the official doctrine of the Church of Rome), was universally 
taught till that of Pythagoras (500 b. c.) was revived by Copernicus (a. d, 
1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (1687). 

PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public lands reached 
122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the 
amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,487,495 acres : the 
quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold 
for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. 

PUBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than 
any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct 
at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek, 
in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span than any stone arch 
in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension 
bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in 
the world. The United States Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di- 
mensions, nor surpassed in workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. 

PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and 
doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of 
oar points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced 
about 1485; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) 
about 1750. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well 
as the note of interrogation ('?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis (). 

Q 

QUADRANGLE, on Quadrilateral. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian 
fortresses in North Italy : — (1) Peschiera, on an islaud in the Mincio, near the 
lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and 
Russians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It 
was taken by the Sardinians in 1848 ; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The 
Sardinians were about to invest it in 1859, when peace was made: (2) Mantua, 
on the Mincio ; (3) Verona : and (4) Legnano ; both on the Adige. 

QUAKERS, (p. 497.) In 1682, Wm. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized 
Philadelphia, where on Jan. ]», 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In 
England, on Jan. 23, 1833, Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to Parlia- 
ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in 
1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed 
to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the 
peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. 

QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal 
ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at 
Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an " orderly mob " of 
citizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858. 

QUININE or Quinia. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 
by Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona 
barks, especially of the yellow bark. 

R 

RACES, (p. 501.) The most eminent races in England are those at Newmarket, 
established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by Mr. Park' 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 167 

hurst (they have been annual since 1730) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of 
Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Doncaster, in 1*776, and at Goodwood, 
begun by the Duke of Richmond (who died in 1806). The English Jockey 
Club began in the time of George II. The New York Jockey Club and the 
race course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flying Ghilders, bred in 
1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the 
fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred in the w r orld ; 
he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 85-^ 
miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 26 
years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $30,000 for Dexter, 
a fast trotter, Aug. 1867. 

RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up 
in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but 
did not receive their name till that year, when the "Ragged School Union" 
was formed. In 1856, there were 150 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges, 
where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 500 
boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. In New York and other large 
cities of the U. S., "Ragged Schools" have been established by benevolent in- 
dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute children, who would 
otherwise have received no instruction. " Mission Schools " also have gathered 
in thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only 
with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The " fourth Ward " 
and "five Points " Missions are of this character. 

RAILROADS of the World. 

, Area 6q. mile. s , Population , 

Miles of To mile To mile 

railroad. of RR. of RR. 

H". America 39,414.1 7,600,000 192.8 52,000,000 1,309.3 

Vest Indies 410.3 100,000 243.7 ■ 3,500,000 8.529.8 

S.America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,814.4 22,500,000 21,595.1 

Tot. Amer 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6 

Europe 50,117.5 3,600,000 71.8 285,000,000 5,6SG.O 

Asia 3,660.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3 

Africa 375.4 11,700,000 31.166.7 200,000,000 532,765.1 

Australasia 607.7 3,200,000 5,265.7 1,600,000 2,632.8 

Total of 

world....... 95,727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,903.3 

See table in detail, in Com. & Financial Chronicle, N. Y. 

RAILWAYS, (p. 502.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings 
has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is was 69 millions ; the 
railway mania and panic year was 1846, when 270 railway acts passed. Up to 
1858, the sum of £308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S. 
In June, 1859, the length of railways in operation in the United States was 
stated to be 27,857 miles; cost $961,047,364. Increase since 1847, 24,057 
miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,935 miles ; cost 
$1,432,649,000; cost per mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles ; Ohio, 
3,393; Illinois, 3,206; New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, 183, in 
which 335 persons were killed. In Cities. On the eleven street railroads in 
the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 
1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the 
previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The. earnings of the roads for the same 
period were $4,623,583, and the expense $2,821,625. 



1G8 



THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 



RAILWAY TRAVELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this mode 
of travelling is much safer than the old modes. Thus in the French post sys* 
tern there were nearly seven times as many deaths as in an equal number of 
miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial 
ly in the United States. The summary of several years shows 



Passengers. 
In England killed or wounded 1 in 311,340 
In United States, " " le8,459 



Passengers. 
In Prussia, killed or wounded 1 in 1,291,075 
In Belgium, " " " 1,611,237 

Id France, " " " 375,092 

The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia, 
probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro- 
portion. Disasters. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R., 42 killed, Oct. 27, 
1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k. and w., Nov. 1, 1854; Camden 
and Amboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855 ; Pacific R. R., 
near St. Louis, 25 k., 50 w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R. R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6, 
1856 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 78 w., July 17, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can- 
ada, 70 k., March 12, 1857 ; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ; 
Michigan Southern, near South Bend, 38 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci- 
dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per- 
sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 7 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed, 
3,611 injured. 

RAPE, Punishment of, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten 
years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du- 
ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiers convicted 
of rape. 

REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present 
century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine 
was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1816, and received a gold medal 
from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also 
American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's 
received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867. 

REBELLION'S in U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, 1786. 
The "Whiskey Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode 
Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West, 
having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, Jan. 
9th, 1861. See Secession, Treason. In British History. The most im- 
portant were : 



Of the Barons, April, 1215. Compro- 
mised by the grant of Magna Oharta, 
June 15 following. See Magna 
Oharta. 

Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul- 
garly called Wat Tyler, occasioned 
by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col- 
lector to his daughter. Having 
killed the collector in his rage, be 
raised aparty to oppose the tax itself, 
which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. 

Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of 
York, against Henry VI., 1450. 

Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which 
ended in the execution of Warbeck. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; 
it ended in his death. 

Of the Scots in favor of the Old Pre- 
tender 1715; quelled in 1716. 



Of the Scots, under the Yonng Pre- 
tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1716, 
when lords Lovat, Balmerino, and 
Kilmarnock were beheaded. 

Of the Americans, on account of tax- 
ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a 
disastrous war, to the loss of the 
chief North American colonies, and 
to the independence of tie United 
States, 1782. 

Canadian Insurrection, December, 
1837 to Nov. 1 838. 

Of Cliartists, Nov. 3, 1839. 

Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion; termi- 
nated in his defeat, Tipperary, July 
29, 1848. 

Fenian outbreak in Canada, 1866. Id 
Ireland 1867. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



169 



RECIPROCITY Treaty with Canada, ratified at Washington, June 5, 1854. It 
allowed certain privileges of trade to both parties, and either could withdraw 
from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized 
to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 17, 1866. It was argued against 
the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be against 
the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have 
the same rights as the English, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the 
British Provinces. 

REPUBLICAN PARTY, C. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1851. 
The whig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas 
Nebraska bill, and the repudiation of 'the Missouri Compromise. All who op 
posed the bill were called "anti-Nebraska," and afterwards "Republicans.'* 
In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. (Greeley's History.) 
Their first presidential convention was held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Pre 
mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican 
Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was 
elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 
1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Republican." 

REVIEWS and MAGAZINES, (p. 508.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced 
in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853; sold to new pub- 
lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. 1857, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston), 
commenced 1857 (Dec). Russell's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858, 
ceased 1860. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey 
Magazine 1867. British, (p. 507.) 



Tait's Mag., founded 1833 
Dublin University. ... 1 833 

North British Rev 1844 

New Quarterly Rev. . .1852 
Household Words (Dic- 
kens) 1852 

Don. Quarterly 1853 

National Rev 1855 

All the Year Round 



(Dickens) 1P5S 

Once a Week 1859 

MacMillan's 1859 

Cornhill Mag. (Thacke- 
ray) 1860 

Temple Bar Ma?. (Sala) 1860 

St. James Mag 1860 

Good Words 1861 

Popular Science Rev 1S61 



London Society 1862 

Victoria 1803 

Union Rev 1863 

Fortnightly Kev 1865 

A rgoi^y 1S65 

" Belgravia " Mag 1S66 

Broadway 1S67 

Tinsley's 1S67 



REVIVALS of Religion. Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub- 
jects in the United States in 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to 
Scotland and Ireland. 

REVENUE of the United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus- 
toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 



1850. $43,000,000 

1855 65,000.000 

1859 53,000,000 



1860 §56,054,599 

1861 41,476,299 

1862 51,935,720 



Revenue of the U. S, for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans): 

Year. Internal. Customs. Total. Expenditures. 

1863 $37,640,787 £69,059,642 $112,687,290 $895,796,630 

1864 109,741,134 102,316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144,656 

1885 209,464,215 84,928,260 333,714,605 1,897,674,224 

1866 , 309,226,813 179.046,651 558,032,620 1,141,072,666 

Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, wag 
$1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on 
the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861- 
2-3, Congress passed laws for increased revenue to maintain the war. The 
Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles. 
The revenue from this source in 1862 to 1866 is stated in above table. 

REVIEW Military, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at thu 



170 the woeld's peogeess. 

close of the war, at Washington, D. C, May, 1865, The army of the \»est 
under Sherman, and of the east under Meade, reviewed by the President, Cab- 
inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched by the White Hous«, 
occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country 
were present to witness the sight. 

REFORM in Parliament (England), (p. 504.) A new Reform bill, introduced 
by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected 
March 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords 
July 15 1867. 

REGENT'S PARK, London. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging 
to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced 
under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most 
beautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres, 
laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by 
roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev- 
eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of 

' architecture. 

RENTS in England, were first made payable in moDey, instead of in kind, a. d. 
1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the 
relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England, 
the duke of Sutherland received lis rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland 
in the value of wool and sheep.. The rental of England, including, land, 
houses, and mines, was six millions about the year 1600, and twelve years' 
purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen mil- 
lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Reve- 
nues. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in 
parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c. 

RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860, 174,621 ; in 
1865, 184,695, of whom 112,107 were born in the state. It sent 25,455 sol- 
diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000. 

RIOTS in the U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the 
enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three days. 
The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000. 
They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated 
at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes 
County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Bread riots 
in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1863, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 18, 
and at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven- 
tion broken up by ex-rebels and policemen ; 30 negroes and a few whites 
killed. Attack on Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. 
Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866. 

RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 
1779. Population in 1800, 5,730; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 
1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many 
years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the 
secession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital of the "Southern Con- 
federacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at 
by the " Union army of the Potomac," The place was fortified with great 
skill. It fell April 2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by 
the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The 
notorious " Libby Prison" was situated in Richmond. 

ROADS AND PAVEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eng- 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 171 

land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 1818. 
Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London ; 
at Whitehall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon 
after. In New York and some other American cities the best pavements 
have been those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu- 
larly that known as the Russ pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in- 
troduced which has proved satisfactory. 

ROBBERS. First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which 
directed that the oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was 
pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in 
England, a. d. 1189, and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an his- 
torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. 1670. In later 
times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1*790. 

ROCHELLE (W. France) A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng- 
lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, 
in 1372. It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France ; and was 
vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re- 
markable siege of thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke 
of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve the besieged ; but 
they, from distrust, declined to admit him. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS in the United States, in 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from 
the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859: 

1S39 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859 

Provinces 1 3 7 1 Priests 478 1000 2108 

Dioceses 16 30 4S Churches 418 966 2334 

Bishops 18 26 45 | 

The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the U. S., in 1863, was 3,177,000. 
ROME. (p. 511.) 



The pope issues the bull estab- 
lishing a, Roman Catholic hier- 
archy in England (see Papal 
Aggression)., Sept. 24, 1S50 

Important concordat with Aus- 
tria ., Aug., 1655 

The pope visits different parts of 
his dominions June, 1857 



Insurrection in the Bom.igna, at Bo- 
logna and FeiTiira Tune, 1850 

Tbey declare for adhesion to Pied- 
mont Sept. 1859 

Accept Buoncotnpagni as Grovevnor- 
General Nov. 1859 



RONCESVALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised 
and defeated by the Gascons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando, 
slain, a. d. 778. 

ROSETTA STONE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum. 
In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in- 
scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 24, feet 
wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified 
hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy 
Epiphanes (about 194 b. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T. 
Young and Champollion. 

ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, 
Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a 
money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he 
placed the sign of the Red Shield (in German, Roth Schild). Having had deal- 
ings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince entrusted him with his treasure 
(said to have been £250,000), in 1806, when the French held his country. 
With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and re- 
stored the £250,000 to the landgrave in 18 15. At his death his sons con- 



172 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



tinued the business as partners. His son, Nathan began at Manchester in 
1*798, removed to London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, July 28, 1886. 

EOTTERDAM. The second city in Hollaud. Its importance dates from the thir- 
teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. 
It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations 
in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. 

ROUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the. capital of Normandy in 
the tenth century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was re- 
taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was 
burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of 
France in 1449. 

RUSSIA, (p. 513.) 



Russia demands an expulsion of 
the Hungarian and Polish refu- 
gees from Turkey (see Turkey) 

Nov. 5, 1849 

They are sent to Koniah, in Asia 

Minor Tan. 1850 

Harbor of Scbastopol completed, 

Feb. 1850 

The czar concentrates his forces 
on the frontiers of Turkey 

Feb. 1853 

Orign of the Russo-Turidsh war, 
(.which see).: March, 1853 

The czar issues a manifesto to 
his subjects ; he will only com- 
bat for' the faith and Christian- 
ity, April 23, 1854 

Death of the Czar Nicholns ; no 
change of policy March 2, 1855 

Most extensive levy ordered by 
the czar (at Nicolaieff). .Nov. 3, 1855 

He visits his army at Sobastopol, 

Nov. 10, 1855 

Amnesty granted to the Poles, 



May 27 ; political offenders, &c. 

Sept. 7, 1855 

Alexander II. crowned at Moscow, 

Sept. 2, 1S56 

The czar meets the emperor Napoleon 
at Stutgardt, Sept. 25 ; and the Em- 
peror of Austria at Weimar. . .Oct 1, 1857 

Emancipation of the serfs decreed, 

July 2, 1856 

A Russian naval station established at 
Villa Franca, on the Mediterranean, 
creates some political excitement 

Aug 1858 

New Commercial treaty with Great 
Britain Jan. 12, 1859 

Russia reproves the warlike move- 
ments of the German confederation 
during the Italian war May 27, 1859 

Alexander II. , son of Nicholas, born 
April 29, 1818 ; succeeded at his 
father's death, March 2, 1855 ; mar- 
ried April 28, 1841, Mary, Princess of 
Hesse ; the present emperor of 
Russia I860 

Heir : his son Nicholas, born Sept. 20, 1843 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR with France and England. The Russian and French 
governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and 
Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy Places in Palestine, 
the Porte advised the formation of a mixed commission, which decided in 
favor of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly, March 9, 
1853 ; to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. The Russians 
now made further claims. Henschikoff s ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted 
Constantinople, May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hattischeriff confirm- 
ing all the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his 
allies. On June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besika bay. 
On June 26, the czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Prnth 
and entered Moldavia, July 2. The sultan, with the advice and consent of a 
grand national council, after demanding the evacuation of the principalities, 
Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The Russian declaration follow- 
ed, Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against Russia, March 27 
and 28, 1854. Hostilities ceased, Feb. 29, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in 
April following. 

The Sultan declares war against Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope, 

Russia Oct. 5, 1853 Nov. 30^ 1853 

Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bay- At the request of the Porte (Dec. 

andur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, 5.) the allied fleets enter the 

Nov. 14, 18, 26, 1853 BlackSea Jan. 4, 1854 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



173 



Miss Nightingale and nursps arrive 
at Scutari...". Nov, 6, IS54 

Sardinia joins England and France, 

Jail. 26, 1855 

Death of Emperor Nicholas and acces- 
sion of Alexander II. (no change of 
war policy) March 2, 1855 

Sortie from the Malakhotf tower (15,000 
men) repulsed March 22, 1S55 

.Resignation of Gen. Canrobert, suc- 
ceeded by Gen. Pelissier May 10, 1855 

Death of Lord Raglan ; succeeded by 
Gen. Simpson June 28, 1855 

Russians invest Ears in Armenia, de- 
fended by Gen.Williauis luly 15, 1855 

The French take the Malakboff (ivhich 
see) by assault ; the English assault 
the Redan without success ; the Rus- 
sians retire from Sebastopol to the 
North Forts, and the allies enter the 
city ; the Russians destroy or sink the 
remainder of their fleet. . .Sept. V, &c. 1853 

Explosion of 100,U(J0 lbs of powder in the 
French siege-train at Inkerman, with 
great loss of life Nov. 15, 1S55 

Capitulation of Ears to Gen. Moura- 
vieff, after a gallant defence bv Gen. 
Williams Nov. 26, 1855 

Council of war at Paris Jan. 11, 1858 

Destruction of Sebastopol docks com- 
pleted Feb. 1, 1856 

Peace conferences open at Paris, an 
armistice till March 31, agreed on 

Feb. 25, 1856 

Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 
April 2; in London r .. April 29, 1856 

The Crimea evacuated July 9, 1856 

RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercial relations: In 1861, 
exports from Russia to U. S. were $1,290,000 ; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons 
of shipping from Russia entered U. S. ports; 9,300 tons cleared for Russia. 
Diplomatic relations between the two countries have been most cordial. July, 
1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to the American Government his 
sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Resolutions passed 
Congress May, 186*7, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi- 
nation. 

ROYAL ACADEMY, England, (p. 512.) Presidents. 



Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C. 

Napier March 11, 1854 

Treaty between England, France, 

and Turkey March 1 2, 1854 

France and England declare war 

against Russia March 27, 28, 1854 

Gen. Canrobert and French troops 

arrive at Gallipoli, soon after 

followed by the English 

March 31, 1854 
Russians defeated by the Turks 

at Karakai May 30, 1854 

Bombardment of Ode-sa by allied 

fleet April 22, 1854 

Bombardment and surrender of 

Bomarsund Aug. Id, 1854 

The Russians defeated by Scha- 

myl in Georgia. .about Aug. 28, 1S54 
They begin to evacuate the prin- 
cipalities Aug. and Sept. 1854 

Battle of the Aima...\ ..Sept. SiO, 1854 
Russians sink part of their fleetat 

Sebastopol Sept. 23, 1854 

Death of Marshal St. Arnaud, 

Sept. 29, 1854 
General Canrobert appointed his 

successor Nov, 24, 1854 

Siege of Sebastopol commenced — 

grand attack (without success) 

Oct. 17, 1854 
Battle of Balaklava — gallant 

charge of the light cavalry un- 
der Lord Cardigan, with severe 

loss Oct, 25, 1854 

Battle of Inkerman ; defeat of the 

Russians Nov. 5. 1854 



1830. Sir Mart'n A. Shee. 
1S50. Sir Charles Eastlake. 
1866. Sir Francis Grant. 



1768, Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
1792. Benjamin West. 
18^0. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 

ROYAL SOCIETY, (p. 512.) Presidents. 
1660-3. Sir Robert Moray. 
1663-77. Lord Brouncker\the first under the 

the charter). 
1680-2. Sir C. Wren. 
1684-6. Samuel Pepys. 
1698 -1703. John Lord Somers. 
1703-27. Sir I. Newton. 
1727-41. Sir Hans Sloane. 
1778-1820. Sir Joseph Banks. 

SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first "Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig 
Hacker between the years 1740 and 1747 at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa., 
among the German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used as 
an hospital after the battle of Brandywirie, fought in 1777. This event occa- 
eioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sunday 



1820. Dr. W. II. Wollastoo. 

1820. Sir H. Davy. 

1827. Davies Gilbert. 

1830. Duke of Sussex. 

1838. Marquis of Northampton. 

1848. Earl of Rosse. 

1854. Lord Wrottesley. 

1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodia. 



174 the world's progress. 

.school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about 
IV 82. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 517.) Karaehameha IV. (or Tamehanieha) when 
20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. 

SANITARY COMMISSION, IT. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre 
tary of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., PresJ., Fred. Law 
Olmstead, Secretary. [The Women's Central Relief Association had been 
previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n 
estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May 1, 
1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed §229,328, and California, 
$1,233, 977. The Metropol. Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184,487 ; that at Phila- 
delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission, 
8vo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis- 
bursed for teachers at the South, in 1865, $318,670; for supplies, $490,755. 
Total, $809,425. 

SANITARY REFORM, U. S. (p. 517.) The ventilation of buildings has been 
greatly improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses, 
1833, and Barnard's School Architecture, 1838. This reform was specially 
needed in printing offices, bookbinderies, and manufactories generally. 

SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
health, about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Health " having excited much atten- 
tion. Since 1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been 
much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary 
of the Treasury to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, 
passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary laws. 
Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sanitary Commission. 

SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol- 
omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a 
translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera- 
ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history 
and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and translations of many 
works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental 
Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Ox- 
ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, ap- 
pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams 
(elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851, Professor 
Max M tiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited 
part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti- 
mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla- 
vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. 

SARDINIA, (p. 518.) See Italy. 



Bill for suppression of convents 
passed March 2, 1S55 

Convention with England and 
France signed, a contingent of 
15,000 troops to be supplied 
against Russia April 10, 1855 

10,000 troop* under General La 
Marmora arrive in the Crimea, 

May 8, 1855 

Who distinguish themselves in the 
battle of the Tchernayo, Auk. 10, 1S55 

The kn:g visits London, &c. Nov. 

B0, &c. 1855 



Important note on Italy from Connt 
Cavour to England April 16, 1856 

Count Cavour declares in favor of free- 
trade June, 1S57 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
Franca; Count Cavour resigns, 

July, 1859 

Treaty of peace signed at Zurich. Nov. 1S59 

Sardinian troops besiege the King of 
Naples at Gaeta Sept. 1860 

Gaeta capitulates to Victor Emanuel, 

Feb. 13, 1S6L 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 175 

ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Republic of St. Domingo was established 
in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly 
by Faustin I., dethroned in 1858. 

ST. GEORGE. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio- 
cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ; 
but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and 
arguing in their defence, be was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. 

ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantic Ocean), was discovered by the 
Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 
1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they 
were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here 
in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, 
until 16*73, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once 
more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815 ; 
and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. 

ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1350. Taken by the 
British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the 
French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada, 
Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British. St. Lucia 
was restored to France at the peace of 1 802 ; but was again seized by England 
the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 

ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1592. The 
old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086). 

ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice was 
laid June 21, 16*75. The whole edifice was completed in 1*710. The total cost 
(including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was £1,511,202. The length of St. 
Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet ; the breadth, from 
the north to the south portico, 282 feet ; the exterior diameter of the dome, 
145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet. 
Architect, Sir Christopher Wren. 

ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
this city in May 2*7, 1*703. He built a small hut for himself, and some 
wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house 
ol brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda- 
tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the 
imperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels 
had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this 
place. The winter palace w^as burned to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The rail- 
way to Moscow was finished in 1851. 

ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, a. d. 306. 
About the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V. commenced a 
new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by Bramante ; the 
first stone was laid by Pope Julius II. in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed 
Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed 
the work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of 
which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 
1626, the building having occupied i76 years. The front is 400 feet broad, 
rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre 
of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, 
forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the 
exterior is 669 feet; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet; aud the entire 



17G the world's progress. 

height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman 
Catholic church in the world. 

SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here General Burgoyne, commander 
of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war 
of Independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American 
General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 1*7, 1777, 

SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications 
are the Bighw Papers and Fable for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel 
of Peace, castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent 
war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemus Ward, " Petroleum V. Nasby, 
and others ; and the very clever pictorial satires of Thos. Nast. 

SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England 
states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of 
deposits, $*70,000,0n0. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state, 
the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,785,400. There are comparatively few 
savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the 
number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 574, besides above 
twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors 
(in the banks) were 1,092,5S1, while the societies embraced a vast but un- 
known number of persons : the amount of deposits was £32,893,511. 

SAVOY, (p. 520.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April 
22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop- 
ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, 
younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest 
II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 
May 3, 1842 ; no issue). Heir (presumptive) ; Prince Alfred of England, born 
Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 
19, 1863). 

SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe-Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes 
have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the 
Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112. 

SAXONY, (p. 520.) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 12, 1801), the present 
(1861) king. Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828. 

SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den- 
mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor- 
mandy (about a. d. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also 
called Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is 
thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century. 

SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti- 
mated at 180,000 : namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 25,000 Swedes, and 5,000 
Danes (1860). 

SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in England. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connec- 
tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland. 
They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 
Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic 
schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 
91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 
scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education 
were: for Great Britain, £150,000, for Ireland, £134,560. United States. 
Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established bv the 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 177 

first settlers of New England on their arrival ; were soon made obligatory 
by law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and 
worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commencod 
about 1800. Its important dates are : Connecticut school fund, established 
1*795 ; first state school sup't.. New York, 1812 ; first state school system, 
Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com 
menced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report or 
Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edu 
cation in Mass., 1837; Stowe's report on European schools, 1837 ; first nor- 
mal school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved 
principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac- 
tice. The following totals for the United States are approximate for 1858 : 
children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 97,621 ; school funds, $49,- 
324,384; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. See Education, 
Colleges, &c. 

SCIENCE in the U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American 
Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci- 
ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. 
S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History 
established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by 
Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the 
U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Reports, to 
be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Bounda- 
ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in 
about 20 quartos, the great work of Agnssiz on Natural History, pub. by sub- 
scription, etc, etc. See Astronomy, Observatories <&c, 

SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes of a 
wind-mill, set on axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi- 
ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by 
Du Quet, Bernouilli, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. 
Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application of 
the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the 
Archimedes and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was 
tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely 
employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely 
propelled by the screw. 

SEVASTOPOL, or Sevastopol. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W. point 
of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine II., memorable for its eleven 
months' Siege, by the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment 
commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters 
by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on 
Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most important 
fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing 
and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Redan 
and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle, with great loss of life. 

" SECESSION," U. States. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican " candidate 

for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several 

southern states for another Union; the resignation of Federal officers in those 

states, and of members of the cabinet at Washington, and of several officers of 

8* 



178 



TEE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



the army and navy; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, and arsenals, 
The chief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the 
following: 



Resignation of S. C. senators of 
the U. States Nov. 9-11, 1860 

U. S. H. of Rep. appoints a com. 
of 33 on the state of the Union, 

Dec. 6, 1860 

Resignation of Howell Cobb, Sec. 
of Treas.,- U. S Dec. 10, 1860 

U. S. stocks (5 per cent) sold for 
89, Dec. 10, 1860 

Resignation of Mr. Cass, Sec. of 
State Dec. 14, 1860 

South Carolina Ordii.ance of Se- 
cession passed Dec. 20, 1860 

Maj. Anderson transfers the U. 
Stales garrison at Fort Moultrie 
to Fort Sumter, in Charleston 
harbor Dec. 26, 1860 

S. Carolina authorities seize Fort 
Moultrie and olher U. States 
property Dec. 28, 1860 

J. B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War re- 
signs Dec. 29, 1860 

Forts Pulaski and Jackson, in 
harbor of Savannah, seized by 
Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 1861 

8. C. commissioners' demands 
refused by the President 

Jan. 3, 1861 

Fast-day observed in the U. S. 

Jan. 4, 1861 

Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by 
the state Jan. 4, 1861 

Steamer Star of the West with U. 
S. troops for Fort Sumter, 
fired into by the rebels.. Jan. 9, 1861 

Mississippi secession passed, 
Jan. 9 : and TJ. S. forts and 



Alabama secession passed Jan. 11, 1S61 

Florida secession passed, and U. S. 
forts at Pensacola seized Jan. 12, 1861 

Georgia secession passed Jan. 19, 1861 

Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida 
senators of the TJ. States resigned 

Jan. 21, 1801 

Louisiana secession passed Jan. 28, 1S61 

Texas secession passed Feb. 1, 1861i 

"Peace Conference" at Washington, 

Feb. 4, 1861 

Louisiana delegation excepting Mr. 
Bouligny withdraws from Congress 

Feb. 5, 1861 

Congress of seceding states at Mont- 
gomery, Ala., Feb. 6 ; elects Jeffer- 
son Davis of Miss. Pres., and Alex- 
H. Stephens of Ga. Vice-pres..Feb. 9, 1861 

Tennessee votes against secession, 

Feb. 9, 1861 

Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer- 
ence with slavery in any state passed 
unanimously in H. of Reps.. Feb. 11, 1861 

Jefferson Davis inaugurated Pres. of 
Southern Confederacy Feb. 18, 1861 

The " Peace Con erence " at Washing- 
ton agrees on proposition for " com- 
promise," and adjourns March 1, 1861 

Gen. Twiggs, having surrendered the 
U. States forces and property in Texas 
is dismissed from the TJ. S. army as a 
traitor March 1, 1J61 

Missouri votes against secession, in 
convention March 1, 1861 

Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of United 

States March 4, 1861 

See Battles, U. S., War, &j. Also 
Tables, p. 190, <fec. 



property seized there. ..Jan. 10, 1861 

SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhi, Hindostanee for a soldier). The term applied 
to the native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in 
establishing British rule in India. For their mutinies, see India, 185*7. 

SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS in England commenced 1716. Parliaments 
had been triennial from 1688 to that date. 

SERVIA. A principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The 
Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about a. d. 640, 
The Emperor Manuel subjugated them in 1150; but they recovered their in- 
dependence in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, 
till their country was finally subdued by the Sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. 
Population in 1854, 985,000. 

SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the Apostle 
John was commanded to write the epistle contained in the 2d and 3d chapters 
of his Revelation, viz. : Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phila- 
delphia, and Laodicea, a. d. 96. 

2. Smyrna. Now an important com- 
mercial city and seaport of Ionia. 
Polycarp, its first bishop, suffered 
martyrdom, A. d. 175. 

3. Pergamos. Capita] of the kiogdom 
of the same name, founded by Phil- 
etasrus, b. c. 283, and part of Bithy 



1. Ephesus. Paul founded the church 
here, a. d. 57, and in a. d. 59, was 
in great danger from a tumult creat- 
ed by Demetrius. Ephesus was in 
a ruinous state even in the time of 
Justinian (a. d. 527), and still re- 
mains so. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 



179 



6. Philadelphia. Was built by Attains Phila* 
delphus, king of Pergamos (about b. c. 
159, 1S8) ; was taken by Bajazet I. a. d. 
1390. It is now called Allah'Shehr, " The 
city of God, " and is a miserable town of 
3000 houses. 

7. Laodicea. In Phrygia near Lydia. haB 
suffered much from earthquakes. It is 
now a deserted place called Eskehissar. 
" The old Castle." 



nia. It was renowned for its libra- 
ry. Attalus III., the last king, be- 
queathed his kingdom to the lloman 
people, b. c. 133. It is still an im- 
portant place called Bergamo. Parch- 
ment is said to have been invented here. 

4. Thyalira. Now a mean town of 2000 
houses, called Akhissar, " "White Castle." 

6. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, 
the kingdom of Crcesus (b. c. 500), is now 
a miserable village, named Sart. 

SEWING-MACHINE. The practical sewing-machine was the invention of EHas 
Howe, an American mechanic. These machines are all of American origin. 
Haydn. To America unquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the 
world the first practical sewing-machine. Here also, it has received its fullest 
development. Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very little advance 
■was made for the next six vears. Since that period the sales of reliable ma- 
chines have been as follows : 1853,2,509: 1854,4,469; 1855,3,515 ; 1856, 
'7,225; 1857, 12,715 ; 1858, 17,589; 1859,46,245. The machine has been 
improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution- 
ized, and developed ever)' department of needlework ; introduced new- 
branches of industry ; rendered healthful, pleasant, and profitable an employ- 
ment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, and proved itself the most beneficial 
invention of the age. In the domestic world it ranks as do railroads and 
telegraphs in the commercial. The importance of this invention to the 
manufacturing interests of the U. States was estimated in 1860 at $342,000,- 
000 annually. The following table exhibits the economy of the sewing ma- 
chine in stitching the various parts of the following garments. 



BY MACHINE. 

Hours. Minutes. 

Gentlemen's shirts 1 16 . 

Frock coats 2 38 . 

Satin vests 1 14 . 

Silk dress ] 13 . 

Merino dress 1 4 . 



Emirs. Minutes. 
14 26 



35 
19 

27 

27 



SHAKESPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick. Shake- 
speare was born at Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died on his natal day, 1616. 
Shakespeare festival was held at Stratford, April 23, 1836. In 1847, a number 
of persons of distinction interested themselves for the preservation of the 
house in which Shakespeare was born, then actually set up for sale. In the 
end Shakespeare's house was sold at the auction mart in the city of London, 
where it was " knocked down" to the United Committee of London and 
Stratford for the large sum of £3,000, Sept. 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned 
oriental scholar, John Shakespeare, no relation to the poet, gave £2,500 to 
purchase the adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in order to ensure 
the poet's house from the risk of fire. 

SHEEP, U. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather than 
wool. Of late, however, much attention has been paid to breeding them for 
their value in producing wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the TJ. S. was 
21,723,000; in 1860,22,471,000. Ohio, New York, and Indiana, produced 
the most. California, in I860, had 1,075,000 sheep ; in 1867, 3,000,000. The 
ravages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 1866 about 500,000, worth 
$2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Ver- 
mont, took the first two premiums at the Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg, 
in 1863, against all the best breeds of England, France, Saxony, Prussia, and 



180 the world's progress. 

Silesia. They were sold for $5,000 to a Count of Silesia. This result, s«r 
prising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sheep-raising in the U. S. 

SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their 
opponents, the Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 b. c. Judges, 
ch. xii. The term is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. 

SHIPPING or the IT. S. (p. 524.) Tonnage at different periods. 



Years. Tonnage. 

1861 ..5,539,813 

1862 5,112,165 

18C3 5,1'26;081 

1864 4,986,081 



Tears. Tonnage. 

1865 (old) 3,516,787 

" (new) 1,579,994 

1866 (old) 942,299 

" (new) 3,368,479 



The above table shows the loss of American shipping, or its transfer to for- 
eign flags during the rebellion. The total tonnage of the United States, 
June 30, 1858, was 5,049,808 tons ; of which registered for foreign trade, 
2,499,741 ; enrolled and licensed, 2,502,086 ; steam navigation, 729,390. In- 
crease for the year, 108,965 tons. In 1860, the tonnage of the U. S. was 
5,353,868 tons. In the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of 
licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,256,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American 
ship-building has greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one 
vessel in the course of construction in New York City, and but two in Boston. 
This is due to the great cost of material and labor in seaboard cities. Ships 
which cost $100 per ton in N. Y., cost only $60 in the same currency in the 
British Provinces. (1867). In 1860, two-thirds of American imports were 
carried in American ships ; in 1866 nearly three-fourths in foreign vessels. 
Number of ship-carpenters in the U. S. in I860, 13,392. Before the 
war the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. Not 
only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under 
any other, but American ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and 
care of cargo, which gave them the lead in every port and on every ocean. 
The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 1861 was 4,806,826 tons; and that of 
the United States, 5,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country we kept the 
lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the five 
years ending with 1861, the carrying trade of New York amounted tc 
$1,644,000,000, of which over $1,000,000,000 was done under the American 
flag, leaving but little more than half that amount for the flags of all other 
nations on the globe. With the advent of war there came a disastrous 
change. The few privateers fitted out in English ports, chiefly through the 
assistance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the 
entire fleet of American vessels was forced to engage in the government 
service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer their ownership to a foreign flag. 
Thus in the four years which followed, out of $1,700,000,000 of foreign trade 
for the city of New York, less than $100,000,000 were done under the Stars 
and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 were carried under foreign flags. In 
1865 the entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,229, of which 
$345,750,622 was in foreign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American ships. 
This is a humiliating and exasperating record ; yet in the recent Fenian 
movements our government and people refused to retaliate. — Chr. Almanac. 

SIAM. A kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was re- 
discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the 
Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a 
Cephalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreigr minister of Siam, 
and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 
1865 with a view of converting the king, without effect. Sir John Bowring 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 181 

succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England 
and Siam, which was signed April 30, 1S55, and one with France in August 
following. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in England Oct., 185*7, and 
had an audience with the queen to deliver magnificent presents on Nov. 1& 
A treaty with the United States negotiated by Townsend Harris, 1859. 

SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, born 
about 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by sepa- 
rate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilagi- 
nous band at the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and 
were first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr. 
Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were 
exhibited. No connexion exists between them but this band, and their prox- 
imity seems in no way to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight 
and well made, and walk with a gait like other people, being perfect in all 
their parts, and having all their functions distinct. After having been exhib- 
ited for several years in England and the United States, the Siamese Twins 
went to Georgia, where they settled on a farm, married sisters, and now 
(1860) have several children. 

SICILY^ See Italy. 

SICYON. An ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded it is said 
about 2080 b. c. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league 
formed by Aratus. It was the country of Polycletes (436) and Lysippus 
(238), the sculptors. 

SIDON (Syria). A city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by 
Cyrus about 537 ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332. See Phoenicia. The 
town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral Stop- 
ford and Commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 27, 1840. 

SIEGES, (p. 529.) of Rome, 1849; of Sebastopol, 1854-5 ; of Ears, 1855; Delhi, 
1857 ; Gaeta, Oct. 1860 to Feb. 13, 1861. 

SIKHS. See Punjab and India. 

SILISTRIA. A strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken 
by the Russians, Sept. 26, 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years 
by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was 
eventually returned. In 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 
strong, under Prince Paskiewich, and many assaults were made. Russians 
commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near. 

SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the U. S. Mint, for one year, end- 
ing June 30, 1859, was $7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859, inclusive, it amount- 
ed to $122,694,836. In England, in the first ten years of Victoria, the 
amount of silver coined was $2,440,614. It is supposed that the silver coin- 
age of the world amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. The largest 
amount coined in any one year in the U. S. was $9,077,571 in 1853. Inthe 
year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 pieces. 
Of this $1,040,638 came from the mint at San Francisco, Cal, and the rest 
from Philadelphia and New York. The coinage in 1866, including two and 
three-cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of 3 cents per oz. was levied on 
silver ware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this 
source to the government in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. This tax re- 
moved, 1866. 

SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed 



182 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

by Napoleon in 1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes bj 
galleries through solid rock. It has eight principal bridges. The number of 
workmen employed at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand. 

SINKING FUND, in England. First projected by Sir Robert Walpole, whose 
act was passed in 1*716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt 
was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of £900,000 in the 
revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of one million, 
which was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the national debt. In 
July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus of revenue. 

SINOPE (Sinoub). See Russo-Turkish War. 

SKATING. Invented probably by the Scandinavians who used the sharp-edged 
shank hones of sheep or deer, or strips of fir wood, though Olaus Magnus 
(d. 1555) mentions the use of iron. At first the skater pushed himself about 
by an iron-shod pole. Wooden skates with iron blades were invented in 
Holland. From 1855 to 1861 various means were contrived to improve 
skates, by attaching a shoe to the wood, making it wholly of steel, jointing 
the wood, setting it on springs, &c. A skate for floors has been invented, 
running on small wheels of India rubber. 

SLAVERY, (p. 530.) There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 b. c. In Rome 
slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admit- 
tance to the guests invited to the feast. Ey one of the laws of the XII. 
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their 
houses, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed. 
C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish 
ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b. c. Cascilius Isodorus left to his heir 4,116 
slaves, 12 b. c. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. — Serfdom, 
a modified form of slavery, was abolished by Frederic I. of Prussia, in 1702; 
by Christian VII. of Denmark, in 1766, by the Emperor Joseph II. in his 
hereditary states in 1781 ; and by Nicholas I. of Russia on the imperial do- 
mains, in 1842 : whose successor, Alexander II., effected its total abolition 
throughout his empire, amid much opposition (1860-1). In the United 
States (p. 532) before the war of independence all the states contained 
slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All 
men are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at 
Boston to bar slave-holding in that state. Before 1790 the further intro- 
duction of slaves had been prohibited in five other states. On July 13, 
1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance " for the govern 
ment of the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," wbich contained an " unalter- 
able " article forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory. 
After 1800, several of the states prayed without effect to be relieved of this 
prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana was purchased, which act was considered by 
many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Com- 
promise, dravvn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted 
in that state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36° 30' 
N. Lat. In 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their 
opponents at the annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom 
could obtain was a similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 29, 1845. In 1850 
another compromise was effected: California was admitted as a free state; but 
the Fugitive Slave Act was passed {which see). In 1854 the Missouri compromise 
was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding 
states; in the latter of which civil war ensued. See Kansas; United States. 
An attempt to create a slave rebellion took place in Virginia, headed by John 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 183 

Brown, and failed, in Oct. 1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,313 ; in 
1860, 3,999,283. Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr. A. H. Steph- 
ens, of Georgia, declared that " slavery " was the corner stone of their confeder- 
acy (1861). During the war, slaves were held to be "contraband of war" by 
the IT. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 1862, slavery was- 
forever excluded from the territories. Jan. 1863, the great "Emancipation 
Proclamation" of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in the 
rebellious states free, on the ground that it was a "fit and necessary war meas- 
ure for suppressing such rebellion." Slavery was finally abolished from the 
United States by act of Congress, January, 1865. See Constitution. 

SLAVE TRADE, U. S. Since 1855 the proposition to reopen the slave trade 
has been discussed in several conventions and public assemblies in the 
southern states. This infamous traffic is denounced in the "Republican plat- 
form" (Chicago, June, 1860), and is repudiated also by the congress of the 
" Southern Confederacy" (Feb., 1861), but the latter abolished the death 
penalty affixed to its prohibition by the laws of the U. S. In defiance of these 
laws a large number of slavers have been fitted out, chiefly in N. Y. and other 
northern ports, during the years 1858, '59, '60 ; several have been seized be- 
fore sailing and many others captured with slaves. Treaty with Great Britain 
for further measures against trade in slaves, 186- 

SNUFF-TAKING. (p. 623.) In England, in 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and 
cigars were imported. See Tobacco. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE. The British National Association for the Promotion of So- 
cial Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 185*7. Its ob- 
ject is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in 
public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes 
its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birmingham. 

SOCIETIES and Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. See 
Academies (p. 14V). 

American Ethnological Society at N. Y. \ American Institute (for Agriculture and 
American Oriental Society at New Haven. ' Useful Arts), N. Y. 
American Geographical and Statistical So- National Academy of Sciences 1865. 
ciety, N. Y. | 

In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to 
the collection and preservation of historical records, printed end in MS. ; several 
of them have published transactions and collections. That of the Mass. Hist. 
Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. Y. Hist. Soc. has published 6 or 7 vols. 
Great Britain. All in the list below are in London, except othherwise stated. 
An act was passed Aug. 11,1854, "to afford facilities for the establishment 
of Institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of land, 
&c, and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are exempt- 
ed from the operation of the act. 

SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &C. 



Royal Society Charter 1 662 

Society of Antiquaries 

(Charter 1751) 1717 

Society of Dilettanti 1734 

Royal Society of Edinburgh 

(Charter 1783) 1739 

Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 1753 

Royal Irish Academy Charter 1788 

Linnean Society... (Charter 1802) 1788 
Horticultural Society 

(Charter 1809) 1804 



Medico-Chirurgical Society 

(Charter 1834) 1805 

London Institution IS05 

Geological Society.. (Charter 1826) 1807 
Royal Society of Literature 

(Charter 1826) 1820 
Roy,il Asiatic Society. ...Charter 1823 
Mechanics' Institution, London. .. 1823 

Zoological Society 1826 

British Association 1831 

Entomological Society 183$ 



184 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Statistical Society 1834 

lioyal Institute of British Archi- 
tects (Charter 1837) 1835 

Botanical Society 1836 

.Numismatic Society 1S36 

Electrical Society 1837 

Ornithological Society 1837 

Royal Agricultural Society 1838 

Camder, Society 1838 

Royal Botanical Society 1839 

Microscopical Society 1839 

Ecclesiological Society 1839 

Parker Soc ety 1840 

Percy Society 1S40 

Loudon Library 1840 

Shakespeare Society 1S40 

Chemical Society 1841 



Pharmaceutical Society 1841 

Philological Society..." 1842 

Dublin Philosophical Society 1842 

Archaeological Association 1S43 

Archaeological Institute 1843 

Sydenham Society 1843 

Ethnological Society 1843 

Syro-Eayptian Society 1844 

Ray Society 1844 

Cavendish Society 1S46 

Hakluyt Society 1846 

Institute of Actuaries 1848 

Arundel Society 1849 

Meteorological Society 1851 

Photographic Society 1853 

Horological Institute 1858 



SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), celebrated as the site of (he chief struggle on the 
great battle of June 24, 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army 
commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under General 
Hess; the emperor being present. The Austrians after their defeat at 
Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up a position in the 
celebrated quadrilateral, and was expected there to await the attack. But 
the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tus- 
cans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive, 
which they did on June 23. The conflict began early the next morming, and 
lasted fifteen hours. The French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery 
of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and Niel ; the Austrians to the 
destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. . The 
Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is 
said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 
19,311 soldiers ; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers 
killed and wounded. This battle closed the war ; preliminaries of peace be- 
ing signed at Villa Franca, July 12. 

SOUTH CAROLINA, (p. 535.) Population 1850, whites, 214,463 ; free colored, 
8,960; slaves, 384,984 ; 1860, whites, 303,186; slaves, 407,185. Ordinance 
delaring " Secession " from the United States, passed Dec. 20, 1860. The 
" Star of the West " with U. S. troops for Fort Sumter, fired on and repulsed 
from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen Sherman marched unopposed through the 
state early in 1865. B. Perry appointed Provisional Governor June 30, 1865. 
Act of Secession repealed Sept. 15, 1865, by the State Legislature. Debt of 
the State in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due coupons and military debt. 
$4,426,440. South Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by 
act of Congress 1861, and Gen. Sickles appointed Governor. In Sept. 1867, 
he was removed by the President, and succeeded by Gen. Canby. 

SPAIN, (p. 531.) 



Narvaez exiled to Vienna — Jan. 1863 
General O'Donne'.l, Concha, and 

others, banished Jan. 18, 1854 

Peace restored ; the degraded 
generals reinstated, &c. ; Espar- 
tero forms an administration, 

July 31, 1854 
The queen mother impeached; 

she quits Spain Aug. 28, 1854 

Don Carlos dies March 10, 1S55 

Resignation of Espartcro ; new 
cabinet formed headed by Mar- 
shal O'Donnell ; insurrection 
in Madrid, July 14 ; O'Donnell 



and the government troops subdue 
the insurgents; the national guard 
suppressed July 15, 16, 1856 

O'Donnell compelled to resign ; War- 
vaez becomes minister....... .Oct. 12, 1856 

Joint French and Spanish expedition 
against Cochin China announced 

Dec. 1, 1858 

War with Morocco...., .Nov. and Dec, 1859 

O'Donnell commands the army in Afri- 
ca ; indecisive conflicts reported; 
battle at Castillijos : a Spanish " Bs- 
laklava" charge; Jan. 1; the Spa- 
niards near Tetuan ..Jan. 1860 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 185 

SPEAKERS, House of Representatives. See Administrations. Of thb 
House of Commons, British. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at the 
battle of Evesham, was the first Speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260. 
Et. Hon. Henry Addington (after- 
ward Visct. Sidmouth..Jan. 22, 1801 
Sir John Mitford (afterwards Ba- 
ron Eedesdale) Feb. 11, 1801 



Et. Hon. James Abercromby (after ■ 
wards Baron Dunfermline)... Feb. 19, 1835 

Et. Hun. Charles Shaw Lefevre 
(afterwards Viscount Eversley) 

March 27, 1839 

Et. Hon. John Everlyn Denison 
(present Speaker, 1867) April 30, 1857 



Et. Hon. .Charles Abbot (after- 
wards Lord Colchester. Feb. 10, 1802 

Et. Hon. Charles Manners Sutton 
(afterwards Viscount Canter- 
bury) June 2, 1817 

SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on March 1, 1711 ; 
the last Aug. 2, 1*715. The papers by Addison have one of the letters cuo 
at the end. The most of the other papers are by Sir Richard Steele ; a few 
by Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others. 

STAGE-COACH. Stage-coaches were quite general in England about 1660, suc- 
ceeding a kind of wagon, which had been introduced about 1564. They 
often travelled only 30 miles a day. 

STAMP-DUTIES, England, (p. 540.) In June, 1855, the stamp-duty on news- 
papers as such was totally abolished ; the stamp on them being thenceforth 
used for postal purposes only. In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 news- 
paper stamps were issued ; in the same months, 1855, only 6,870,000. 

STARS, (p. 541.) Maps of the Stars were published in London by the Soc. for 
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1839 ; and those by the Royal Prussian 
Academy were completed in 1859. 

STEAM-BOAT EXPLOSIONS. See Wrecks. Steamer Pennsylvania, on the 
Mississippi, boilers burst, 10 lives lost, June 3, 1858. Steamer Princess for 
New Orleans, boilers burst, 25 k. 35 w., Feb. 27, 1859. By 21 inland steam- 
boat accidents during 1860, 242 lives were lost, and 146 persons injured. To- 
tal in 7 years, 213 accidents, 2,304 killed, 956 injured. It thus appears that 
while the accidents and injuries by railroads are about four times as numerous 
as those by steam-boat, the deaths are but half as many. 

STEAM-BOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, 
gives the following aggregate of the number of steam-boats built in the 
United States since 1824 — thirty years — in periods of five years each : 



From 1824 to 1829 194 

" 1829 to 1834 304 

" 1834 to 1839 504 

" 1839 to 1844... 522 



From 1844 to 1849 960 

" 1849 to 1854 1203 



Total , 2687 

Since 1860, steamship building has fallen off very materially (except for 
inland navigation). In 1860, the whole registered "steam tonnage" built in 
the U. S., was the small amount of 97,296 tons ; in 1865 it decreased to 69,500 
tons. See Shipping. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, (p. 542.) The Collins line of steamers from New 
York to Liverpool, commenced running April, 1850. The Pacific of this line 
crossed the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, May, 1851. The Adriatic, the larg- 
est of the line, first left N. Y. Nov. 23, 1857. The City of Glasgow, first of 
a line between Philadelphia and Liverpool, arrived Jan. 1, 1851. In 1865, 
there were 12 steamship companies employed in the transit between Europe 
and the U. S., none of which were American! The difficulty is that steam- 
ships cannot be constructed in America to the same advantage as in England, 
See Shipping. 

STEEL PENS came into use in England about 1820, when the first gross of 



LS8 the world's peogeess. 

three-split pons was sold wholesale for £7 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and 
in 1863, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross ; the cheapest sort at 
2d. ; Birmingham produces about 1,000 million pens per annum. Women and 
children are principally employed in the manufacture. In the U. S. tht> 
manufacture of this article has been successfully introduced since 1850, and 
brought to considerable degree of perfection. Gold pens are also made here 
extensively, and fully equal to any imported. 

STEREOCHROMY. A mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solu- 
tion of flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the color and 
the substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich 
on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in 
the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 

STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and skopein, to see). An optical instrument, 
for representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c, by uniting into one 
image two plane representations of these objects as seen by each eye sepa- 
rately. The first was constructed and exhibited by Prof. Charles Wheatstone 
in 1838. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved, and are now 
exceedingly cheap. In the U. S. the production both of stereoscopic pictures 
and instruments has increased enormously (1859-6*7), and these articles form 
an important and popular article of trade. 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1S16 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a 
kind of cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other tc 
his own ear, perceived the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner 
than by the immediate application of the ear. This led to his inventing the 
stethoscope, or " breast-explorer ;" the principle of which, now termed 
" auscultation," was known by Hippocrates. 

STORMS. In Gulf of Mexico, 1*73 persons lost on Last Island (a summer re- 
sort), Aug. 10, 1856. 

STREET RAILWAYS, in England, previously established by G. F. Train in New 
York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, 1860, and at 
Bayswater, London, March 23, 1861. A street railway bill was rejected by the 
House of Commons in April, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a 
time in various parts of the metropolis in 1S61, but were all taken up in 1862. 

STRIKES. The tailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 1834. 
The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1853. A general 
strike among the shoe-makers of New England, continued for several months, 
1859-60. 

STRYCHNIA. A poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier 
and Caventou in the seeds of the strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also 
in the upas poison. It is so virulently poisonous that half a grain blown into 
the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four minutes ; its operation »s accom- 
panied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, during 
the trial of Palmer for the murder of Cook. 

SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the 
Bay of Pelusium was brought forward by M. De Lesseps in 1857. The 
Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments are in favor 
of the scheme, which is at present opposed bv the British. The cost is esti- 
mated at £8,000,000. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. Originated with Prof. Morse, who first tested it 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 187 

in New York harbor, 1842. The first suggestion of Atlantic telegraph ia 
said to hare been made by him in 1843. Professor Charles Wheatstone in 
1840 drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
Calais. In 1847 Mr. J. W. Brett submitted a similar plan to Louis Philippe 
without success; but in 1850 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
make a trial. This took place on Aug. 28, 1850, but failed. New arrange- 
ments were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and the tele- 
graph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On that day, the opening and closing 
prices of the funds in Paris were known on the London Stock Exchange with- 
in business hours. Guns were fired at Dover by means of electric sparks 
communicated from Calais. In 1860 there were in operation 1,954 miles of 
submarine telegraph, exclusive of the Atlantic. Atlantic. A plan to unite 
Europe and America by the electric telegraph was attempted to be carried 
out »y a company in 1857 and 1858, chiefly promoted by Cyrus W. Eield, of 
New York ; with the concurrence of the British and American governments. 
2,500 miles of wire were manufactured and tested in March, 1857. The lay- 
ing it down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels em- 
ployed were the Niagara and Susquehanna (American vessels), and the Leop- 
ard and Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable 
snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on Aug. 11, after 300 miles of wire 
had been paid out it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Plymouth. In 
1858 a second attempt to lay the cable failed, through a violent storm on 
June 20-21 ; but the third voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the junction 
between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,050 miles 
of wire from Valentia in Ireland to Newfoundland. The first two messages, 
on Aug. 5, were from the Queen of England to the President of the United 
States, and his reply. The event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
but unfortunately the insulation of the wire became gradually more faulty, 
and on Sept, 4 the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased. The 
grand celebration in New York of the (supposed) completion of this enter- 
prise, Sept. 1, 1858. In 1865, another attempt to lay a cable was made. A 
new one was manufactured 2,300 nautical miles long, and 24- times stronger 
than the old one. Diameter, a little more than an inch. It was coiled in the 
mammoth ship Great Eastern. The expedition started July 23, 1865 from 
Valentia Bay. 1,200 miles were successfully laid when suddenly the cable 
parted, in water 24 miles deep. 4 attempts to grapple it were made, but the 
cable could not be raised to the surface without much stronger wire ropes. 
The ships returned to England, but the enterprise was not given up. A new 
company was formed at once, called the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com- 
pany" : capital, £600,000. A more perfect cable was constructed, and the 
Great Eastern started again with it, July 13, 1866, On the 27th sh.e reached 
Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with the cable in perfect order. The news 
was received with great enthusiasm in both countries, and ovations tendered 
to Cyrus W. Field, the American, to whose energy the success was in great 
part due. The Great Eastern returned to the spot where the cable of 1865 
parted, and after many attempts it was discovered Sept. 2, 1866, and con- 
tinued to the American side : making two cables across the Atlantic ; one of 
the cables was injured near the Newfoundland shore in May, 1867, but was 
soon repaired, and both cables have now been in constant use for 13 months. 
(Aug. 1867.) The cable from Key West to Cuba successfully laid 
August, 1867, by a New York Company. More than sixty submarine 
cables have been completed to this date. The most important are these ; 



188 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Time length 

of Geographical Position. in 

Laying. Miles. 

1S5I .. ..Dover to Calais 27 

1853. ...Dover to Ostend 80£ 

1S54.... Sweden to Denmark 12 

...Italy to Corsica 110 

1855.... Italy to Sicily 5 

1856.... Newfoundland to Oapc Breton 85 

1857.... Across Norway Fjords 49 

.Ceylon to Hindostan SO 

185S... .England to Holland 140 

. . England to Hanover 280 

..South Australia to King's Island 140 

..Ceylon to Hindostan 30 

1859.... England to Denmark 368 

..Folkstone to Boulogne 24 

..Malta to Sicily 60 

..Liverpool to Holyhead 25 

..Across Bass's Strait 240 

1860 Dacca to Pegu 116? 

.Barcelona to Port Mahon 180 

. Cape San Antonio to Iviza 76 

1861 Toulon to Corsica 195 

.Holyhead to Howth (near Dublin) 64 

....Malta toAlexandria 1,535 

.New Haven (England) to Dieppe 80 

1862 Fortress Monroe to Cape Charles 23 

.England to Holland 180 

1863 Sardi nia to Sicily 211 

..Persian Gulf to Kurrachee (Hindostan). 1,450 

1S65.... Sweden to Prussia 55 

1866 Corsica to Leghorn 66 

..Across Puget Sound 32 

..Valentia to Newfoundland 1,864 

..Valentia to Newfoundland (completed 

from 1S65, ahout) 1,864 

. .Newfoundland to Cape Breton 85 

. . . .Key West to Havana 191 



Ncof 
Con- 
ductors. 

4 

6 

3 

6 

3 

1 

1 

1 

4 

2 

1 

1 

3 

6 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

l 

1 

4 

1 

4 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 
7 



'Time in Opera 
Hon, to Jidy, 
186 1 about. 
16 years. 
14 " 
14 " 
13 " 
12 " 
11 " 
10 " 
10 " 



5 " 

5 " 
4 « 

6 «• 
2 « 

18 months. 

14 " 



1867. 

SUGAR. The following is the official statement of the amount of sugar im 
ported into this country from 1851 to 1860: 



Value of Sugar. Duty paid. 

1851 §13,478,700 §4,043,600 

1S52 13,977,300 4,1S3,200 

1853 14,168,300 4,250,500 

1854 11,6-04,600 3,481,300 

1S55 13,284,600 3.989,400 

1856 21,255,100 6,388,500 



Value of Sugar. 

1857 $41,596,200 

1858 18.9.6,600 

1859 28,345800 

1860 28,931,100 



Dutv paid- 

$12,478,800 

4,557,200 

6,S02,800 

6,943,400 



Total Ten years.. $205, 557,800 §57,118.700 
The sugar crop of Louisiana last year was valued at $24,988,000. The 
average for five years has been $17,000,000 (1861). In New York state in 
1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar were produced. Pennsylvania pro- 
duces 2,500,000 pounds a year. The sorghum-sugar plant has lately been in- 
troduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities. 
Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 10,000 pounds were 
manufactured in Livingston county, Illinois, in 1867. 
SUNDAY LAWS. (p. 547.) In the state of New York, the laws against selling 
liquors, and against certain theatrical performances on Sundays, have caused 
much discussion, and some resistance, chiefly on the part of the German and 
Irish population, but are still enforced (1867). 

SUNDAY SCHOOLS. See Education and Sabbath Schools. 
SURNAMES. See Sirnames. (p. 548.) 
SUSPENSION BRIDGES, (p. 548.) See Bridges. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 159 



SWEDES', (p. 549.) 

Death' of Bernadotte, whose son 
Oscar, ascends the throne, 
March 8, 1844 

Treaty of alliance with England 
and France Nov. 21, 1855 

Banishment decreed against 
Catholic converts from Luther- 
anisra Oct. 1857 

SWITZERLAND. 

Declaration of neutrality in the 
coming Italian war. March 14, 1850 

Mutiny and punishment of the 
Swiss mercenary troops at 



Demonstration in favor of 
Italian Independence.. Dec. 17 *i6C 

Charles XV. (born May 3, 1826), 
the present (1861) king of 
Sweden and Norway... July 8, 1?£9 

Heiress : Princess Louisa, horn 

Oct. 21 1851 



Naples ; the confederation for- 
bid foreign enlistment. 

July and Aug. 1851 



TARIFF. A schedule of duties charged by government on goods imported. The 
British tariff in 1840 comprised 1,042 articles ; the number was reduced (by 
sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 18-17. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the 
number was greatly reduced in 1860. See Customs Duties. 

TAXATION. U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general Govern- 
ment was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequently, to 
support the war, direct taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865, 
amounted to $211,129,529. See Revenue, Debt, &c. 

TEA, in England, (p. 554.) 

Imported in 1850 50,112,384 lbs. I Imported in 1857 69,116,000 lbs. 

" "1856 86,200,414" | " "1858 74,222,000" 

The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850, amounted to £5,471,641, 
and the amount in 1852 was £5,902,433. The duty upon tea had been grad- 
ually reduced from 2s. 2\d. to one shilling only per pound, in 1858. In 
United States. Value imported in the years ending June 30, 

1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 

$6,930,986 $6,S93 891 $5,757,860 $6,777,295 $7,306,915 

Amount consumed in U. S., 

1861. 1862. 1863. 1S64. 1865. 1806. 
25,520,000 lbs. 27,46S,600 lbs. 26,906,365 lbs. 23,137,546 lbs. 29,953,433 lbs. 29,643,187 lbs. 

TELEGRAPH. See Electric Tel. and Submarine Tel. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, (p. 555.) Legislation against intemperance in the 
U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law " passed chiefly 
through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connec- 
ticut (1856), New York (1856) and Massachusetts (1856). It was strongly 
enforced in the latter State, although vigorously opposed by many, 1866-7. 
It was repealed in Maine, 1856. 

TENNESSEE, (p. 556.) Population in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves; in 
1860,859,528, and 287,112 slaves. Ordinance of "Separation " passed May 
6, 1861. The eastern part of the State was noted for its loyalty to the Union 
during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. At the State election , Aug. 
1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the " Union " or Radical ticket, was re-elected 
by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in 
this State for the first time. 

TEXAS, (p. 557.) Population in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. Ordinance 
of Secession from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt in 1865, $8,192- 
000. After the war, Gen. A. J. Hamilton was appointed Provisional 



190 the world's progress. 

Governor, by Pres. Lincoln : but at the first election after the restoration 
(1866) a Secessionist, (Throckmorton), was elected. Texas included in 5th 
Military District under Sheridan, March, 1867. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God). The science which treats of the 
nature and attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in 
which they may be discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. 1. 
Inspired (including the Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c); 2. Natural ; 
which latter Lord Bacon calls the first part of philosophy. Butler's Analogy 
of Keligion (1736), and Paley's Natural Theology (1802), are eminent books 
on the latter subject. The "Summa Totius Theologias" by Thomas Aquinas 
(born about 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with com- 
mentaries, &c, in 1596. 

THESSALONICA. A city in Macedonia (now Salonica). Here Paul preached a. 
i). 53 ; and to the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence 
of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took place in 390, by order 
of the emperor Theodosius Thessalonica partook of the changes of the 
Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the emperor Andronicus in 
1425; taken by the Turks in 1430; burnt July 11, 1856. 

TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys 
are of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; and on the death of a pope, his arms are 
presented with the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a 
high round cap. Pope Damascus II. first caused himself to be crowned with 
a tiara, a. d. 1053. John XIX. was the first who encompassed the tiara with 
a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295; and Benedict XII. 
formed the tiara about 1334. 

TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by M. T. Blan- 
chard, of Boston (U. S.), for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhi- 
bition of 1855. A company was formed for its application in England in 
1856. 

TIMES NEWSPAPER, London. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published 
the first number of the Daily Universal Register, price 2-kZ. In 1788, the 
name of the paper was changed to the Times. Dr. Stodart editor in 1812. Dr. 
Barnes was the next editor. On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed 
by steam power. The powerful articles contributed by Edward Sterling gained 
the paper the name of the Thunderer. In 1841 the Times was instrumental 
in detecting and exposing a scheme organized by a company, to defraud by 
forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This brought on the proprietors 
an action for libel. The jury found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of 
one farthing damages, but the judge refused costs. Subscriptions were set on 
foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse the proprietors for their immense out- 
lay in defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and the money was 
expended in establishing Times Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at 
Christ's Hospital, and other schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the 
event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in other places. These were the 
greatest honors ever conceded to a newspaper. In Oct., 1845, the Times ex- 
press was for the first time conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut. 
Waghorn. Of the number of the Times for Nov. 19, 1852, containing the life 
of the Duke of Wellington, 69,000 were sold — the ordinary number being then 
36,000 ; the present circulation is stated to vary from 47,000 to 56,000. In 
1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their special correspondent to 
the seat of war in the Crimea, and in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the United 
States. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-6*7. 191 

TITHES (p. 560). Abolished in England, 1860. 

TOBACCO. In a recent lecture in England, the Dean of Carlisle stated that in 
1865, 33,000,000 pounds of tobacco were consumed in that country, at an ex- 
pense of $40,000,000, over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the govern, 
ment In 1821 the average annual consumption was llf ounces to each 
person ; in 1853 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France much more is consumed 
in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing $20,00Q,0C0 annually by 
the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consumption averages 70 
ounces to each person, in Belgium, 73 ounces, and in America, the average is 
vastly higher. It is calculated that 2,000,000 tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds 
of tobacco are annually used in the world, at a cost sufficient to pay for all the 
bread corn used in Great Britain. It is boasted that 100,000,000 of the human 
race are smokers. In New York city it was stated that there were in 1860, 
about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars daily, making, at an average of 
four cents each, the sum of $16,000 daily, or $5,840,000 a year, wasted in 
smoking in this city alone. The cost in 186V would be at least double. There 
were, in 1860, about 900,000,000 cigars manufactured in N. Y., amounting, at 
the same price, to $36,000,000. The total exports of tobacco from the United 
States in 39 years (1821-59), amounted to $339,274,520. The production of 
tobacco in the northern states has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 1850, 
N. Y. State produced 83,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 5,765,000 lbs. ; Conn, produced 
in 1850, 1,267,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 6,000,000 lbs. The exports of tobacco from 
the U. S. in 1862, amounted to $12,325,356, being almost entirely from the 
north. See Treasury Statistics in appendix. 

TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters 
propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub- 
lished, in England, 1833-41. The principal writers were the Revs. Dr. E. 
Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams. 

TRANSYLVANIA. An Austrian province ; was part of the ancient Dacia. In 
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699, 
when the Emperor Leopold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus- 
trian dominions. 

TRAVELLING in England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter 
nearly two days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the 
journey was accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Rail- 
way express (63 miles) it is done in ]■£ hour. 

TREATIES, (p. 565.) 



Constantinople, treaty of May 8, 1854 

Washington, Reciprocity treaty be- 
tween Great Britain and the U. S., 
respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
commerce, &c July 2, 1854 

Of the U. S. (p. 566.) 

Treatv with China signed at Tien 
Tsin June I3,185S 

Treaty with Japan, negotiated by 
Com. Perry, signed March 31, 1854 

Another treat y with Japan, by Town- 
send Harris, signed June 17, 1857 



Paris, treaty of (and Russian war) 

April, 1856 

Paris (settlement of Neufcbltel 

affair) May 26, 1857 

Zurich (Austria, France, and Sardi- 
nia) Nov. 10, 1859 



Treaty with Mexico, negotiated by Mr. 

McLane, but rejected by the TJ. 8. 

Senate.. I860 

Treaty with Russia for purchase of 

Sitka, ratified June 1867 



TRIALS, U. S. Noted trial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against 
the U. S. in preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May, 



192 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



180V. Burr acquitted. Trial of John Brown for treason against Virginia, 
(See Harper's Ferry). The assassins of Lincoln tried at Washington, 1865. 
Trial of Capt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union Prisoners at Andersonville, 1865 : 
he was convicted and executed shortly after. Jeff Davis, President of the 
Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sum of $100,000, by U. S. Dis 
trict Judge Underwood, Richmond Va., May, 1867, to appear before him on 
the charge of treason at the succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John 
II. Surratt, for complicity in the murder of Pres. Lincoln, lasting about thirty 
days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury. 

TRIESTE. An Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It 
was held by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of 
the overland mail to India, it has risen to great commercial importance 

TROWSERS. Distinguished by looseness from " pantaloons," which were orig- 
inally cut to sit tight to the leg from thigh to ankle. Pantaloons began to 
supersede small clothes during the French revolution ; the loose trowser began 
to be worn after 1815 ; and have become as decidedly a normal form of gar- 
ment, as were the " breeches " of the last century. 

TRUCE OF GOD (Treuga Dei). A term given to a cessation of the private feud3 
and conflicts so general, during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy 
strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussilon, a. 
d. 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday even- 
ing (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regula- 
tions were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being 
chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of 
the Church, especially the Lateran Council, in 1179. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the 
most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about 
a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge in Wales. The Con- 
way Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and there- 
fore requires no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Ste- 
phenson and Mr. Fairbairn. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world 
is that over the St Lawrence, Canada (see .Bridges). 

TUNIS. In July 1856, the Bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. 
The Bey died Sept. 22, 1859 ; and no disturbance ensued on the accession of 

his successor. 



TURKEY, (p. 571.) 

Christians admitted to office in Tur- 
key June, 1S49 

The Turkish government refuses to 
surrender the Hungarian and Po- 
lish refugees on the joint demand 
of Russia and Austria Sept. 16,1849 

Russia suspends intercourse with 
the Porte Nov. 12, 1849 

Treaty with France respecting the 
Holy Places {which see) Feb. 13, 1852 

Russian manifesto against Turkey 

June 26,1853 

War declared against Russia (see 
Russo-Turkish War) Oct. 5, 1853 



Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many 
years English ambassador at Con- 
stantinople, returned to England, 
J.an.: he is succeeded by Sir. H. 
Lytrbn Bulwer ; accredited July 12, 1858 

Massacre of Christians at Jedda 

July 25, 1S58 

Turkish financial reforms begun, Aug. 1S58 

The first Turkish railway opened 
(from Aden to Smyrna)... Sept. 19, 1858 

Base coinage called in ; a fictitious 
Turkish coinage begun at Birming- 
ham, and is suppressed Oct. 1858 

Great agitation for financial reform 

Oct. 18M 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 193 

TUSCANY, (p. 572.) 



The Tuscan army demand alliance 
with the Sardinians : the grand- 
duke refuses, and departs to Bo- 
logna ; the King of Sardinia is pro- 
claimed dictator, and a provi- 
sional government formed, April 
27 ; the king . assumes the cum- 
mand of the army, but declines 
the dictatorship April 30, 1859 

Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, 
addresses the Tuscans, and erects 
his standard May 23, 1859 



The Tuscan constituent assembly 
meets Aug. 11, 1S59 

It declares against recalling the 
house of Lorraine, and votes for 
annexation to Sardinia Sept. 1859 

Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, 
elected governor-general of Cen- 
tral Italy ; he declines, but recom- 
mends Buoncompagni, Nov., who 
is accepted by the Tuscans, Dec. 8, 1S59 

The Grand-Duke Leopold II. abdi- 
cates in favor of his son Ferdinand 

July 21, 1S59 

TYROL. The eastern part of ancient Rhetia, nowa province, of the Austrian 
empire (to the north of Bavaria). It was ceded to the house of Hapsburg ha 
1359, by Margaret, the heiress of the last Count Tyrol. The province became 
an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, which 
branch came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II. in 1618. The 
French conquered the Tyrol in 1808 and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an 
insurrection broke out, headed by the courageous Andrew Hofer, an inn-keeper. 
He drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, but laid down his arms at the treaty 
of Vienna. He was subsequently accused of treason and shot by the French 
at Mantua, Jan. 28, 1810. His family was ennobled by Austria, and a statue 
to him was erected at Innspruck in 1834. 

U 

UNITARIAN'S, U. S. Number of churches in the U. S. in 1863, 339 ; minis- 
ters, 263 ; members estimated at 30,000, 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, (p. 575.) See America ; and the separate 
states, Maine, &c. See also Chronological Tables, p. 156, &c. 

POPULATION. 

1776 2,616,300 I 1810.. 7,239,903 I 1851 23,347,884 

1800 ,5,300,000 | 1831..... 12,856,171 [i860 31,649,869 

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. One of the six points of the charter in England 
(see Chartists), was adopted by the French in the election of their president 
in 1851, and of their emperor in 1852. 

UNIVERSITIES in the U. S. See Colleges. Those of Harvard, at Cambridge, 
Mass. ; Yale, at New Haven ; Brown, at Providence, and Michigan, at Ann 
Arbor, Mich., and Virginia, at Charlottesville, are the chief institutions called 
Universities, but they differ little from the other colleges. 

URUGUAY. A republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 
1825, recognized, Oct. 4, 1828. The President, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 
1856, was succeeded in 1860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in conse- 
quence of the invasion of the ex-President, General Flores, June 26, 1863. 
In Feb. 1865, Flores became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 
350,000. 

V 

VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the coast of Ore- 
gon, Settlements were made here by the English in 1781 ; which were seized 
by the Spaniards in 1789 ; but restored. By a treaty between the British 
government and that of the United States in 1846 this island was secured to 
the former. Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857. 

VEHMIC TRIBUNAL (Vehmgerichte). Secret tribunals established in West- 
9 



194 the world's peogbess. 

r>ha!ia to maintain religion and the public peace. Their proceedings were 
enveloped in a profound mystery. They had their origin in the time of 
Charlemagne ; and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became 
subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. These courts became very troublesome, 
persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. The 
emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16tb 
century. SirW. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein." 

VENEKEAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea, Morbus Gallicus. This disease is said 
to have broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494, 
whence the French term it mat de Naples. In the Netherlands and in Eng- 
land it obtained the appellation of mal de France ; though in the latter coun- 
try it was known so early as the twelfth century. About the same period, too, 
at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Most writers suppose, that 
the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with them from the new to 
the old world, 1493 ; others maintain that it prevailed among the Jews, 
Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of 
America. 

VERMONT, (p. 579.) Population in 1860, 315,827. War expenses, $8,811,600. 
The state sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1861-5. 

VESUVIUS, Mt. (p. 580.) Eruptions in May 1855, May and June 1858, and 
June 1859, caused great destruction. 

VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous 
during the war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river and its 
batteries were impregnable from the water side. After various attempts, Gen. 
Grant moved to the south of it, crossed the river from the west side and 
marched towards the rear of the town, May 1, 1863. He defeats the enemy 
at "Port Gibson, " " Champion Hills," and " Big Black River Bridge," and 
on the 18th reaches the fortifications. He at once invested the place. After 
many assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4, 
1863. Number of prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 220 ; small arms, 70,000. Union 
loss during the siege, 545 killed. 3,682 wounded, and 303 missing. 

VICTORIA, formerly Port Philipp (Australia), situated between New South 
Wales and South Australia, the most successful British colony in that region. 
First colony 1804. In 1839, the colony was named Victoria, and its prosperity 
brought great numbers to it, and induced much speculation and consequent 
embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2. In 1851, the province was declared 
independent of New South Wales. In the same year a reward of £200 was 
offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found near 
Melbourne. 

VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Law- 
rence, Montreal, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, 
and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and opened Nov. 24, 1859. 
It is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and forms part of the Grand 
Trunk Railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and 
about 7-J times longer than Waterloo bridge ; the height sixty feet between 
the summer level of the river, and the under surface of the central tube. The 
cost £1,400,000. On Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was carried away by floating 
ice, but the stonework remained firm. 
VILLA FRANCA (in Lombardy). Here the emperors of France and Austria met 
on July 11, 1859 (after the great battle of Solferino); on the next day they 
signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {which see). 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 195 

VINE DISEASE. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The 
spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The 
disease soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850, many lost all their 
produce. In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zant'e 
and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of the 
usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased 
for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
the disease, but without much effect. It has much abated in France, but not 
in Portugal. 

VIOLIN, (p. 583.) The violin is the most expressive instrument, though sur- 
passed by many in sweetness, richness, and volume. The best were made at 
Cremona about a. d. 1600, by Amiti and Straduarius ; those of the former 
excel in sweetness, of the latter in power. They now command enormous 
prices. 

VIRGINIA. According to the census returns, the real estate, &c, of Virginia, 
1850, was $530,000,000, viz:— Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves, 
$147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show 
that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read nor 
write ! The new constitution of this state, adopted in 1851, in the 111th arti- 
cle has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who 
is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of 
the United States. 1 '' Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. 
Id. 1860, 1,593,199, including 495,826 slaves. State " seceded," May, 1861. 
Soon after the western counties formed a new and loyal State. See West Vir- 
ginia. Virginia was the theatre of the most active military operations of the 
war of secession, and the state suffered the most from that fearful struggle. 
Franchise extended to the colored people 1867, and the state included in the 
1st military district under Gen. Schofield. Debt of the old state in 1865, $41,- 
061,300. 

VISGOTHS. Separated from the Ostrogoths about a. d. 330. The Emperor 
Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condi- 
tion of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies; and Theodosius the 
Great permitted them to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers; 
In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They began 
their kingdom of Toulouse, 414; and conquered the Alains, and extended 
their rule into Spain, 414, and expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally were 
themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muca, in 1711, when their last 
king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an obstinate engagement. Their rule 
in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, iu 507. 

VIVARIUM. See Aquarium. 

VOLTAIC PILE, ok Battery. An apparatus which was constructed in conse- 
quence of the discoveries of Galvani (see Galvanism). The principle was 
discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years pro- 
fessor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, and announced by him to the Royal 
Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon' Bonaparte, and was 
otherwise greatly honored. While your>g he invented the electrophoms, elec- 
tric pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the 
Voltaic battery has been greatly improved by the researches of modern 
philosophers. The nitric acid battery of Mr. W. R. Grove was devised in 
1839 ; the carbon battery of Mr. Robert Bunsen in 1842. The former is very 



196 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. 

much used in England; that of Bunsen in other parts of Europe. See Elto 
tricity. 

VOLUNTEERS, MILITARY, in England. This species of force was formed in 
England, in consequence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 
1794. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 
on Jan. 1, 1804. In May 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear 
of a French invasion, the formation of Volunteer Corps of riflemen commenced 
under the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thou- 
sands were enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. Volunteers, U. S. See Army. 

VULGATE (from Vulgatus, published). A term applied to the Latin version of 
the Scriptures, which is authorized by the Council of Trent, and which is attri- 
buted to St. Jerome, about a. d. 1834, The older version, called the Italic, is 
said to have been made in the beginning of the second century. Critical 
editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and 
of Pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was suppressed as imper- 
fect). The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460. 

W. 

WAGER of BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereof 
the defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof 
thereby whether he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against him. 
Repealed by statute 5U George III., 1819. 

WAGES in England (p. 585). Harvest men, 1857. 5s. In United States. In 
1866, laws were enacted in some of the states making eight hours a legal day'a 
labor, unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what a 
laborer would have received for ten hour's work, he can claim for eight hour's 
labor. 

WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory). A temple near Ratisbon, erected in 1842, by 
Louis, King of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men 
of Germany. The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of Scandi- 
navian heroes after death. 

WALKING, &€., Feats in. In England, Capt. Barclay for a wager (on which 
many thousands of pounds depended), walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 succes- 
sive hours ; in forty-two days and nights (less eight hours). His task was 
accomplished on July 10, 1809. In May, 1758, a young lady at Newmarket 
won a wager, having undertaken to ride 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours, which 
feat she performed in little more than two-thirds of the time. Richard Manks, 
a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of Capt. Barclay) to walk 
1,000 miles in 1,000 hours; the place chosen was the Barrack tavern cricket- 
ground in Sheffield; he commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and com- 
pleted the 1,000 miles July 29, following, winning a considerable sum. 

WALTZ. The popular German national dance was introduced into England by 
Baron Neuman and others in 1813. Raikes. 

WAR — Cost of that in the Crimea. The cost to England, for two years, 
was $200,000,000. The whole cost is estimated at 1,000 millions of dollars. 
Wars of Great Britain (p. 588). War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace 
of Paris, March 31, 1856. For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see 
those countries respectively. War in the United States. The war of the 
rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of South Carolina forces on 
Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, 
adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conflict. Until the 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 197 

summer of 1863 the Confederates maintained their ground successfully. But 
after the fall of Vicksburg, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army 
was almost uniformly victorious until the final surrender of the rebels. See 
Army, Battles, Volunteers, &c. 

WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc- 
tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York for $2,300, Feb. 12, 1850. 

WATER COLOR PAINTING in England has been raised from the hard dry 
style of the last century to its present brilliancy by the efforts of Nicholson, 
Copley, Fielding, Vailey, and the great Turner; by Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, 
&c, within the present century. The exhibition was founded in 1805. 

WATERWORKS. The Roman aqueducts were only artificial streams led at a 
regular slope from an elevated source, and were enormously expensive. Louis 
XIV. erected enormous machines merely to supply ornamental fountains at 
Versailles. London is said to have had water-pipes laid in it as early as a. d. 
1236, and is now supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day, by 
seven companies, one bringing water from a distance of forty miles. Phila- 
delphia was first supplied by works commenced in 1*799, and succeeded by 
those at Fairmount in 1819 ; New York by the Croton Aqueduct, finished in 
1844; Boston, first from Jamaica Pond by a company organized in 1795, and 
afterwards from Cochituate Pond by works begun in 1846, and opened for 
use in 1848. See Public Works, Aqueduct. 

W r AVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley ; 
or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1S14, and closed with ''Tales of my Land- 
lord," four vols., in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter 
Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 25, 182*7. 

"WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted 
to separate themselves from the old state and form a new state called West 
Virginia; admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863; capital, Wheeling ; area, 
23,000 square miles. Population by census of I860, 393,200. The new state 
sent 31,880 men to the Union army. 

WHALE FISHERY. In recent years, by the introduction of petroleum and 
other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced to 
much smaller dimensions. Vessels employed in 1858, 500 ships and barks, 
19 brigs, 45 schooners, total 195,115 tons; 8,033 tons less than last year, 
owing to the increasing scarcity of whales, Imports, 81,941 barrels sperm 
oil, 182,223 barrels whale oil, 1,540,600 lbs. bone. Exports, 33,336 barrels 
sperm, 19,503 barrels whale, 1,049,466 lbs. bone. 

WHIGS. See Tory. In England numerous authors trace the origin of these 
designations to various occasions and various epochs. Referring to what is 
stated under the head Tory, it may be here added, that we are told the name 
Whig was a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists 
for resembling the principles of the whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scot- 
land ; and the other was given by the country party to that of the court, 
comparing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This 
distinction of parties arose out of the discovery of the Meal-Tub plot in 167S. 
Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot before parliament, two parties were 
formed : the one being those who called the truth of the whole plot in ques- 
tion, and this party styled those who believed in the plot Whigs. The other 
party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, 'Tories. 

WINE, U. S, In 1866, California produced 1,252,700 gallons of wine ; Ken 
tucky, 180,000; Indiana, 88,000; New York, 61,000 ; N. Carolina, 54,00f) : 
Illinois. 47,000; Connecticut, 46,000; Virginia, 40,000; Pennsylvania, 38,000' 



198 the world's peogeess. 

During the year ending June 30, 1866, 9,476,814 gallons were imported into 
the U. S. 

WISCONSIN, (p. 597.) Population in 1850, 305,391 ; increase in 10 years 90C 
per cent. 1860, 768,485, increase in 10 years, 152 per cent. 

WITCHCRAFT. Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country districts 
of England. On Sept. 4, 1863, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died in con- 
sequence of having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex. 

WIVES. See Marriage. In England, by the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
Act, passed in 1857, the condition of married women has been much bene- 
fited. When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation ; and 
even while in the latter state any property they may acquire is secured to 
them personally, as if unmarried. By another act, passed in the same year, 
they are enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or 
estates. 

WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Seven. 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The 
mausoleum or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 
3. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of 
the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called 
the Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or 
watch tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 

WOOLSACK. The seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of 
lords is so called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or 
arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England 
in the reign of Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. 

WORKINGMEN'S COLLEGES, in England. The first was established in 
Sheffield, by workingmen. The second in London, by the Rev. Professor 
Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854; a third in Cambridge, and in 
1855, a fourth in Oxford; all wholly for the working classes, and undertaking 
to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is in want of. The colleges 
engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class ; 
and also to have lectures given. They are highly successful, 

WRECKS, (p. 602.) Arctic, IT. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the 
Vexta, French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 lives lost, Sept. 27, 
1854. City of Philadelphia, Liverpool to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S. 
sloop of war Albany, from Aspinwall, Sept. 28, 1854, never heard from. 
City of Glasgow, steamer, with 480 persons on board, disappeared in 1854 
Pacific, Collins steamer, from Liverpool to New York, Jan. 23, 1856, dis- 
appeared and never heard of. John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, 
ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost, Feb. 20, 1856. Lyon- 
nais, French steamer, New York to Havre, collision with bark Adriatic, 
134 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Austria, steamship, Hamburg to New York, 
burnt in the middle of the Atlantic ; of 538 persons on board, only sixty-seven 
were saved, Sept. 13, 185-. Royal Charter, screw steamer, on the Anglesea 
coast; 459 lives lost; the vessel contained gold amounting in value to £700,- 
000, Oct. 26, 1859. Steamer Niagara, burned on lake Michigan ; 60 lives 
lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer, Lieut. Herndon, Aspinwall 
to New York, founders, 427 lives lost, and $2,000,000 in gold, Sept. 8, 1857 
Russian line of battle ship in the Baltic, founders, all on board, (825) lost, 
Sept. 1857. The total number of American sea-going vessels reported during 
1859, as lost or missing was 402, valued at $5,599,000, being an increase over 
the previous year of 114 vessels, and $1,128,000 in value. Of the whole num- 
ber, 8 were steamers, 84 ships, 48 barks, 64 brigs, and 19S schooners. 



SUPPLEMENT, 1851-87. 199 

Y. 

YACHT. The ancient thalamegus or navis lusorice was a vessel for pleasure, 
like the modern yacht. The English are very found of yachting. Their 
yachts are commoniy cutter-rigged, and with one mast. Yachting has come 
into vogue in the United States only since about 1830. The American yachta 
are sloops or schooners. The yacht America modelled and built by the re- 
markable genius George Steers, of New York (d. 1856, aged 35), beat all the 
English yachts in a regatta at Cowes, Aug. 22, 1851. She was a schooner, 
with her greatest breadth abaft the beam, and with "hollow lines" forward. 
A yacht race from New York to Cowes, Isle of Wight, Dec, 1865, between 
three New York yachts, Henrietta, Vesta, and Fleetwing ; Henrietta winner by 
seven (?) hours. 

YANKEE. The derivation of the word is generally accredited to the Indian 
pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. In New York 
it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all Northerners ; and in 
Europe to all Anglo-Americans. In a curious book on the Round Towers of 
Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term Yankee Doodle, was 
said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki douniah, or " Inhabi- 
tants of the New World." Layard in his " Nineveh," also mentions Yankhi- 
dunia as the Persian name of America. 

YORKTOWN. This place was fortified by the rebels, and withstood the siege of 
Gen. McClellau, from April 4 to May 5, 1862, when it was evacuated ; 71 spiked 
guns were found in the works. 

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. U. S. First one under this 
name founded in Boston, Jan. 10, 1852 ; in N. Y. city, June 30, 1852. They 
are now (1867) established in many of the principal cities. At a general con- 
vention of Young Men's Christian Associations, at Montreal, in June, 1867, 
215 associations in the United States and Canada were represented. 

Z. 

ZOLLVEREIN. (Customs' Union.) The name given to the German commercial 
union, of which Prussia is the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually 
joined by nearly all the German states, except Austria. On Feb. 19, 1853, an 
important treaty of commerce and navigation, between Austria and Prussia to 
last from Jan. 1854 till Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the other states of the 
Zollverein gave in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. 

ZOUAVES and Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at 
Algiers, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and 
selected Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful 
courage. In time numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic French- 
men, joined the regiments, adopting the costume, &c, and eventually the 
Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no more were added, they having 
been frequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves formed an important 
part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5. 

ZURICH, (p. 608.) Conference of the representatives of Austria, France and 
Sardinia, held at Zurich (after the truce of Villa Franca), August 8, 1859, and 
continued several months. 

ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here in 1568, between the Spaniards and 
the Dutch, the amiable Sir Philip Sidney, author of the " Arcadia." was kil.ed. 
He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Lei- 
cester. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



CHIEFLY FBOM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS 



ABBEYS and MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near 
the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. 
An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaini, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 805. 
The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was 
in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elphin, Down. The first in Scotland was 
in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see 
Bangor. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet 
in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands 
of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in 
England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. The revenues of 
193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to £2,653.000, 
These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry 
' VIH. 1539. See Monasteries. 

ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in 
later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, 
and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — 

He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- 
naparte family. See Spain. May 1, 1808 
Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to 

take the crown of Spam, . June 1, 1808 
Of the same (by flying before the British 

from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 
Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810 
Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 
Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 
Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 
Of Pedro of Portusal, . . May 2, 1326 
Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 
Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 

Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving 

the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834 
Of William I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1840 
Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager 

and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840 
Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 
Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 
Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, 

Dec. 2, 1848 
Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 

Aug. 1849 



Of Henry IV. of Germany, . . 1080 
Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumamed 

Thunder, 1114 

Of Albert of Saxony, .... 1142 
OfLestusV. of Poland, . . . . 1200 
OfUladislaus III. of Poland, . . 1206 
Of Baliol of Scotland, .... 1306 
Of Otho of Hungary, . . . . 1309 
Of Eric IX. of Denmark . . 1439 

Of Eric XIII. of Sweden, . . .1441 
Of Charles V. Emperor, . . . 1556 
Of Christina of Sweden, . . . 1654 
Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . 1669 
Of James II. of England, . . . 16&8 
Of Frederick Ausustus II. of Poland, . 1704 
Of Philip V. of Spain, .... 1724 
Of Victor of Sardinia, . . . . 1730 
Of Charles of Naples, .... 1759 
Of Stanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795 
Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 
Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes 

emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 
Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his 

son, .... March 19, 1808 



ABEL ARD and HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and 
misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. d. 1118. when Helolse (a canon's daugh- 
ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- 
jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of 
grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helolse begged his bodv, and had 
9* 



202 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ AOA 

it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, with the view of reposin? 
in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, 
and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French 
Monuments in 1800; and the museum having been subsequently broken up. 
they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. 

ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the natiou 
conducted by Saturn into Latium. founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- 
tory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; 
and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being 
absque origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. Thi 
word signifies vrithout origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally 
applied to any original inhabitants. 

ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- 
dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the 
British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 
1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- 
gust 1, 1798. See Nile. 

ABRAHAM, Era of. Used by Eusebius; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To 
reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. 

ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, 
and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. 
St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Styiite, to 112 ; and Kenti- 
gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of 
age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without 
meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days 
by smelling honey and hot bread, 828 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor- 
mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Albano. Gilbert Jackson, 
of C arse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 
1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on 
the sixteenth, 1789.— Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four 
years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hufeland's Practical Journal. Ann 
Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been 
an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. 
At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived 
two years without meat or drink ; Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards 
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See 
instances in Halter's Elementce Physiologies; Cornaro ; Pricher's Surgical 
Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. 

ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, 
flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. 
They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- 
rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — 
Bossuet. 

ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation ; 
which they place in the 5498d year before our era, on the 29th August, old 
style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 
125 days. 

ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and 
the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shady grove without the walls 
of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato 
first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 
b. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
andria about 314 b. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also 



4Cfi J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



203 



named as founders, Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua 
mentions 550. of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical 
academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne. in 1135. Academies 
were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society 
of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal 
ecademies : — 

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
1780. ' 

American Philosophical Society, 1769. 

Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1(324. 

Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 
1703; Architecture, 1799. 

Bologna, Ecclesiastical, ;G37 ; Mathematics, 
1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. 

Brescia, of the Errant i, 1626. 

Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682, 

Brussels, Belles- Lettres, 1773. 

Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. 

Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. 

Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1749; Science and Literature, 
17S6; Painting. Sculpture, &c, 1823. 

Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 

Faenza, the P/iilopcni, 1612. 

Florence, Belles-Leltrcs, 1272 ; Delia Crus- 
ca, 1582; Antiquities, 1807. 

Geneva. Medical, 1715. 

Genoa, Painting, &c, 1751 ; Sciences, 17S3. 

Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Historv, 
1652; Military, 1752. 

Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 

London : its various Academies arc de- 
scribed through the volume. 

Lyons, Sciences, 1700; had Physic and Ma- 
thematics added, 1758. 

Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, 
1730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. 

Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. 

Mantua, the Vigilanii, Sciences, 1704. 

A.CCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and 
without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century 
that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after 
Wetstein. ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in 
Egypt, a.d. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by 
other grammarians in the various languages. 

ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names 
are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achaeus, the son of 
Xuthus, 1080 e. c. The kingdom was united with Sicj'on or subject to the 
iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achasi were descendants of Achasus, 
and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- 
clidse drove them thence, they retired among the Ionians, expelled the na- 
tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, iEgira, iEgeum, Bura, Tri- 
taea, Leontium, Rhypaj. Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dymse, and Phara?. 



Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 1726. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 

Naples, Rossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1E£0; 

Sciences, 1695; Herculaneum, \75o. 
New York, Literature and Philosophy,1814. ' 
Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
Padua, for Poetry, 1610 ; Sciences, 1792. 
Palermo. Medical, 1645. 
Paris, Sorbunne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu- 
sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; 
Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- 
tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. 
Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 
Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filirgiti, 1574. 
Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; 

the School of Arts, 1764. 
Portsmouth, Naval, 1722; enlarged, 1S06._ 
Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici, 1625; 
Ivfecundi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 
1690: English. 1752. 
Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. 
Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles-Lettrea 

1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. 
Toulon, Military, 1682. 
Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
Turkey, Military School. 1775. 
Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
Venice, Medical, &c, 1701. 
Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 
Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- 
gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. 
Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
Woolwich, Military, 1741. 



The Achasan league, . .B.C. 281 

Fortress of Athenasum built, . . 228 

Defeat of the Aehasans by the Spartans, 

and Lysiades killed. . . 226 

Battle of Sallacia, '. . .222 

The Social war begun, . . 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEto- 

lians, .... 219 

Aratus poisoned at ^Egiuin. . . 215 

Battle of Mantinea ; Philopoemen defeats 

the Spartan tyrant Mecnanidas, . 208 



Alliance with the Romans, . b. c. 2( i 

Philopoemen defeated by Nabis, in a na- 
val battle, . 194 
Sparta joined to the league, . 1S1 
The Achasans overrun Messenia with 

fire and sword, . . , 182 

The Romans enter Achaia, 165 

Metellus enters Greece, . . 147 

The Achsean league dissolved, . 146 

Greece subjected to Rome, and namcl 
the province of Achaia, . . K£ 



" Now extinct. 



204: THE WORLDS PliOGKESS. [ ADA 

The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that 
of the Achaean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance 
to it in their confederacy. 
ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and 
the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, 
was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by 
Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about 
a. d. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. 
Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook 
Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and 
La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. 

ACRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192" after a 
siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops. 12 bishops, 40 earls. 500 
barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 Chris- 
tians perished. 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the murder 
of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. 
Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- 
ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts dm - ing the memorable 
siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by 
the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relin- 
quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to 
the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. 
It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet 
under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, 
the Egyptians losing upwards of 2 000 in killed and wounded, and 3.000 
prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840. 
See Syria and Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS of ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and 
accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Pans, in 
Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2 000 years, was destroyed 
in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was 
marked by terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high 
towers, each sn, :he distance of fifty feet. — Euripides. 

ACTIUM, Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, 
and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the. other, and which decided the fate 
of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cassar; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. o. 
This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate 
upon Caesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman 
empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con- 
queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. 

A CTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- 
cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to 
have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- 
land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- 
atre at court. — Theat. Biog. 

ACTS of PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John. 1215. See Par- 
liament. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been 
annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between 
the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 
repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. 
Peel (afterwards Sir Robert): of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large and 225 to Ireland solely. 

ADA? IITES. a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. 



ABM 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



205 



130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that 
if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chiei 
was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it 
was not necessary to confess Christ. — Euscbius. This sect, with an addition 
of many blasphemies, and teaching from the test " increase and multiply,'-' 
was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named 
Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every 
age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, 
again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they 
spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon, 
ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sinst 
the formation of the government : — 



First Administration ; — 1789 to 
G.-orge Washington, Virginia,, 

Massachusetts, 



John Adams, 

Thomas .Jefferson. 
Edmund Randolph, 
Timoihy Pickering, 
Alexander Hamilton, 
Oliver Wolcott, 
Henry Knox, 
Timothy Pickering, 
James M'Henry, 
Samuel Osgood, 
Timothy Pickering, 
Joseph Habersham, 
Edmund Randolph, 
William Bradford, 
Charles Lee, 



Virsinia, 
do. 

Pennsylvania, 

New York, 

Connecticut, 

Massachusetts, 

Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Pennsylvania, 

Georgia, 

Virginia, 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 



1797 ;— S years. 
April 30, 1789 
do. 1789 

Appointed. 



Sept. 
Jan. 
Dec. 
Sept. 
Feb. 
Sept. 



26,1789; 

2. 1794 
10; 1795 * 

11, 1789 

3, 1795 

12, 1789 



Jan. 2, 1795 
Jan. 27, 1796 ( 
Sept. 26, 1789 ' 
Nov. 7, 1791 ! 

25, 1795 

26, 1789 ' 

27, 1794 
10, 1795 ' 



Feb 
Sept, 
Jan. 
Dec. 



President. 
Vice President. 



Secretaries of S'ats 

Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 

Secretaries of War. 
Post Masters Gen. 
Attorneys General 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. 

Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. 

Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. 

.Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. 



John Adams, 
Thomas Jefferson, 

Timothy Pickering, 
John Marshall, 
Oliver Wolcott, 
Samuel Dexter, 
James M'Henry, 
Samuel Dexter, 
Roger Griswold, 
George Cabot." 
Benjamin Stocldart, 
Joseph Habersham, 
Charles Lee, 



J onathan Dayton, 
Theodore Sedgwick, 



Second Administration; — 1797 to 1801 ; — 4 years. 



Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. 

Virginia, 1797 Vice President 

Appointed. 
Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) ? c prr p far ip^ of e f ,„ 
Virginia, May 13, 1800 \ » ecretarlf * 0I » tats 

Connecticut, (continued in office.) ? Secretaries of the 
Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury. 

Maryland, (continued in office.) \ 

Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of Wat- 

Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 S 

Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 ( Secretaries of the 

Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. 

Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen. 

Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General, 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

New Jersey, 5th Congress, '. 797. 

Massachusetts, 6th do. 1799. 

Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. 
Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 "President. 

Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 > v - p r . _ ir!( , ,,,,«, 

George Clinton, New York, do. 1805 \ Vlce wesmeBMU 

Appointed. 
James Madison, Virginia, March 5,1801 Secretary of S:ata, 

Samuel Dexter, Mass. (continued in office.) I Secretaries of thl 

Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania. Jan. 26, 1S02 \ Treasury. 



* Mr. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established ir. 1798. 



20G 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[ ADM 



Henry Dearborn, Massachusetts, March 5,5801 Secretary of War. 

Benjamin Steddart, Md. (continued ,n office.) I Secretaries oi' the 

Robert Smith, - Maryland, Jan. 26, 1832 j Navy. 

Joseph Habersham, Georgia, (continued in office.) ( Post Masters Ge- 

Gideon Granger, ' Connecticut Jan. 26, 1892 \ neral. 

Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 ) 

John Breckenridge. Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 V Attorneys Gene rati 

Cffisar A. Rodney,' Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. 

Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 8th do. 1S03. 

Nathaniel Macon, North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. 

Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 10th do. 16t?< , 

Fourth Administration ; — 1809 to 1817-; — 8 ye»ra. 



James Madison, 
George Clinton, 
Elbridge Gerry, 

Robert Smith, 
James Monroe, 
James Monroe,t 
Albert Gallatin, 
George W. Campbell, 
Alexander J. Dallas, 
William Eustis, 
John Armstrong, 
James Monroe, 
William H. Crawford, 
Paul Hamilton, 
William Jones, 
Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
Gideon Granger, 
Return J. Meigs, 
Csesar A. Rodney, 
William Pinkney, 
Richavd Rush, 



Virginia, March 4, 1809 President. 

New York, 1809, (died April 20, 1812) ; v - Pv -.„.,„.. 
Mass. 1813, (died Nov. 23, 1814) \ vlce rie=n-t,~A 

Appointed. 
Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) 

Virginia, Nov. 25, 1 81 1 } Secretaries cf Stata 

Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 ) 

Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) i g ecretaries of lhe 

Oct.' l\ml\ Treasur ^ 

March 7, 1809 ' 

• Secretaries of War. 



Tennessee, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 

New York, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

South Carolina, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 



19 ) 

Jan. 13, 1813 (, 



Sept. 27, 1814 ( " 
March 2, 1815 ) 
March 7,1809) Secr 



Ge- 



Jan. 12, 1813 

Dec. 19, 1814 ; 
Connecticut, (continued in office.) ', 

Ohio, March 17, 1814 { 

Delaware, (continued in office.) ') 

Maryland, • Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General. 

Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 \ 



etaries <>• 
Navy. 

Post Masters 
neral. 



the 



12th 


do. 


1811. 


13th 


do. 


) 1812. 
t 1814. 


14th 


do. 


1815. 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. 

Henry Clay, Kentucky, 

Henry Clay, Kentucky, ) 

Langdon Cheves, South Carolina, \ 

Henry Clay, Kentucky, 

Fifth Administration ; — 1817 to 1825; —8 years. 

James Monroe, Virginia, March 4, 1817 President. 

Danic D. Tompkins, New York, do. 1817 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Massachusetts, March 5,1817 Secretary of Sta e. 

Georgia, March 5, 1817 Secretary of TreaB 

Kentucky, March 5, 1817 ) _, „ . . „ - „- . 

South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 { Secretaries of Wal. 

Massachusetts, (continued in office.) 1 „ . .■ f th 
New York, Nov. 30, 1818 Ckecietdiies ol the 

New Jersey, Dec. 9,1823) - >av '- 

Ohio, (continued in office.) ( Pos/ Masters Ge- 

do. Dec. 9, 1823 \ neral. 

Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) I Att omevs Genera- 
Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 \ Attorneys brener*. 



John G_. Adams, 
William H. Crawford, 
Isaac Shelby,+ 
John C. Calhoun, 
Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
Smith Thompson, 
Samuel L. Southard, 
Return J. Meigs, 
John McLean, 
Richard Rush, 
William Wirt, 



' Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Croicninshield, of Massachusetts. 
Secistary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointments; and 
Mr. S?nith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's a/'jm> 
aiwtration. 

t James Monroe was recommissioned. having for some time acted as Secretary cf War. 

T Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. 



ADM 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



207 



ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Henry Clay, Kentucky, loth Congress, 

HeniT Clay, g e mucky, \ 16th do. 

John W. Taylor, 



Philip P. Barbour, 
Henry Clay, 



17th 
18th 



do. 
do. 



John Q,. Adams, 
John C Calhoun, 

Henry Clay, 
Richard Rush, 
James Barbour, 
Peter B. Porter, 
Samuel L. Southard, 
John McLean, 
William Wirt, 



John W. Taylor, 
Andrew Stephenson, 



Sixth Administration ; — 1825 to 1829 ; — 4 years. 

Massachusetts, March 4, 1S25 President. 

South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. 

Appointed. 
Kentucky, March 8, 1825 Secretary of Sta!« 

Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'yofiheTieas * 

Virginia, do. 1825 { a pr . r „ t ., v ; pt . f W s 

New York, May 26, 1828 \ SecrUanes ol \\ s . 

New Jersey, {continued in office.) Sec'y of the Navy. 

Ohio, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen 

Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney General. 

Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

New York, 19th Congress, 1827. 

Virginia, 20th do. 1828. 



Seventh Administration ;- 
Andrew Jackson, Tennessee, 

John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, 

Martin Van Buren, New York, 



Martin Van Buren, 
Edward Livingston, 
Louis McLane, 
John Forsyth, 
Samuel T>'. Ingham, 
Louis McLane, 
William J. Duane, 
Roser B. Taney, 
Levi Woodbury, 
John H. Eaton, 
Lewis Cass, 
John Branch, 
Levi Woodbury, 
Mahlon Dickerson, 
William T. Barry, 
Amos Kendall, 
John McP. Berrien, 
Roger B. Taney, 
Benjamin F. Butler, 



New York, 

Louisiana. 

Delaware, 

Georgia, 

Pennsylvania, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, 

New Hampshire, 

Tennessee, 

Ohio, 

North Carolina, 

New Hampshire. 

New Jersey, 

Kentucky, 

Kentucky, 

Georgia, 

Maryland, 

New York, 



■1829 to 1837 ;— 8 years. 

March 4, 1829 
do. 1829 I 

1&33* 
Appointed. 

March 6, 1829 
1831 
1833 
1835 

March 6, 1829 
1831 
1S33 
1833 
1834 

March 9, 1829 
1831 ( 

March 9, 1829 ) 
1831 } 

1834 > 
March 9, 1829 ( 

1835 \ 
March 9, 1829 1 

1831 > 
1834 S 



President. 
Vice Presidents. 



Secretaries of Stata 



Secretaries of the 
Treasury. 



Secretaries of War- 
Secretaries of the 
Navy. 

Post Masters Ge- 
neral. 

Attorneys General 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 

Virginia, 21st Congress, 1S29. 

Virginia, 22d do. 1831. 

Pennsylvania, 1835 



Andrew Stevenson, 
Andrew Stevenson, 
John Bell, 

Eighth Administration ; — 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. 
Martin Van Buren, New York, 1837 President. 

Richard M. Johnson, Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. 

John Forsyth, 
Levi Woodbury, 
Joel R. 1 oinsett, 
Mahlon Dickerson, 
James K. Paulding, 
Amos Kendall, 
John M. Niles, 
Benjamin F Bu'Ier, 
Felix Grun.Iy , 
Henry D. Gilpin, 



Georgia, {continued in office.) Secretary of State. 

New Hampshire, {continued in office.) Sec'y of Treasury, 

South Carolina, 1837 i 

New Jersey, {continued in office.) > Secretaries of Wss 

New York, 1838 S 

Kentucky, {continued in office.) ) Post Masters Ge- 

Connecticut, 1840 (, iieral. 

New York, {continued in office.) j 

Pennsylvania, > Attorneys Genera}. 

Pennsylvania, 1839 ) 



James K. Polk, 
Robert M. T. Hunter, 



Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
Tennessee, 
Virginia, 



1837. 



208 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 



[ ADJ* 



ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 

Ninth Administration ,-—1841 to 1845 ; -4 years. 
William II. Harrison, Ohio, 1841 Preside it 

Died one month afto." inauguration, and 



John Tyler, 

Samuel L. Southard, 
Willie P. Mangum, 

Daniel Webster, 
Abel P. Upshur, 
Thomas Ewing, 
Walter Forward, 
John C. Spencer, 
John Bell, 
John C. Spencer, 
George E. Badger, 
Abel P. Upshur, 
David Henshaw, 
Francis Grander, 
Charles A. Wickliffe, 
John J. Crittenden, 
Hugh S. Legare, 
John Nelson, 

Speakers 
John White, 
John W. Jones, 



Virginia, 

New Jersey, 
North Carolina, 

Massachusetts, 
Virginia, 
Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 
New York, 
Tennessee, 
New York, 
North Carolina, 
Virginia, 
Massachusetts, 
New York, 
Kentucky, 
Kentucky, 
South Carolina 
Maryland, 
of the House of Reepr 

Kentucky, 

Virginia, 



1841 

1841 
1841 
Appointed. 

1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1841 
esentatives. 



Vice Presi "tent, 
became ac.ing Fres. 
Acting V. Pres. and 
Pies. Senate. 

Secretaries of State. 

Secretaries of the 
Tieasuiy. 

Secretaries of War. 

Secretaries of the 
Navy. 

Post Masters Gea< 
eral. 

Attorneys Genera!. 



1841 
1843 



Tenth Administration ; — 1845 to 1849 ;— 4 years. 



James K. Polk, 
George M. Dallas, 

James Buchanan, 
Robert J. Walker, 
William L. Marcy, 
George Bancroft, 
John Y. Mason, 
Cave Johnson, 
John Y. Mason, 
Isaac Toucey, 

John W. Davis 



Tennessee, 
Pennsylvania, 



Pennsylvania, 
Mississippi, 
New York, 
Massachusetts, 
Virginia, 
Tennessee, 
Virginia, 
Connecticut, 
Speakers of the House of Representatives, 
Indiana, 



1845 President. 
1845 Vice President. 
Appointed. 

1845 Secretary of Slate. 
1S45 Secretary of Treas. 
1845 Secretary of War. 
1845 I Secretaries of the 
1847 \ Navy. 

1845 Post Master Gen. 

1847 ( Attorne y s General. 



Robert C. Winthrop, . Massachusetts, 

Eleventh Administration; — 1849 to 1853; — 4 years. 



1845. 
1847. 



Zachary Taylor, 
Millard Fillmore, 

John M. Clayton, 
William E. Meredith, 
William B Preston, 
George W. Crawford, 
Thomas Ewing, 
Jacob Collamer, 
Reverdy Johnson, 

Howell Cobb, 



Louisiana, 1849 President. 

New York, 1849 Vice President. 

Appointed. 

Delaware, 1849 Secretary of State. 

Pennsylvania, 1849 Sec'y of Treasury. 

Virginia, 1849 Sec'y of the Navy. 

Georgia, 1849 Secretary of War. 

Ohio, . 1849 Sec'y of "Interior." 

Vermont, 1849 Post' Master Gen. 

Maryland, 1849 Attorney General. 



Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
Georgia, 



1S49. 



ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and op GREAT BRITAIN, from tie 
accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- 
ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — 

king henry viii. I Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . }529 

Bishoo Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop 
Cardial Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 | Cranmer . . . . ;. 532 

* A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. 
Alote. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- 
trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, 
were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate 
»f the United States." Am. Almanac, &c. 



k'Ml 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



209 



Am 1 nrd Cromwell (earl of Essex) . 1534 
Dute of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and 

bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 

Lord Wi-iothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 

KING EDWARD VI. 

The earl of Hertford, continued 

John, duke of Northumberland . 1552 



O.UEEN MARY. 

Bishop Gardiner 



1553 



Q.TJEEN ELIZABETH. 

Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 

Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord 
Burleigh ; chief minister during al- 
most the whole of this long reign 
Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1564 

Earl of Essex .... 1538 
Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 

KING JAMES. I. 

Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) 

Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North- 
ampton. 

Sir It. Carr, created viscount Roches 
ter, a f 'erwards earl of Somerset 

Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar- 
ouess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615 

KING CHARLES I. 

Duke of Buckingham continued 

Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 

Archbishop Laud, earl oi Strafford, 

lord Cottington . . . 1640 

Earl of Essex .... 1640 
Lord vis. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 

[The civil war commenced, and all 

went into confusion.] 

KING CHARLES II. 

Edward, earl of Clarendon . . 1660 

Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 1667 
Lord Ashley, Lord Arlington, Sir T. 

Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 1667 
Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created 
earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas 
Osborne .... 1673 

Sir Thomas Osborne . . . 1674 

Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl 
qftericards marquess of Halifax, sir 
William Temple . . . 1677 

Duke of York, and his friends . 1682 

KING JAMES II. 

Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, 
sir George afterwards lord Jeffries 1685 

Lord Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord 
Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- 
dleton, visct. Preston . . 1687 

KING WILLIAM III. AND Q.UEEN MARY II. 

Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord 
Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- 
wards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 1688 
The eavl of Sunderland, &c. . . 1695 
Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of 
Halifax, 3ar! of Pembroke, viscount 
Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 

atJEEN ANNE. 

lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord 
Pembroke, duke of Buckingham 



Duke of Marlborough, &c. . 17K' 

Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dnkes 
of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170? 

R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171' ; 

Earl of Rochester, ord Dartmouth, 
and Henry St. John, esq. afteruards 
visct. Bolingbroke ; lord Harcourt . 17U 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 171' 

KING GEORGE I. 

Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, 
marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- 
ford, duke of Marloorouen. visct. 
Townshend, &c. . . .714 

Robert Walpole, esq. . . . 171t 

James, afterwards earl Stanhope . 1715 
Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . j\i 
Robert Walpole, esq. afterwards sir 
Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?] 

KING GEORGE II. 

Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtca, lord 
Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1742 

Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl 
of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 1743 

Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke 
of Bedford, &c. . . . 1746 

Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- 
inson, Henry Fox, &c, lord Anson 1754 

Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, 
earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 

[Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in 
June, same year.] 

William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, 
duke of Newcastle, <fcc. . .1757 

KING GEORGE III. 

Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke 
of Bedford .... 1761 

Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville, 
sir Francis Dashwood, &c. . '. 1762 

Right hon. George Grenville, earl of 
Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of 
Bedford, &c 1763 

Marquess of Rockingham, duke of 
Grafton, earl of Shelbume, <tc. July 1765 

Duke of Grafton, b,on. Chas. Towns- 
hend, earl of Chatham, &c. Aug. 1766 

Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick, 
lord North, &c. . . Dec. 1767 

Lord North, lord Halifax, &c. . . 1770 

Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor- 
mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St 
Germain, <fcc. .... 17Y3 

Marquess of Rockineham,right hon'ble 
Charles James Fox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782 

Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord 
Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782 

Duke of Portland, lord North, Mr. Fox, 
&c. (The Coalition Ministrv. See 
"Coalition,") . April 5, 17S3 

Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower, 
lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thur- 
low, right hon. W. W. Grenville, 
Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke 
of Richmond, <fec. . Dec. 27, 1783 

Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf- 
ford, lord Hawkesbury, &c. . . 1786 

Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds, 
lord Camden. &c. . . . 1790 

Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chatr 
ham, lord Loughborough, &c. . 17S# 



210 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ ADfi. 



Mr. Put. duke of Portland, lord Gren- 
ville, Mr. Dundas, &c. . . 1795 

Mr. Pitt, earl of Westmorland, earl 
of Chatham, lord Grenville, &c. . 1798 

Right hon. Henry Addingcon, duke of 
Portland, lord Hawkesbury, lord Ho- 
bart, lord Eldon, &c. . Mar. 17, 1801 

Mr. Pitt, lord Melvillj, rt. hon. George 
Canning, lord Harrowby, lord West- 
morland, duke of Portland, Mr. Dun- 
das, &c. . . May 12, 1804 

Lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl 
Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind- 
ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. 
Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. 
(See "All the Talents.") Feb. 5, 1806 

Duke of Portland, Mr. Canning, lord 
Hawkesbury, earl Camden, right 
hon. Spencer Perceval, &c. Mar. 25, 1807 

Duke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord 
vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville 
Gower, &c 1808 

Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, mar- 
quess Wellesley, viscount Palmers- 
ton, Mr. Ryder, &c. . . Oct. 1809 

REGENCY OP GEORGE, PRINCE OP WALES. 

Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, 

&c. continued. 
Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. 

Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. 

Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. 

Nich. Vansittart, &c. June 8, 



KING WILLIAM IV. 

Duke of Wellington and his cabinet, 
continued. 

Earl Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Mel- 
bourne, Goderich, and Palmerstoo, 
marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol- 
land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra- 
ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, 1330 

[Earl Grey resigns May 9, but resumes 
office May 18, 1832.] 

Viscount Melbourne, viscount Althorp, 
lord John Russel, viscts. Palmerston, 
and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, 
lord Howick. Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou- 
lett Thomson', <fec. . July 14, 1834 

Viscount Melbourne's administration 
H'~ ^:tcu: tne duke of Wellington 
.aRes the helm of state provisionally, 
waiting the return of sir Robert Peel 
from Italy . . Nov. 14, 1834 

Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, 
lord Ellenborough, lord Rosslyn, 
lord WharnclifTe, sir George Murray, 
Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Hemes, Mr. 
Goulburn, &c. . Dec. 15, 1834 

Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues 
return to office . April 18, 1835 

Q.UEEN VICTORIA. 

Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi- 
net, continued. 

Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 

Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's 
commands to form a new adminis- 
tration, May 8. 

This command is withdrawn, and lord 
Melbourne and his friends are rein- 
stated . . . May 10, 1831 

Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
earl of Aberdeen, earl of Hadding- 
ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr. 
Goulburn, &c. . Aug. 7, 1841 

Lord John Russell's administration 

July 6, 1846 

ADMIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed 
by Henry HI. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had 
been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed 
in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of 
great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward I. 
in 1297. — Spelman; Rymer. 

ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank waa 
created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high 
admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy. 

ADMIRALTY. Court op, erected by Edward in. in 1357. This is a civil court 
for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. 

ADRIANOPLE: Battle op, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 
3, a.d. 323. Adria nople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360 ; 
and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire till the capture of 
Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the 
sultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was born here in 1430.— 



1812 

KING GEORGE IV. 

Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth, 
Mr. Vansittart, <fec. continued. 

Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount 
Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- 
ges Bourne, &c. . April 10, 1827 

Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland, 
right hon. William Huskisson, Mr. 
Hemes, &c. . . August 11, 1S27 

Duke of Wellington, right hon. Robert 
Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- 
ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul- 
burn, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. 

January 25, 182S 

Duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen, 
sir George Murray, lord Lowther, sir 



Henry Hardinge, &c, (Mr. Huskis- 
son, vise Palmerston, Mr. Grant, earl 
of Dudley, <fcc. retiring) May 30, 1828 



lOV J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 211 

Priestley. Adrianople waf. taken by the Russians. Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was 
restored to the sultan at tlio close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea 
was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married 
the Adriaticv/m Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or stale 
barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, 
and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for 
the first time for centuries, in 1797. 

ADULTEK Y, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with 
the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx, 10. This law 
was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, 
because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal 
of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged 
to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calmet. Lycurgus 
punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans 
tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; 
the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, 
and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil- 
dren.— Lenglct. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery 
were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England 
the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil 
action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. 

ADULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, 
and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — 
Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished 
by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping 
her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without 
distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stowc. 
The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished 
capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650; but there is 
no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
. whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man 
were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present 
this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress 
of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they 
usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe. 

ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of 
the Nativity; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest 
Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was 
instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. 

ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of 
merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension 
of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. 
This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign 
of Edward HI., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation 
in 1564. — Anderson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they 
were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
of 50£. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to 
be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. 
— Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged according to the 
number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland 
at 2s! 6d. each adtertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England 
to Is. 6d. } and iu Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833 



212 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ &Yt 

^DILES. magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There were three degrees 
of these officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices 
of the peace. The plebeian sediles presided over the more minute affairs of 
the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all 
the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. 

ENIGMA. The origin of the senigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews 
borrowed their enigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The 
philosophy of the Druids was altogether enigmatical. In Nero ; s time the 
Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing 
truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is 
an elegant specimen of the senigma : — 

Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; 
Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 

^OLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher. Itf 53 ; 
but Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his 
time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story 
of the afirial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, 
was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. 

AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has 
been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The 
ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well 
as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that 
hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The 
true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- 
golfier, 1782.— See Balloon. 

/ESOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor 
of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b.c. ^Esop's 
Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits 
both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch. 

£ETOLIA. This country was named after iEtolus of Elis, who, having acci- 
dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos. left the Peloponnesus, 
and settled here. The inhabitants were very little knoAvn to the rest of 
Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a con- 
sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achaeans, to whom 
they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. 
They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. 



The jEtolians begin to ravage the Pelo- 
ponnesus . . . b.c. 282 

They dispute the passage of the Mace- 
donians at Thermopylae . . 223 

Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price 
of peace .... 218 

Battle of Lamia; the iEtolians, com- 
manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by 
Philip of Macedon . . .214 

With the assistance of allies, they seize 
Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212 

They put to the sword the people of 



Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other 
cities, and destroy with fire all the 
country they invade . B.C. 201 

They next invite the kings of Macedon, 
Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with 
them against the Romans . . 195 

They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Dems- 

trias in Thessaly . . . 194 

Their defeat near Thermopylae . . 193 

They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192 

Made a province of Rome . . 146 



AFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was 

Erohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age. 
everal degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti- 
cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain 
near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 
1603. All marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are 
declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1835. 



A.(JR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 

AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath 
in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered 
and modified December 1721. 

AFGHANISTAN'. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in 
India, January 5, 1812. — See India. 

\FRICA. called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient 
world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It 
was conquered by Belisarius in a.d. 553 el seq. In the seventh century, about 
637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend- 
ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great part of the present popu- 
lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among 
the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men- 
tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made 
his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50, 
1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died 
of shot-wounds (which he had received wheu ascending the river Nunn) at 
Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament 
voted 61.000Z., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, 
sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the 
Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having 
ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi- 
tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard- 
ships, Oct. 17. 

AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ- 
ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A 
charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was 
created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let- 
ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre- 
sent company, 23 Geo. II. 1749. See Slave Trade. 

AGE : Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was 
the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as 
generation. The interval since the first formation of man has been divided 
into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but 
a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the 
order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance, 
would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age. 
Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : 
by some the space of time commencing from Constantine, and ending with 
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called 
the middle age ; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of 
the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of 
nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to 
Christ ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year. 

AGINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by 
Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken 
prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the 
dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, 
and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain 
were the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one 
marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415. 
— Goldsmith. 

AGRA, Fortress of, termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war 
with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once tha 



£.14 THF world's progress. [am 

most sp endid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent 
ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; hia 
palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con- 
tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Mau- 
soleums. 

AGRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro- 
man people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the 
acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassiu3, to gain 
the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribune Tibe- 
rius Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of 
Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Livy ; Vossius. 

AGRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im- 
mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, 
perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri- 
culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it 
was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, 
and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor. 
Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27. 

AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade 
the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority 
upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now 
flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public 
there since 1814. 

AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the 
first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov- 
ered by Torricelli, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pas- 
cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have 
illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi- 
ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others, 
the air-gun by Guter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by 
Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle 
in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, 
about 1756. See Balloon. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Peace of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa°. 
between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Cornte', but 
retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or 
celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, 
Spain, and Genoa. By this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 
1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, 
of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 
1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the 
part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 
7, 1748. A. congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha- 
rjelle, and a convention signed, October 9. 1818. The sum then due from 
France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs. 

ALABAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included in 
the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi ter- 
ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population m 
1810 was less than 10.000 ; in 1816. 29.683 ; in 1820, 127,901 ; in 1830, 
308.997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in 
1840 amounted to $12 854,694 ; imports, to $574,651 

ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 b.c, and called Longa, because the city 
nxtended along tb : hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and war 



41 JB | DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215 

governed by a race of kings, the descendants of iEneas. Wheii Amulius 
dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a 
life oT celibacy, ">y obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, 
therely to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, 
frustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of 
twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to 
be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants 
were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by 
Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and 
called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed 
Lupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled 
by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of 
Ilia and Numitor, 754 b.c, and the next year founded Rome. — Varro. 

ALBAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once 
the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Caesar was 
the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, 
who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- 
fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled 
the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- 
cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was 
erected here to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's 
was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. 

ALBAN'S, ST.. Battles op. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- 
caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VL, 
of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered 
no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists 
under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen 
Margaret of Anjou, who conquered: in this battle 2500 of the defeated army 
perished ; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2. 1461. 

ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 
1623, and by them named Beaverwyck ; capitulated to the English in 1664, 
and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and 
Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : 
in 1830, 24 ; 238; in 1840, 33,721. 

ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- 
guedoc, and at Toulouse ; they opposed the disciples of the Church of 
Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon 
de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's 
legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the 
Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded 
the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 
men, Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. 

ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by 
Julius Csesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion 
of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 
400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, 
Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- 
try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the 
Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a 
mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See 
Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir 
Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ■ explored by Vancouver in 
1792. 

A.LBUERA, Battle of, bi tween the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 



216 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. |_ ALfc 

and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord 
Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, 
the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant 
achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men 
previously to their retreat. 
ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the 
transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a 
universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be 
had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood: yet 
few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years afiei 
Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the 
first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it 
off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had 
this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians 
are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by 
Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else 
but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, 
about a. d. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all 
kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rymer's 
Feed. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments 
in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to 
the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- 
der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain 
of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; 
but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. 

ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : 
it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans 
believe, inimitable by any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. 
It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, 
a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing 
this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- 
torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God 
sent it to their prophet by the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. 
— See Kora?i, Mahomelism, Mecca, &c. 

ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and 
among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as 
distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given 
them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- 
vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes 
,vere settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- 
mans introduced that of count, which though different in its original signifi- 
cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given 
its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the 
United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. 

Al,E and WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- 
mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke'i 
Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as- 
cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife 
of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- 
paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — 
Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- 
sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws were passed for 
their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale 
and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles 
H., 1660. See Beer. Wine. 



iLG J DICTIONARY OF BATES. 217 

ALEMANNI, or All Men, (i. e. men of all nations, , a body of Suevi, defeated 
by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of tbis warlike people art. 
said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at tha 
head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and 
Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon. 

ALEXANDER, Era op, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- 
ber 12, 328 b. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation 
was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- 
quence, the year 1 a. d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to 
the year 284 a. d., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a. d.), 
which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be- 
came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, vihich see. The date is 
reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and 
after that time by subtracting 5492. 

ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by 
Alexander the Great, 832 b. c. ; taken by Caesar, 47 b. c, and the library of 
the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered 
by the Saracens, whui the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was 
totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for 
six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph 
Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures 
of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the 
Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- 
sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable 
battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by 
the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by 
them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. 

ALEXANDRIA, Battle op, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- 
tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 
15 000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The 
British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. 

ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by 
Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him, Alexandrines, about a. d. 
1164. — Nouv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Crilicis?n, has the following well- 
luiown couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified :— 

" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
Tha' like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long." 

ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely 
known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said 
to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and 
into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- 
ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- 
bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into 
general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 

ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 
44 b. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the 
Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he 
seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur- 
key. — Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most 
powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet 
and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was 
reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures 
with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- 
ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775 
10 



218 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. L ALM 

1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by tbe British fleet, '.under lord Exmoutn, 
Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- 
ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and 
Duperre", after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, 
and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry 
announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. 
Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which 
the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. 
General Damremont attacked Constantina (which see), Oct. 13, 1837;" since 
when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have 
taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec . 22, 
1847. See Morocco. 

AILI, Sect of. Founded by a famous Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- 
homet, (having married his daughter Fatiina,) about a. d. 632. Ali was 
called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God. always yictorious ;" and the Persians 
follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- 
metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, 
that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and 
Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, 
and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cut- 
ting sword « of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- 
tor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. 
Ali was assassinated in 660. 

ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When 
they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if 
they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
handicraft by retail, 1483. 

ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, 
in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints 
and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. 
The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the 
year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very 
remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a 
great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were 
connected with popular feeling or tradition. 

ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest 
instances, of which Blair gives Psalm lxxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen- 
ser's Faerie Quee?ie is an allegory throughout ; Addison, in his Spectator, 
abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- 
fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich :'n allegory. 

ALLIANCES, Treaties of, between the high European Powers . See Coalition, 
Treaties, &c. 



Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631 

Alliance of Vierina . May 27, 1657 

Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28, 1668 

Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 

Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 

Alliance, the Hague Jan. 4. 1717 

Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 

Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 



Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 

Germanic Alliance . July 23, 1785 

Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 1793 

Alliance of Petersburg . April 8, 1805 

Austrian Alliance . . March 14, 1812 

Alliance of Sweden . March 24 1812 

Alliance of Toplitz . . Sept. 9, 1813 

Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 1815 



ALMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- 
dars were anciently in use. Al-nion-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- 
tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. 
Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the 
style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were . 



Poor Robin's Almanac 


. 1G52 


Lady's Diary . , 


. . 1705 


Moore's Almanac 


. 1713 


Season on the Seasons 


. . 1735 


Gentleman's Diary 


. 1741 


Nautical Almanac . 


. . 1767 



Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's, 



ALU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 219 

ALMANACS, continued. 

John Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- 
ford 1380 

Ono in Lambeth palace, written in . 1460 

FirrJt printed one, published at Buda . 1472 

First print&l in England, by Richard 
Pynson .... 1497 

Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 

Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . 1 644 1 Philadelphia) . .' " . '1733 

Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. 
The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 
1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this 
company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was 
abolished in England, 1834. 

ALMEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- 
manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was 
defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- 
sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him; but the route 
of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. 

ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and 
wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus 
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though 
this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the 
Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was alepk, called by the Greeks aipha, and 
abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived 
from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought 
the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- 
lowing : — 

A, B, T, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, II, P, 2, T, T. 
These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- 
acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented 
the double characters, ©, X, <i>, H, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simonides added Z, 
¥, H, XI, about 489 b. c. — Armidelian Marbles. When the E was introduced 
is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters 
till 399 b. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small 
letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets 
of the different nations contain the following; number of letters : — 



English . . 26 
French . . 23 
Italian . . 20 
Spanish . . 27 


German . . 26 
Sclavonic . . 27 
Russian . .41 
Latin . . . 22 


Greek . . 24 
Hebrew . . 22 
Arabic . . 28 
Persian . . 32 


Turkish . . 33 
Sanscrit , . 50 

and 
Chinese . . 214 


ALPHONSINE TABLE 


S • Celebrated astr 


onomical tables, c 


amposed by com- 



mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 
Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 
crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, 
written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. 

ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- 
tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks 
the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- 
dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. in 135 ; 
and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar 
in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed 
churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- 
ported their use. 

ALUM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a. d. 1300; 
it was found in Tuscany, in 1460 ; was broug ht to perfection in England, in 



220 THE WORL1 S PROGRESS. [ AMB 

1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 17&0. Alum 
is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and 
to whiten bread. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapors of suli hu- 
ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but it is usually obtained 
by means of ore called alum slate. 

AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, 
Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- 
panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and 
gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called 
Maranon. 

AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- 
ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having 
made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their 
enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- 
went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female 
state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- 
mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated 
times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumtus Curtius,. 
They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- 
stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more 
force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the 
Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the 
Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with 
him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred 
females were in her train. — Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to 
another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- 
tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, 
they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- 
sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a 
lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their 
protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- 
sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- 
dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780. — Phillips. 

AMBER, Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a 
medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. 
Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails 
among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- 
ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king 
dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in 
favor of each opinion. 

AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means 
true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- 
plies, so be it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally 
used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. 

AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first 
an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the 
offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped 
off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into 
court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death 
or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used foi 
making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. 



ammJ dictionary of dates. 221 

AMERICA: See United States. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- 
ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d. 1492. on the lllh of Octo« 
ber, on which day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. 
This grea x navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- 
ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; 
and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. 



Newfoundland, the first British colony 
in this quarter of the world, discover- 
ed by Cabot, and by him called 
Prima Vista. .... 1497 

Virginia, the first English settlement 
on the main land . . . 1607 



New England, the second, by the Ply- 
mouth company . . . 1624 
New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16W 
[For other occurrences, see Tabular 
Views — United Slates. See also 
separate states, Maine, <fec. 



AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast 
portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When 
they landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called 
Ineas, who were revered by thefr subjects as divinities, but they were soon 
subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The 
cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be 
a reproach to Spain for ever* Spanish America has successfully asserted 
its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence 
in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending 
chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke 
of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United 
States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, etseq.; 
and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Colombia, Lima, Pern, &c. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 
776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This 
did not include authors of mere pamphlets, which would have swelled the 
number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very 
moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- 
logy, Sermons, &c, 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography. 80 ; Politics 
and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are 
repeated.] 

AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known ; it was the ninth 
in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name 
Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according 
to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. 
One worth 200 rix dollars having be^n rendered colorless, equalled a dia- 
mond in lustre valued at 18.000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. 
Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Burns. 

AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the 
preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and 
M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive 
treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for 
England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpen- 
ninck for Holland. 

AMMONITE.S. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the 
land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated 

* Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, records 
ramy instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unre- 
sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles ! and he has beheld them 
throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "I have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrcw 
the limb of a human being to f-ed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter o! 
another victim o the lender!" 



222 the world's TROGRESS. [ AN1 

by Jephthah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, 
with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued, but 
Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- 
quished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed 
all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. 

AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by 
Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- 
sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : 
having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with 
two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon ft»i 
the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some c'ties 
of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates,- 1498 b. c. Other cities in process 
of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyong. 
and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. 
— Suidas. 

AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar 
and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in 
full senate " Omnium mulierum virnm, et omnium virorum mulierem." In the 
Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people 
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- 
bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one 
of stone, under Augustus Caasar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built 
a. d. 79 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- 
theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 

AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its 
building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange was 
built in 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world 
in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that 
time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, 
for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel 
in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince 
invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were 
admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was 
restored in November, 1813. See Holland. 

AMULETS, or CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The 
Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. 
Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the 
passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny. 
Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood 
of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion 
and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences — 
witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and 
sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. 

ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England 
before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- 
asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- 
tists of Munster (who are, of course, properly distinguished from the existing 
mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- 
ance of the devil, that there is no original sin. that men have a free will in 
spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster 
they called Mount Zi-on, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the 
king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and 



tJIGI ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223 

they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Munster was 
taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The 
anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than tha 
not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the 
representatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, 
named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The 
odes of Anacreon are much prized; their author lived in a constant round 
of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his 
eighty-fifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. 

ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, 
the name of the Virgin, is made array. On the question put by Pilate to our 
Saviour. " Quid est Veritas?' 1 we have this admirable anagram, " Est vir qui 
adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in 
the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — Henault. 

ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana- 
thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We 
have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (set Joslma vi. 17), 
Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. tiuch ecclesias- 
tical denunciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- 
beth's reign. — Ra-pin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- 
tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic 
countries to this day. — Ashe. 

ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- 
phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of 
medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- 
philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first 
to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to 
brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living 
criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied 
with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodies 
of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical 
plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of 
Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680. 
— Freind's History of Physic. 

ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many 
of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- 
terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- 
ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- 
able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- 
nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. 

ANCHORS for SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the 
Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the 
Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The 
anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will 
weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost £450. — Phillips. 

ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- 
vented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind 
to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a.d. 456. The 
Angelici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 
1191. The Anselico>, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa 
Torelli, a. d 1534. 



224 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ANT 

ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Sonr» 
will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before 
all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave'* 
Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- 
cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. 

ANGELS, in COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing 
four pennyweights, and was valued at 65. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and 
at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold 
coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands 
of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 1431. — Wood. 

ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made 
to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, 
as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the 
Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book 
printed on angline-, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 
1653. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced Dy father Hehl, at 
Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had 
its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. 
It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- 
thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the 
patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features 
of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose 
eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- 
tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- 
tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. 

ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- 
lage near Sleswick, called Angl-en, whose population joined the first Saxon 
freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a 
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See 
Britain. 

ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, 
Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first 
notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. 
Burnet. 

ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian world, and 
abbreviated a. n. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of 
our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See 
Era. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the 
year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. 

ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north 
or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 
64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French 
and American Exploring Expeditions, under DTJrville and Wilkes, respec- 
tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as 
the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was 
coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, 
fell in with land, which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the 
year 1830. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of 
people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, 
reached to the enormous amount of 549.755 millions, in the year of the world 
1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the 



ANT J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 



end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing 
them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would 
rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable 
of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and 
then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- 
ries that preceded the Flood : — 



I. 


10 


V. 


2,560 


IX. . 


. 655,360 


xm. . 


. 167,142.160 


n. 


. 40 


VI. . 


. 10.240 


X. 


. 2,621,440 


XIV. 


671.0SS.640 


in. . 


. 160 


vn. . 


40;960 


XI. . 


10,485,760 


XV. . 


2,684,354.460 


IV. 


640 


VIII. 


163,840 


XII. 


. 41,943,040 


XVI. 


. 10,737,418,2« 



This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen,' 
by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest 
estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. 

ANTHEMS, or HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose, were 
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century.— 
Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. — Baker. 
Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose 
into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches 
in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the 
world. The Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by 
Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. 
Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of 
other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea 
Islands, &c. 

ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients 
to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- 
men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in 
eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes 
types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to 
its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is suffi- 
cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. 
We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- 
cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. 
The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold 
that crimes are not crimes when committed by them, that their own good 
works are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for 
sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. 

ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b.c. In one 
day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once 
the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Chris- 
tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers 
attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 
5492 years b. c. 

A NTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- 
podes existed, about 368 b. c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate ol 
pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- 
ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east 
of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes 
Island. — Brookes. 

ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- 
tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption 
of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have 
existed in Ireland 700 years b. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 
10* 



22G THE WORLD'S PK.OGh.ESS. [ APO 

credit. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stowe, and 
others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for 
a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from 
favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- 
ceived its charter of incorporation from George II. It began to publish its 
discoveries, &c, under the title of Archceologia, in 1770. The Society of 
Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. 

A'iNTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, 
an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer 
estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. 
See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them 
from prison, Jan. 27, 184.7. 

ANTI- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been 
the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 
second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it 
was adopted by Laslius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Arians, Socini- 
ans, and Unitarians. 

ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built 
in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, 
in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars 
caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The 
remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, 
was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which 
he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war 
between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-81. In the late revolu- 
tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the 
Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, 
Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse" surrendered the citadel to the French after 
a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. 

APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about 
a. d. 95. — Irenmus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, 
and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many 
churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the 
sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by 
Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from 
the time of Justin Martyr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in 
a. d. 139. 

APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are 
neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history 
of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, 
but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged 
by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. — Ashe. 

APOLLINARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who 
taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his 
flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent 
down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel; 
that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c, 
Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. 

APOLLO, Temples op. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, 
poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost 
every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid 
temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b. c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnse, 



4RA] dictionary of dates. 227 

built 434 b. c.j during a period in which pestilence raged, was bum*, iu 4. d. 
362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet. 

APOSTLE'S CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the 
Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while 
after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship 
was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and was instituted in the 
Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church of 
England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. 

APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the 
second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d. 
300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled 
hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- 
ual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of 
Rome, and predicting its downfall. 

APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, Dy which they 
raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the 
East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the 
Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and 
humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. 
This honor of deifying the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus- 
tus, in favor of Julius Cassar, b. c. 13. — Tillemont. 

APPEAL of MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of 
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt 
or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have 
been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed 
his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant 
(the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, 
April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from orf the 
statute book, 59 George III., 1819. 

APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early 
business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they 
valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at 
the price appraised. 1282. 

APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, 
but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having 
introduced Januarius and Februarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. 

AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by 
Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the 
sacrament, and used nothing but water. 

AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, 
which was therefore called the Appwn-way ; about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of 
every kind were among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some 
remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and 
beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- 
dous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 
126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. 

AQUTTAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of 
England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a 
principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this 
duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians 
made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara* 



228 the world's progress. [arc 

cens, they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- 
phet, and made considerable conquests. — Priestley. 

ARBELA, Battle op. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the 
Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b. c. 
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot and 40,000 horse; the 
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arrian. 
The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, 
which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- 
ling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed 
to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. 

ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- 
selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in theil 
manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley, 
surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, aa 
being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery 
they honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose 
history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory, 
although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of 
other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by (Eno- 
trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards 
called Magna Gratia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. 

ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- 
nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly 
coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into 
England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but 
soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- 
terbury, a. d. 596. 

ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, 
and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- 
con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council 
of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, 
though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to 
a. d. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity : an 
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. 

ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- 
dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was 
offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- 
nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archery in the 
earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded 
by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by 
Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which 
was written " Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and 
Philip threw back the arrow with these words : "If Philip take the town, 
Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 

ARCHERY in England. It was introduced previously to a. d. 440, and Ha- 
rold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows' 
of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed 
the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England 
in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, 
Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range o£ 
the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it 
is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded th« 
houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- 
ard II. 1397. — Stoive. The citizens of London were formed into companiei 
of arcbers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporat* 



4RG] dictionary of dates. 



229 



body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henrv VIII. 1538. 
— Northouk's History of London. 

ARCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the 
best writers. The triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature 
in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantine 
were magnificent. 

ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b.c. Their 
King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials 
for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. c. The art 
passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came 
into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged 
during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c, and the 
ponderous sublimity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches 
and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from 
the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not 
fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. 

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- 
ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- 
tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this 
dignity, 1070 b. c. 

ARCOLA, Battle op, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the 
Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of 
this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the 
loss on the part of the Austrians of 12,000 men, in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and 
some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first 
Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. 
Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a 
number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted 
to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent 
and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, 
Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., see North- West Passage. 

AREOPAGITiE. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- 
cause the judges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. 
— Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areas pagos, the 
Hill of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- 
der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever 
causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine 
speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- 
ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. 

ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in 
Alsace, between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated 
by the latter with the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 378, 
— Dufresnoy. 

A.RGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of 
Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship 
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the 
figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition 
on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first 
heroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its 
builder, 1263 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 

A^GOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years be« 



230 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARK 

fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder •were 
called InachidcE. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to 
the country. When the Heraclida? took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 
1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a 
republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece. — Euripides. 

Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- 
band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- 
crificed theirs. (See Flambeaux)*.®. 1425 
Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose life 



Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856 
Phoroneus reigns sixty years . 180? 

Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 
The city of Argos built by Argus, son 

ofNiobe 17H 

Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his 

father, and reigns .... 1641 
Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes 
part of the kingdom, and calls it af- 
ter his wife, Messenia . . 1552 
Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 
Sthenelus reigns .... 1485 
Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 
Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of 



had been preserved by his wife, de- 
thrones Danaus .... 1425 
Reign of Abas . . . 1384 

Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- 

sius . . • 1361 

Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- 
sion for him of Sthenoboea . . 136i 
Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 
Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My- 
cenae (which see.) .... 1313 



Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was 
lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. 
Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present 
and first king. January 25, 1833. See Greece. 

ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny t'^e 
divinity of Christ: they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned 
by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the 
reigning religion in the East. It was favored by Constantine, 319. Carried 
into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the 
Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence 
arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- 
tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de I'Heresie. 

ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. 
It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The 
oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his 
Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
a. d. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of 
Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine 
digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — ■ 
introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng- 
land, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, 
is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in 
England on arithmetic {de Arte Swpputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur- 
ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier 
in his Rabdologia, in 1617. 

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being 
the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. 
But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck 
there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this 
place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in 
breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about 
a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, 
three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for 
birds, and Noah's family. It was not made iike a ship, but came near the 
figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a 
door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. 

ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union 
in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves. 



ktili ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 231 

ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- 
sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C 
volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, 
July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten 
fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put 
to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and 
Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral 
Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging 
the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis« 
persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North 
Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, 
and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, 
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The 
English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. 

A.RMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by 
St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, 
against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but 
its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty 
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- 
ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral 
bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British 
cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- 
mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was 
obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of England to 
the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. 

A RMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 
b.c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- 
menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor- 
shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whose 
priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, 
prior to marriage. — Martin's Memoires sur L'Armenie. 



City of Artaxarta built . . B.C. 186 

Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93 

He is called to the throne of Syria, as- 
sumes the fastidious title of " King of 
Kings," and is served by tributary 
princes . . . . .83 



Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 

He is restored to his throne, and dies. — 

Blair . . . . .1 

Reign of Venones . . a. d. 16 

Zenon reigns . . . .18 

Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36 



Tigranes defeated by Lucullus . 69 j He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 



Again defeated, and lays his crown at 
hie feet of Pompey . . 66 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 

Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- 
lius C»sar . . . .48 

Artavasdes assists the Parthians against 
Marc Antony ... 36 

Antony subdues, and sends him loaded 
with silver chains to Egypt, to grace 
his triumph . . . .34 

The Armenian soldiers crown his son, 



Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power 

paramount in Armenia . 62 

Armenia reduced to a Persian province 

under Sapor . . . 365 

Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 

Irruption of the Turks . . 755 

Again made a Persian province, under 

UfFan Cassanes . . . 1472 

Subdued by Selim n. . . 1022 

Overrun by the Russians . . 1828 

Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1829 



Artaxias . . . 33 i (See Syria.") 

ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a, d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical 
year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years 
and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 
10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- 
spondence with Europeans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 
manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 



232 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ ARM 

natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame It it 
said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c. 
ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, 
and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially 
asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. 
They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in 
securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines of 
the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland 
and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. 
Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Brandt. 
ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of tho 
twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- 
ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order 
at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote 
colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- 
biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. 
ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other lefence 'han 
the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron 
annor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons 
was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the 
well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- 
Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy 
cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen 
had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid 
about 1350.' The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, 
not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry 
VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. 
Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of 
Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- 
orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick. 
ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, 
battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles 
were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
Phoenicians. See the various weapons through the volume. 
ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of 
fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing 
army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing 
armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The 
first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in 
France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by 
Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles n. 
1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
armies : Spain 150,000 men ; Great Britain, 310.000 ; Prussia, 350,000 ; Tur- 
key, 450.000 ; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560.000 ; and France, 680,000. 
ARMY, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- 
dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted 
for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official 
records : 

17C0, Time of war; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men .. sum voted jE7,847,008 

lKiO, War ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973.000 

i810, War; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26.748,000 

1815, Last year of the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39J50.000 

1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253|000 

1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 

In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men: and the surn voted 

was £4,487,753. See Militia and Volunteers. 



ASS J DICTIONARY CF DATES. 233 

ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- 
man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1380. Artillery 
was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 
1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 
1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the 
battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first 
employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Vottaire. Cast in 
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 
1543. — Ryma's F&dera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 
1728. See Iron. 

A FITS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was 
composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society 
of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of 
Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, 
was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and 
of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the 
artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this 
society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the 
Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- 
ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
19,1824. — See British Museum; British Institution; National Gallery,, fyc. 

ARUNDELIAN MARBLES; containing the chronology of ancient history from 
1582 to 355 b. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 
37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the Isle of 
Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord 
Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are 
Greek, of which there are two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 
1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Poison's Treatise, 1789. 

ASCALON, Battle op ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- 
tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other 
infidels. No less than 40.000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of 
battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer. 

ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent 
until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, 
first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the 
number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- 
ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of 
Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was 
abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 

ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
peopled; here the law of God was first "promulgated; here many of the 
greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of 
the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. 

ASPERNE. Battle op, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, 
and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809, and two following days. In 
this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 
men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat 
of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that he 
had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat 
endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on 
the subsequent prosecution of the war. 

ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- 
bury and others to assassinate king William III., near Richmond, Surrey, at 



234 the world's progress. I ASS 

he came from hunting. The object of the conspiracy was 1o have been con- 
summated February 15, 1696-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. 
— Hist. England. 

ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, 
settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land 
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
ferrat in 1192 ; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan of 
Tartary was murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 
1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the 
title of u Ancient of the Motbntains." 

ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- 
nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It 
began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the 
treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish 
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to 
Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. 

ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the 
revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At 
one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
dencies. — Alison. 

ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the 
Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her 
corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to 
have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted 
in 813. 

ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius 
ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Cassar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu- 
rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- 
ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in 
Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a 
precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the 
first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 
1601. — Molineaux 1 s Lex Mercatoria. 

ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus 
wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the 
Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the 
union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter 
founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- 
named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, 
with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all 
perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- 
rians of Babylon. Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Le?iglet. 

The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. | Babylon and makes it the seat of her 

6 ; xi. 1. — Blair - - B.C. 2247 dominion. — Lenglet -_ b. c. 2017 

The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 
Astronomical observations begun by 

the Chaldeans - - - 2234 

Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher - 2124 
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, 

and names his capital after himself - 20G9 
Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having 
subdued the Armenians, Persians, 
Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- 
lishes what is properly the Assyrian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the 
seat of empire. — Blair - - 2059 



Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, 
and India. — Lenglet - - - 1975 

The Arabs seize Nineveh • - - 1937 

Belochus, the last king of the race of 
Ninus.— Blair .... 1446 

He makes his daughter, Artossa, sur- 
named Semiramis II., his associate 
on the throne - - - 1433 

Belatores reigns .... 1421 



The prophet Jonah appears in the 
streets of Nineveh — Blair - . 840 



Semiramis enlarges and embellishes I Nineveh taken by Arbacea - . 830 



AST] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



235 



ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, 
the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b.c, and 
the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Sarcianapalus II., being 
besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put bis wife and children to death, 
and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- 
napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, 
and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by 
the Turks in 1637 a. d. — Priestley. 



Phul raised to the throne, about the 
year. — Blair - - B. C. 777 

He invades Israel, but departs without 
drawing a sword. — Blair : 2 Kings 
xv. 19, -20 ... 770 

Tislath-Pileser invades Syria, takes 
Damascus, and makes great con- 
quests .... 740 

Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports 
the people, whom he replaces by a 
colony of Cutheans and others, and 
thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. 
—Blair 721 

He retires from before Tyre, after a 
siege of five years. — Blair - - 713 



Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- 
neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- 
lem, when the angel of the Lord in one 
night destroys 180,000 of his army. — 
Isaiah xxxvii. - b.c. 719 

[Commentators suppose that this mes- 
senger of death was the fatal blast 
known in eastern countries by the 
name of Samiel.] 
Esar-haddon invades Judea, am? takes 

Babylon.— Blair - - - 690 

He invades Judea — Blair - - - 677 

Holofernes is slain by Judith • - 677 

Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher - - 667 
Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 



ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence 
was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The 
early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted 
to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated 
the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the 
humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the 
Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made 
ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this 
period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting 
his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. 

ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of 
Babylon, about 2231 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- 
vanced in Chaldasa under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 
1100 b. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed 
at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, 
and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further 
discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and 
believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began 
his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 
143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of 
the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- 
ered, by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during 
which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; 
and was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 



The Alphonsine tables (which see) were 
composed - - - a. n. 1284 

Clocks first used in astronomy, about • 1500 

True doctrine of the motions of the pla- 
netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 

The science greatly advanced by Tycho 
Brahe, about - - - 1582 

True laws of the planetary motions, by 
Kepler 1619 

Telescopes and other instruments used 
in astronomy, about - - - 1627 

The discoveries of Galileo were made 
about 1631 



The transit of Venus over the sun's disk 

first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a.d. 1639 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after 

Dante. — See Bologna - - - 1855 

The aberration of the light of the fixed 

stars discovered by Horrebow - 1659 

Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 

Map of the moon constructed by Heve- 

lius 1670 

Motion of the sun round its own axis 

proved by Halley - - - 1676 

Discoveries of Huygens - - - 168i 

Newton's Principia published, and th« 



236 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ ATfl 



ASTRONOMY continued. 

system as now taught incontrovertibly 
established - - - a. d. 1687 

Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- 
stead 1688 

Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by 
Cassini 1701 

Aberration of the stars clearly explained 
by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 

Celestial inequalities found by La 
Grange 1780 

Uranus and satellites discovered by 



Herschel, March 13. — See Georgium 
Sidus .... 1781 

Micanique Celeste, published by La 



Place" - •'.."- - " - 1796 

Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 • 1801 
Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, March 28 • 1802 

Juno, by Harding, Sept. 1 • ■ - 1804 

Vesta, by Olbers ■ • - 1807 

Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - IS46 

United States astronomical expedition 

to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. 

Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 

The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from 
us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; 
so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of 
them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course 
thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from 
the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but 
the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that 
their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- 
ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four 
hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. 

ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for 
those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them 
obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for 
this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, 
to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus 
built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the 
coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, 
that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- 
lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very 
ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were 
secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- 
bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, 
the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This 
security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed 
until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. 

ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- 
ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. 
Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution 
at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and. was exiled for 
them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by 
most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed 
by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- 
tury. — Du Pin. 

ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- 
nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini 
publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- 
louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and 
had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled 
to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciares, because 
they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men 
of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England 
we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small 
draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will 
certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. " Si 



4TT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 

Dteu rfemstait pas il faudrait Vinventer :" If a God did not exist, it would 
be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. 

ATHEN^EA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor oi 
Minerva. One of them was called Panathensea, and the other Chalcea ; 
they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus 
afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people 
of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. 

ATHENiEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and 
philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated 
Athensea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great 
beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — 
Tillemont's Life of Adrian. 

ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent 
ruins yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. 
The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned 
in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge 
took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or 
Noah's flood"! that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two 
hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by 
whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first 
state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 years, 
but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second 
state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in 
its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, 
and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. 
Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized 
themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and 
perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short 
space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to 
distinguish Athens in a more pecxiliar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes 
of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204, 
and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- 
vince of European Turkey ; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, 
and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 
1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from 
b. c. 1556 to b. c. 21. 

ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, 
stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 
b.c. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; 
its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by 
Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was 
ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; 
and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 

ATTAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses 
in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, 
unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III. 
1694-5. — Blackstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in 
Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. 
The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were 
reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least 
interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wl 3 
was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. 

ATTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his con- 
quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Re- 



238 the world's progress. [ Aue 

man empire with an army of 500.000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces. 
He died on the night of his nuptials with a heautiful virgin named Ildico, 
about a. d. 453. — Goldsmith. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by lettera 
patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for 
the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims 
concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bilh 
against the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William da 
Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Beatson. 

ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward ni.'s reign was under 400 
for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the 
practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- 
land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and 
practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 " practis- 
ing lawyers" in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory, 1850. 

ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite 

which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was 

described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 

the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; 

. a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was 
about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of 
the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. 

AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French 
and Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, 
and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on 
every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- 
soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French 
emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his 
memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. 
VUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith 
drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to 
the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first 
consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed 
to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- 
ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, 
which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- 
burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. 

AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland 
and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- 
ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Munsler and Ni- 
meguen. 

AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, 
long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals 
and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com- 
munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and 
other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is 
named, was the inventor of augury by birds. — Vossius. The augurs of 
Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and 
flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. 

AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of 
Augustus Caesar, from whom it was named in the year & b. c, because in 
this month he was born, whs created consul, or chief magistrate, thrico 



i&h ) 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



239 



tduciphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made at 
end of tha civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
March. 
AUSTERLITZ, Battle or, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by 
the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- 
sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded 
exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards, 
150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- 
tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, 
same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. 
AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, 
New Britian, New Zealand, &c, mostly discovered within two centuries. Of 
a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed 
to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have 
been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- 
vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act 
to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. 
New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- 
nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. 
AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- 
gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d. 
1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, 
Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in 
the German language implies. 

Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, seizes 
Austria from Bohemia, and makes 
himself archduke - - -1273 

Revolt of Switzerland from the house 

of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. • 1307 
Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to 
three crowns — the imperial, and 
those of Hungary and Bohemia; his 
family still possess the empire, - 1438 
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the 
marriage of Maximilian with the 
heiress of that province . - 1477 

Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip 
I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- 
gon and Castile - - - 1496 

Charles V. ± reigning over Germany, 



Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, 
the Netherlands, and their dependen- 
cies, abdicates, and retires from the 
world, leaving his German dominions 
to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain 
and the Netherlands to his son, Philip 
II. — See Spain • - - 1557 

The Protestant princes of Germany, 
being oppressed by the house of Aus- 
tria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden, and this leads to the 
treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 

Leopold I reigns. — See Germany - 1658 
Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, 
who marries the celebrated queen of 
Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of 
the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745 
Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 

Religious toleration granted - - 1776 

The emperor controls the pope - 1782 

Raign of Leopold II. - - - 1790 

Reign of Francis II. ... 1792 

Austria becomes a distinct empire, and 
Francis II. of Germany takes the title 
of I. of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 



The emperor issues his declaration 

against France - - Aug. 5, 1805 

Napoleon, after many victories, enters 

Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805 

Vienna evacuated by the French, 

Jan. 12, 1806 
They again capture it - May 13, 1809 

But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 
Napoleon marries the archduchess 
Maria Louisa, the daughter of the 
emperor - - April 1, 1810 

Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 

Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 

Death of Francis I., and accession of 

Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835 

New treaty of commerce with England 

July 3, 1833 
Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- 
dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 
Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- 
forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ; 
freedom of the press and national 
guard granted by the emperor 

March 13. U*i9 
The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- 
lition of the censorship and conven- 
tion of the states ; the people demand 
more, and are refused March 18, * 
Milan revolts, and contends successfully 

with the soldiery - March 23, " 
Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- 
tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia 

March 23, ' 
Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion 

March s 
The emperor retires to Innsbruck 

May 18, " 
Austrian army under Radetsky holds in 
check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in 
Lombardy - - May — " 

Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, " 



240 the world's progress. [azo 

AUSTRIA, continued. 

Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his orolher, 

summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; 

May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph 
Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 18*8 

Wished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution 
Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1841 

detsky - - - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great 

Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " I slaughter, and sacks it March 30, " 

The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days 
Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, ' • 

minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aua- 

the diet demands the retraction of the i trian army in Hungary June — , u 

measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment 

new ministry; the emperor flies June 11, " 

Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " 
The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- 

six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " 

Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. 

mander-in-chief, Oct. 16; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. 

sieges Vienna, 17th ; bombards the 

city and masters it Nov. 2, '• I 

Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- 
cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of 
Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic 
Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head 
of that body. 

AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. 

AUTO da FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of 
a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; 
and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand 
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman 
Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this 
kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in 
vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 
1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. 

AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat 
was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several 
times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was 
restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to 
France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of 
that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. 

AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- 
ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to 
have been invented by Dasdalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. 

AZORES, or WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- 
lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled 
by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with 
beech- trees, and he called it therefore Fayed ; another abounding in sweet 
flowers, and he therefore called it F lores; and all full of hawks, and he 
therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took 
place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. 
Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed 
the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St 
Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
called Sabrina gradually disappeared Dec. 1812. 



BAC ] DIC riONARY OF DATES. 241 

B. 

BABEL, the Toweb of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. The temple of 
Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the 
world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, oDe 
cf them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb uf 
the founder. Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified 
after death; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither 
the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there 
honored with the company of the god. — Blair. 

BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, 
for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bat- 
ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his 
own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the 
queen,- and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to 
this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would 
accept of him as a husband. 1586. 

BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy 
writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c. — Lenglet. Ninus of 
Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy- 
rian empire, by uniting the two soveieignties, 2059 b.c. According to 
Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; 
according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has 
adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by 
Ninus, b. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- 
throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assijria. 



and names his capital after himself, 
Nineveh.— Lenglet - - b. c. 2069 

Babylon taken by'Ninus • • - 2059 

The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 

Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 

Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 
Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 

He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet - - 587 
He is driven from among men - - 569 

Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- 
sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 



The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 

The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 

Ashur builds a city, afterwards called 
Nineveh - - - 2245 

The astronomical observations are be- 
gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans — 
Blair ; Lenglet ■ ■ ■ 2234 

Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- 
pire over the neighboring states, de- 
feats the Babylonians, and makes 
them tributary.— Usher ■ - 2124 

Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, I Taken by Darius. — Usher ■ - 511 

The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world ; and 
in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucida?. Its 
greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it 
was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is 
scarcely known to travellers. — Rollin's Ancient Hist. 

BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in 
Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called 
Dionysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under 
the name of Bacchanalia. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried 
t men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at 
certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, 
and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After 
twenty-five years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 121. 10s. 
for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695. 
Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants. 
in 1785, 

BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game 
(decidedly vne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 b. c. It is 
11 



242 the world's progress. [ BR1 

stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the 
Conquest. — Henry. 

BADAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the 
French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- 
lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. 
This victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it 
obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, 
to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. 

BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- 
ringen, who died a. d. 1074, From Christopher, who united the branches! 
of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- 
Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in 
the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. 

BADEN, Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau waa 
ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate ; it 
was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confedei-ation, 
in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- 
ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted hia 
people freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right 
of public meeting, Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- 
rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection 
subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. 
BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The 
nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions 
of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West 
Passage. 
BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 
762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It 
has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the 
Turks. — Blair. 
BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and 
Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of 
Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a 
bagpiper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played 
upon a bagpipe, a. d. 51. 
BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. 
San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- 
ber, 1492. — The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized 
for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- 
rendered to Captain Rogers. 
BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies 
were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward 
I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and Mary 
and in later reigns. 
BAILIFFS or SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- 
reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the 
name of bailiff's, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff, 1548. There 
are still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high 
bailiff of Westminster. The term Bum-bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, 
every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for hia good be- 
havior. --Blackstoae. 



BAL j DICTIONARY OF DATJbS. 



243 



BALANCE of POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and 
control ambition; the principle is said to he a discovery of the Italian poli- 
ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France — 
Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power 
was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. 

SALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.— 
Turner. Andbelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- 
duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might 
sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Malmshury. Canute com- 
posed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV, ; 
but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues 
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. 

BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may 
make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesman nas said, " Give 
me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- 
mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule 
public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all 
your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." 
The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those 
of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; 
Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. 

BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One 
performed at the interview between Hen. VIII. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, 
in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Gnicciardini. In the next century,* 
they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts 
of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore 
a part in one, 1664. 

BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave 
the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by 
MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended 
at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier and M. Romain perished in an attempted voyage 
from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire. June 14, 1785. At 
the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the 
enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. 
Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by 
a parachute, Sept. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 
23 000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, 
and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- 
cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. 

BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, 
and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants 
of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that 
place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, 
after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the 
duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. 

BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United 
States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the 
Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city 
in 1797. Population in 1790. 13 503; in 1810, 35,583; in 1830, 80,625; in 
1840, 102.313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city 
commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under 
general Ross, Sept. 12, 1814. 

BALTIMORE, Battle op, between the British army under general Ross and 
the Americans; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuo 



244 the world's PROGRESS. [ BA» 

cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss ; 
the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. 

BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, ol 
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected 
in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of 
London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I. 
laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. 
The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, 
which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to 
the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths 
in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valu- 
able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — 

Bank of Venice formed - - • 1157 i Bank of Hamburgh • -1619 

Bank of Geneva - - - 1345 Bank of Rotterdam • - 1635 

Bank of Barcelona - ■ - 1401 Bank of Stockholm - - - 1688 

Bank of Genoa - • - 1407 Bank of England - • - • "694 

Bank of Amsterdam - • 1607 I Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816 

BANK of ENGLAND, (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer 
chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- 
sideration of 1.200.000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- 
ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up 
to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same 
authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, 
and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were 
at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bank 
bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; 
small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 
1797, when notes of one and two pounds were put into circulation. Silver 
tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the 
head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. 
Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction 
had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- 
sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- 
voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- 
culation is as follows: — 



In 1815 .... £26,803,520 

1820 27,174,000 

1830 - - - - 20,620,000 

1835 .... 18,210,220 
1840 - - - - 17,231,000 



In 1718 (earliest account) - JE1 ,829,930 
1778 .... 7,030,680 
1790 - - - - 10,217,000 

1800 .... 15,450.000 
1810 .... 23,904,000 

The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in 
the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. 
are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, 
"that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 
6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of 
the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- 
ter, Hull. Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c, 
all formed since 1828. See Funds. 
BANK of the UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. 
— A- new one with cap. of $35,000,000. 1816. The act of Congress rechar- 
tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of 
the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- 
dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J. 
Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sept. 23, 1833. 
Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon* 
sability assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c, introduced by Mr 



BAP j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245 

Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on 
their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834. 
Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- 
lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed 
Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9. 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by 
Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for 
establishing a •" Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- 
tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a 
"Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of slV 
the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. 

BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- 
land and New-York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one year by legisla- 
ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c, also suspended same, 
month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. 

BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VIII. 
1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; 
and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt 
may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before 
the commissioners, May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused 
a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in 
gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons 
becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their 
seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, 
passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large. 

NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 

1700 - - 38 | 1800 - - - 1339 I 1830 - - 1467 

1725 . - - - 416 I 1810 - - - 2000 1835 - - . 954 

1750 - - - - 432 1820 - - . 1358 1840 - - 1303 

1775 520 | 1825 - - - - 2683 j 1844 - - - 1064 

According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826, 
there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, 
comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy 
to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. 
This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented 
commercial embarrassment and ruin. 
BANNOCKBURN, Battle op, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and 
Edward II. of England; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and 
that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which 
he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The 
rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were 
killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. 

BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, 
and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. 
The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galli- 
can church, about a. d. 1210 ; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the 
church of England to this day. 

BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised by 
all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner 
of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly 
baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, 
and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in 
rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built 
chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was 



246 THE WORLD'S PRC GK.ESS. [ BAB 

by dipping- tlie person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they 
use sprinkling; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; 
our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. 

BAPTISTS, or Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their 
opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much 
earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in 
the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 
1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led 
the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. 

B A.RBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother 
plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and wa3, 
with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- 
borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental 
visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- 
ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroy&d, 
by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every 
thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two 
great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- 
sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. 
The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- 
corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. 

BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In 
England, bai bers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the 
barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the 
former sign 

BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that 
of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was 
formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 
1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute 
of Henry VIII 

BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, 
and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the 
Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the 
English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. 
They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost 
down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in 
the fifth The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish 
sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See 
Ballads. 

BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- 
ward IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- 
wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle 
of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump owing to nature's 
abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and 
made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. 
Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695; 
marine in 1700. 

BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in 
England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Thane, and 
by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- 
tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned 
to parliament ; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the firsl 



bat] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 



precept to be found is of no higher date than the 49th Henry EEL, 1265. The 
first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beaucharup 
created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1887. Barons first sum 
moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and com- 
pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the 
forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a 
coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete 
armor in the reign of Henry III. — Bcatson. 

BARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
ditary : instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created 
in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. 

BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. 
about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- 
land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- 
geants, &c. 

BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Mel- 
ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered 
on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° 
below zero of Fahrenheit. 

BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre op St. This dreadful massacre in France com- 
menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 
1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were 
murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at 
the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. 
The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even 
as regarded the female and the infant. 

BASTILE of PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 
1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. 
It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- 
came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It 
was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated France 
between the years 1587 and 1594 ; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated 
populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. 
On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other 
officers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had 
their hands cut off. they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having 
fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. 
"The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, 
died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. 

BaTAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East 
Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred 
here in one day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by 
the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison 
surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. 

BATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. Ths 
thermas of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The 
marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules 
in those of Caracalla. — Strabo. 

BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of 
England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was take n of William's 
chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and among these chiefs 
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis- 
tributed, 1066. 



248 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[BAS 



BATTLE, Wager of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by English laws 
when; the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, 
and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal of 
murder, Ashjord v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, 
the court allowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of 
battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had 
first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer 
was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this 
mode of trial, 59 George III., 1819. — Statutes at large. 

BATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some 
of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 e. c. These 
ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our 
battering cannon. — Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- 
ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- 
building the new edifice in 1675. 

B ATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- 
lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- 
dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are 
the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in general history, and 
are those also that are most commonly referred to : 



Actium (the empire of Rome is con- 
finned to Augustus) - • i 
Arbela (fall of Persia) 



Aboukir ( Turks) 

Acre (Siege commenced) - 

(£>ir Sydney Smith) 

(Storming of ) 

Adrianople (Constantine) 

Albuera 

Alford ( Covenanters) ■ 

Alexandria (Abercrombie) ■ 

(Abercrombie) 

Algiers (E.vmouth) - 

— (French) 

Alderton Moor 

Agincourt 

Aliwal (India) 

Almanza,, in Spain 

Amoy ( Oily taken) - 

Almeida 

Anjou, or Breagne - 

Antoign • 

Areola 

Ascalon (Ricliard I.) - 

Assaye ( Wellesley) ■ 

Auerstadt 

Augsburg 

Austerlitz 

Badajos 

Balkan, passage of the - 

Baltimore 

Bafinockburn 

Barnot (Edward IV.) 

Barrosa - 

Bautzen 

Bayonne • 

Belgrade 



31 

- - 331 

A. D. 

July 26, 1799 
Mar. 18, 1799 
May 27, ibid 

Nov. 3, 1S40 

- 323 

May 16, 1811 

July 2, 1645 
Mar. 21, 1801 
May 17, 1799 
Aug. 27, 1816 

July 4, 1830 

- - 1643 
Oct. 25, 1415 
Jan. 20, 1846 
April 4, 1707 

Aug. 27, 1841 
Aug. 5, 1811 

- - 1421 
Aug. 13, 1792 
Nov. 19, 1796 

Sept. 3, 1191 
Sept. 23, 1803 

Oct. 14, 1806 

Aug. 24, 1796 

Dec. 2, 1805 

Mar. 11, 1811 

July 26, 1829 
Sept. 12, 1814 
June 25, 1314 
April 14, 1471 
Mar. 6, 1S11 

May 20, 1813 

Mar. 19, 1794 

- - 1456 
- 1717 

Aug. 1777 
Aprfl 13, 1759 



Berwick 1378 

Bilboa (British legion) Dec. 24, 1836 

Blackheath ( Cornish Rebels defeated) 1497 
Blackrock (Amer. $ Brit.) - Dec. 3. 1813 
Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24^ 1814 

Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1704 

Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 

Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485 

Bothwell Bridge, Scotland - - - 1679 

Boyne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 

Buvines (French and Germans) - - 1214 
Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, 1794 

Brandywine - • - Sept. 11, 1777 

Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452 

Brenau (Azistrians and Bavarians) - 1743 
Breslau - - . Nov. 22, 1757 

Briar's Creek - - - - 1779 

Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 

Bridgewater (Americans and British) 

July 25, 1814 
Buena Vista (Amer. and Mexicans) 

Feb. 22, 1847 
Buenos Ayres (Popham) - June 21, 1806 

(Whitelock) July 6, 1807 

Bunker's Hill - - June 17, 1775 

Busaco - - . Sept. 27, 1810 

Brownsto wn (Canada) - Aug. 8, 1812 

B.C. 

Cannae (Victory of Hannibal) - 216 

Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio) • 146 

Chosronea ( Tolmidas) ... 447 

(Philip) ■ . - . 338 

(SyUa) 



Bennington (Amer <5' Brit.) 
Bergen - 

Sept. 19 and 'Oct. 2, 1799 

3ergen-op-Zoom (taken) - - 1747 

- Mar. 6, 1814 

Berjsina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 



Cnidos (Lysander killed) - 
Cranon, in Thessaly 
Cyzicum ... 

Calais taken 
Calcutta (India) 
Camden (Amer. fy Brit.) 

(Amer. Sf Brit.) - 

Campo Santo 

Canton (Bogueforts taken) 

Castel Nuovo 

Castella 



- - 394 

- 322 
• • 406 

A. D. 

-Jan. 7, 155'S 

June 1756 

Aug. 16, 178ft 

April 25, 1781 

- 1743 
Feb. 26, 1841 

Sept. 29, 1806 
Apnl 13. 18J 3 



1&£ J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



249 



BATTLES, continued. 



A. D. 

- 1705 
Aug. 28, 1798 

July 2, 1796 
- - 1453 

- 1690 
June 17, 1794 



Cassano (Prince Eugene) 

Castlebar (French) - 

Castiglione 

Castiilon, in Guienne 

Charleroi 

Chartered Fleurus - 

Charleston (taken by the British) 

May 12, 1780 
ChepultepecOiwi.#ilfe:r.)Sept. 12-14, 1848 
Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 

- . - Oct. 1814 

Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 

(stormed) - Jan. 19, 1812 

Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039 

Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837 
Contreras (Amer. and Mexicans) - 1848 
C'orunna, (Moore) ■ - Jan. 16, 1809 

Cowpens (Amer. 8? Brit.) - - 1781 

Craney island (Americans and Brit.) 

June 21, 1813 
Cressy (Ich Dien) - 
Culloden (Pretender) 
Cunnersdorf- 
Detroit (surrendered) 
Dettingen ( George II.) 
Dresden - 
Dreux. in France 
Drogheda (taken by storm) 



Aug. 25, 1346 
April 16, 1746 
Aug. 12, 1759 
Aug. 16, 1812 

- - 1743 
Aug. 26, 1813 

- - 1562 
- 1649 

Dumblain (Sheriff-Muir) ■ Nov. 12, 1715 
Dunbar - - Sept. 3, 1650 

— (King of Scots taken) ■ • 1296 

•, Siege of, 1337 

DunganHill- - - July 10, 1647 

Dunkirk - - - Sept. 7, 1793 

Dunsinane - - - 1054 

Durham, Nevil's Cross - - 1346 

Eastport (Americans and British) 

July 1814 
Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642 

Erie, Fort - - - Aug. 15, 1814 

Erzeroum (Turks and Prussia?is) - 1745 



Eutaw Springs 

Evesham 

Eylau 

Fairfield (Amer. $• Brit.) 

Falkirk, ( Wallace) 



1781 

Aug. 4, 1265 

Feb. 8, 1807 

- 1779 

July 22, 1298 



Flatbush, L. I. (Am. $ Brit.) Aug. 27, 1776 



Flodden 

Fontainebleau - 

Fontenoy 

Fort du Quesne - 

French Town, Canada 

Friedburg 

Friedland 

Granicus - 



Sept. 9, 1513 
Feb. 17, 1814 

April 30, 1745 
July 9, 1755 
Jan. 22, 1813 
June 4, 1745 

June 14, 1807 

B. C. 

- 334 

A. D. 

Germantown - - - Oct. 4, 1777 

Gisors (Dieu et mon droit) - ■ 1193 

Guilford - - - Mar. 16, 1781 

Halidon Hill, Berwick - July 19, 1333 

Halle (Bernadotte) - - Oct. 17, 1806 

Hanau ( Wrede) - Oct. 29, 1813 

Hastings (Conquest) - Oct. 14, 1066 
Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, J464 

Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, .758 

Hohenlinden • - Nov. 3, 1800 

B. 0. 

Ipsus (Anligonus slain) - - - 301 

Issus (.110,000 Persians slain) - 333 

11* 



Jarnac 

Jemappe • « 

Jena - 

Ket and Warwick 

Killiecrankie, Scotland 

Kowno - 

Krasnoi 

Leuctra • 



A. D. 

Mar. 3, 1569 

Nov. S 1792 
Oct. 14, 1806 
- 1549 
July 27, 1689 
Dec. 14, 1812 
Nov 16, 1812 

B. C. 



- 370 

A. D. 

Laffeldt (Duke of Cumberland) - - 1747 
Landshut (Prussians and Austjians) 1745 

— — ( Austrians) • April 21, 1809 

Langside - . May 13, 1568 

Leipzic - • . Oct. 16, 1813 

Lepanto (Greeks) - - May 9, 1829 

Lewes - - - May 14, 1264 

Lexington (Amer. revolution) April 19, 1775 



Ligny 
Lincoln 



Lisle (taken by the Allies) 

Lissa .... 

Lodi 

Long Island • 

Lutzen - 

Lulzingen (Gustavus slain) 

Mantinea (Epaminondas slain) 
Munda, in Spain 



June 16, !S15 

Feb. 2, 1141 

May 19, 1217 

- 1708 
Dec. 5, 1796 

May 10, 1757 

Aug. 27, 1776 

May 2, 1813 

- - 1632 

B. C. 

- 363 

- 45 

A. D. 



McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) 

Oct. 13, 1814 
Malplaquet (Marlborough) - - 1709 

Manheim - - - May 30, 1793 

- July 12, 1794 

— - - - Sept. 23, 1795 

Mantua - - . May 29, 1796 

• Jan. 31, 1797 
June 14, 1800 

• Sept. 15, 1515 
July 3, 1644 

Sept. 12-14, 1848 

Aprd 27, 1799 

Aug. 1, 1759 

• 1705 



Marengo - 

Marignan, Italy 

Marston Moor 

Mexico 

Milan 

Minden 

Mittau (Swedes and Russians) 



Mockem 



Mohartz, Hungary - 

Molwitz • 

Monmouth (Amer. If Brit.) - June 28^ 1778 



April 1, 1813 

Oct. 14, 1813 

- - 1687 

April 10, 1741 



Sept. 24, 1846 
Aug. 10, 1759 
Dec. 18, 1845 
Oct. 28, 1828 
Sept. 4, 1812 
Sept. 7, 1812 
Oct. 22, 1812 



Monterey (Mexico) 

Montmorenci 

Moodkee, India 

Morea ( Castle surrenders) 

Moscow (burnt) 

Moskwa 

Moscow (retaken) 

Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) '• 1700 

Naseby - - - June 14, 1645 

Newark - - - - 1644 

Newbury ..... 1643 

(second battle) - Oct. 20, 164-4 

New London (burnt by the. British) - 1731 
New Orleans - - Jan 8, 1815 

Niagara, Fort - - - Nov. 1813 

Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402 

Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779 
Northallerton, (or the battle of the 
Standard) • • - 1138 



250 



THE WOR D'S PXiOGRESS. 



[b*-* 



BATTLES, continued. 

Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 
Novi (Suwarrow) - Aug. 16, 

... Jan. 8, 

Ogdensburg (British and America?is) 
Feb. 22, 
Oporto - - - May 11, 

Otterburn (Chevy Chase) - 
Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, 

Pharsalia - 

Philippi (Roman Republic ends) 

Palo Alto (1st of Amer. Sr Mex.) May 8, 
Parma (Austrians and French) 

(Suwarrow)- - July 12, 

Patay (Joan of Arc and th% English ) 
Pavia (French andAustri'us) Feb. 24 
Penaacola (taken by general Jackson) 

Nov. 20. 
Peterwarden - - Aug. 5 

PfafTendorf - - • Aug. 15 

Pinkey - - - Sept. 10. 

Plattsburg (Americans and British) 

Sept. 11 
Poitiers 
Prague 



Sept. 19. 
Nov. 9. 
May 6, 
Jan. 2, 
July 8. 

Dec. 26. 

July 28. 

June 16 



Princeton (Amer. Sr Brit.) 
Pultowa (Charles XII.) 
Pultusk • 
Pyrenees 
ftuatre Bras 
Quebec (or the plains of Abraham) 
Sept. 13. 

(death ofMontgomery)Dec. 21 

- - - April 28 

Queenstown (Amer. Sf Brit.) Oct. 13, 
Ramilies (Marlborough) - May 23 
Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9, 
Rosbach - - - Nov. 17, 

- - Nov. 5, 

Sackett's Harbor (Americans and 

British) • 

■jalamanca - - - July 22, 

San Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, 

Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) 

Oct. 17, 
Savannah (taken by the British) 

Dec. 29, 
Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, 

Sedgemoor ... July 5, 
Seidlitz (Poles) - - Mar. 31, 

Sempach - - - July 9, 

Seringapatam . . . . 

( Tippoo reduced) - 

( Tippoo killed) May 4, 

Shrewsbury - • July 21, 

Skenesborough - • July 7, 

Smolensko ... Aug. 27, 



1779 
1799 
1800 

1813 
1809 
1308 
1708 

B. C. 

48 

42 

A.D. 

1846 
1734 
1799 
1429 
1525 

1814 
1717 

1760 
1547 

1814 
1356 
1620 
1757 
1777 
1709 
1S06 
1813 
1815 

1759 I 
1775 ! 

1760 ! 
1812 
1706 I 
1846 I 
1382 
1787 j 

1813 ; 

1812 | 
1813 

1777 

1778 j 
1762 ; 
16S5 
1831 
1386 ( 
1791 
1791 ; 
1799 i 
1403 ; 
1777 ! 
1812 



Sobraon (India) - Feb. iC, 1846 

Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 

St. Albans ( York and Lancaster) • 1455 



(second) ■ 



1461 

- 1567 

Jan. 27, '814 

May 6, 1835 

Mar. 13, 1470 



St. Denis (Montmorenci) 
St Dizier, France - 
St. Sebastian 
Stamford 

Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 
Stratton (poet Waller) - May 16, 1643 
Talavera de la Reyna - July 27, 1809 

Tarragona - - - Jan. 24, . 812 

Tewkesbury - - May 4, 1471 

Thames (Americans and Brit.) Sept. 1313 
Thermopylae (Greeks) - July 13, 1822 

Tivle-Tiont (French and Allies) - 1705 

Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 

- • Aug. 30, 1813 

Tournay - - - May 8, 1793 

Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 

Toulouse - - • April 10, 1814 

Towton - - - Mar. 29, 1461 

Trenton (Amer. Sr Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776 
Turin (French and Germans) - 1706 

Ulm .... June 21, 1800 

(surrendered) - Oct. 29, 1805 

Valenciennes - - May 23, 1793 

Varna (surrenders) • Oct. 11, lcl25 

Vera Cruz (taken by Amer. Gen. Scott) 

March 27, 1847 
Villa Franca 
Vimiera ( Wellington) 
Vittoria, Spain 



Wagram 

Wakefield 

Warsaw 



April 10, 1812 

Oct. 21, 1808 

- - 1702 

June 21, 1813 

July 5, 1809 

Dec. 31, 1460 

Oct. 10, 1794 

Nov. 8, ibid 

Sept. 8, 1831 

Washington (burnt by the British) 

Aug. 1814 
Waterloo - . - June 18, 1815 

White Plains (Amer. Sr Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 
Nov. 30, ibid 



■ (taken) 



Wilna (Poles) 
Worcester 

(Charles II.)* 



June 12, 1831 
Sept. 13, 1642 
- - 1651 
July 1778 



Wyoming massacre 
York (Canada) captured by Ameri- 
cans - - - April 27, 1813 
York Town (surrender of Cornwallis) 

Oct. 19, 1781 

B. O 

Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) 

Zela (Casar : veni, vidi, vici) 

Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) 
Zurich .... 



202 

■ 47 

Jk.S. 

■ 1697 

■ 1789 



BAVARIA. House of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century: this 
house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guel- 
phian family; Henry Guelph was made duke Jf Bavaria by Conrad II.. em- 
peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch. waa 
made fluke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was 



* This battle and defeat of Charles put a period to the civil war in England. 
N. B. — Many of the above battles are described more fully under lach name. 



BiU J DICTIONARY OF DATES 251 

erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by 
the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian and 
German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This 
kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- 
ber recommends freedom of the press, &c, by almost unanimous vote, Oct, 
17, 18-47. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Montes, the king's mistress, 
Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich ; the king abdicates in favor of 
his son, Maximillian II., March 22, 1848. 

kings op bavaria. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated, 

1805 Maximilian Joseph, the preceding elec- I March 22, 1848. 

tor, created king. | 1848 Maximilian IL 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wi ought by 
Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, 
from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of 
William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered 
by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into cornpart- 
ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to 
the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now presei red 
in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. 

BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This 
weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. 
According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 
1603, "with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter 
with so formidable a novelty." 

BAZAAR, or Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar 
of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has 
several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. 

BE ADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by 
Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in 
Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased 
persons for the repose of whose souls a certain number of prayers were re- 
cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butler. 

BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. 
The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with 
the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their 
beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the 
time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the 
beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn 
by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. 
In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until 
the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The 
Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few 
years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, 
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. 

BEARDS on WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the 
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard 
measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushj 
beard, and her whole body covered with hair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. 
In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. 

BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by 
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women 
under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- 
guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 
1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 



252 the world's PROGRESS. [ BEE 

Beauvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of their deliverance 
— Henault. 

BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a moment 
of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me 
one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon 
Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral 
of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when 
he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any 
other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- 
actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but 
not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed 
him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a 
groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 
1220 ; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Hoary VIII. 1539.— 
Stowe. 

BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the 
skins of beasts. — Whittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and 
Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- 
wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used 
in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. 

BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in 
his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the 
thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty 
paid on " ale called here." one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a 
penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 
1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. 

BEES. Mount Hybla. on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- 
dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, 
in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was 
admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on 
bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or apis genus, and 111 in 
England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England : 
they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since 
spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardiest 
America. 

BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. MargrafF first produced 
sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent 
sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- 
naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery ot 
sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 

BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
1207. The '■ Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern 
times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they 
could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- 
cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a 
branch of the order in 1311. 

BEHEADING — or Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- 
mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by 
William the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- 
ampton, and Northumberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Chi on. 
English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particn- 



BEL ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



253 



larly in the reigns of Henry VIII. , and Mary, when even women of the noblest 
blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* 
BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- 
sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents 
of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about 
thirty-nine miles, 1728. 
BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
and anciently the territory of the Belgas, who were conquered by Julius 
Caesar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1869 ; formed 
into a kingdom in 1831. 

Became an acquisition of the house of 

Austria .... 1477 
Charles V- annexed the Netherlands to 

the crown of Spain - - - 1556 

Seven provinces, under William, prince 
of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny 
of Philip II. ; freed- - - 1579 

The ten remaining provinces are given 

to the archduke - - - 1598 

These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 

Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 

And three to France - - - 1748 

Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- 
wards restored - - - - 1789 
The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 
United to France - Sept. 30, 1795 
Placed under the sovereignty of the 

house of Orange - - - 1814 

The revolution commences at Brussels 

Aug. 25, 1830 
The Provisional Government declares 

Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 
The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the 
Dutch are driven to the citadel, from 
whence they cannonade the town, 

Oct. 27, 1830 
Belgian independence acknowledged 

This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian 
question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of November 15, 1831, was 
maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, 
offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- 
admissible. 
ELGRADE. Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which 
the latter was defeated with the loss of 40.000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade 
was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from 
whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 
1717 (see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. 
It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach in 
1790. 
BELGRADE, Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei- 
taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the 
Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, 
in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrendered. 
Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. 



by the Allied Powers, announced by 
Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1S3D 

Duke de Nemours elected king; but 
his father, the king of France, refuses 
his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 

M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 
of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 

Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected 
king - - - July 12, 1831 

He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 

The king of the Netherlands recom- 
mences the war • Aug. 3, 1831 

[France sends 50,000 troops to assist 
Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] 

A conference of the ministers of the five 
great powers is held in London, which 
terminates in the acceptance of the 
24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 

Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter 
of Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 

The French army returns to France 

Dec. 27, 1832 

Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much 
mischief ensues - . April 6, 1834 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
signed in London - April 19, 1839 



* Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, 
beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury— the latter remarkable for hel 
resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to 
do it; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- 
sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, aftei 
mangling the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughtel 
»f George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Plantagenet." May 27, 1541.— Hume. 



254 the world's PROGRESS. [ BEH 

BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; an ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish 
church, used in excommunication, which see. 

BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles- 
lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto. Latini, 
and other learned men in different countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. 
Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fon- 
tanel,. Literature began to nourish in France, Germany, and England, about 
this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- 
beth, and nourished in that of Anne. 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o 
them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, ths 
potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- 
ces of the Romans. 

BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The 
responses of the Dodonsean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. 
The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted 
by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna, 
about a. d. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., 
king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the 
bells of St. Stephen's church. The second Excerption of our king Egbert 
commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. 
Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., as a defence, by ring- 
ing them, against thunder and lightning, about 900. First cast in England 
by Turkeytel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- 
proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at 
Croyland abbey, 960. — Slowe. 

Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 I St. Peter's, at Rome - - lbs. 18,607 

Great Tom of Lincoln • - 9,894 Great Bell at Erfurth ■ - 28,224 

Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 | St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127,835 

Bell of the Palazzo, Floreuce - 17,000 | Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 

The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal 
alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at £66,565 sterling. In its fusion 
great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive offerings by the 
people. 

BELLS, Baptism of. They were early anointed and baptized in churches. — 
Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were 
baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary. Holy Trinity, 
&c, in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- 
tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in 
the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious 
solemnity. — Ashe. 

BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the 
first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in 
the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- 
able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread 
over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it 
possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- 
dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on 
the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, in 
Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- 
nated Bened'ctine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there 
have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishopt, 4600 
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 king* 41 queens, and 3600 saint* 
Their founder was canonized. — Baronius 



CenJ dictionary of dates. 255 

BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then 
the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should 
become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VII. 
to his nephew, in 1534. — Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in 
England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10 533, and the number ol 
glebe-houses 5,527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries 
prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- 
ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels 
about 12.000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there 
are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no 
glebe-houses. — See Church of England. 

BENEFIT of CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but 
afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par- 
ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin 
book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and 
if the ordinary said " Legit ut clericus," the offender was only burnt in the 
hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was 
abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the 
claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Skowe. Benefit of clergy was 
wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. 

BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES, &c, in the United 
States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, 
during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American 
Almanac, 1816) as follows: 



For theological education and other 

religious objects - - $1,054,966 

For purposes of instruction - 1,095,594 

For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 



For miscellaneous objects (such as 
monuments, &c.) - • - 438,321 



Total - $4,751,293 

[Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula- 
tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114,000. Few 
cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- 
habitants.! 



BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. 

Formed. Income, 
Amer. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. 

Missions - - - 1810 - 5260,897 

Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 

" Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 

" Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,428 

" Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 



Formed. Income. 

1849. 

Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 

" Colonization Society 1819 17414 

" Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 

Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 

Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 



United States ship, Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be 
given to the distitute Irish March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from 
New York on same errand, „uly 8, 1847. 

Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, J&t7. 

BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no 
record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 
1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the 
Mogul empire. — See India. 

The English were first permitted to 

trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1534 

Factories of the French and Danes - 1G64 
First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 

The settlements first placed in a state 

of defence .... 1694 
Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 
Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol- 

iiers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 



Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla : and 
the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 1758 

Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 

Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of 
Bengal in the Company, by which 
the virtual sovereignty of the country 
was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 

Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal mtde the 
chief presidency - - J me 16, 177S 

See India. 



256 THE world's PROGRESS. [ BBI 

BERESINA, Batti e of. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- 
sians on the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of 
it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20.000 men in the battle, 
and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. 

BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 
14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19 t 
1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4,000 men; 
arid on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men. 
On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he 
exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the 
French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was 
made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it 
was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a 
dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, 
March 8, 1814. 

BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its 
five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- 
quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army of 
Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire m 
a few clays. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the 
French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous 
Berlin decree. — See next article. 

BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. 
It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English- 
men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as 
prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- 
nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the 
Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided 
the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806. — See Jena. 

BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, 
in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers 
was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 
1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31, 1780. Another, 
by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven 
ashore, July 20, 1813. 

BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian 
army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte 
led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, 
fought June 14, 1800. 

BERNARD1NE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- 
leme, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a 
large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers 
gratis for three days. — Brooke. 

BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the 
English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- 
doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it 
stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 
1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and 
after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- 
land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards 
to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- 
fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. 

BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who 



SIS 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 

had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished 
city. It now contains a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the 
form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where 
they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called 
the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is 
much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe. 

BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, a. d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into 
the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- 
pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- 
tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- 
tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. 

BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, 
Eurysthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence 
should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established 
the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately 
for 800 years. — Herodotus. 

BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by 
seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence 
called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at 
Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephus. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In 
288. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of 
Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and 
each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison, it was 
found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin 
Martyr. 

BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- 
tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was writ- 
ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age 
is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek 
patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same 
time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, 
about a. d. 1000 ; and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 
1100. 

BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and 
Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop 
Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park- 
hurst and Bai'low, the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts; and 
archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. 

BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the 
Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the 
Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made 
by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and 
a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228 ; and this 
division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. 

BIBLE, Editions of the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- 
rome, a. d. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be 
authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See 
Books.") The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from 
the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of fb's 
edition was made. 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches, 



258 the world's prog RESS. [ hit. 

1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new 
translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now 
generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of the first 
books printed in North America, at Cambridge, 1663. The Bible was first 
printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to be trans- 
lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed 
iu 



Spanish 


-1478 


Russian 


-1581 


Manks - 


1771 


German - 


- -1522 


Hungarian 


- - 1589 


Italian 


1776 


English 


- 1534 


Polish 


- 1596 


Bengalee 


1801 


French - 


- -1535 


Modern Greek - 


- - 1638 


Tartar 


1813 


Swedish 


- 1541 


Turkish 


- 1666 


Persian 


1815 


Danish - 


- -1550 


Irish 


- - 1685 


African 


1816 


Dutch 


-1560 


Portuguese 


- 1748 


Chinese 


1820 



Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared m several in- 
stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot 
Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, 
Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — 
Wood's Fasti. Oxon. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have 
made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, 
are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was 
formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; 
Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709 ; French 
Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian 
Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American 
Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- 
can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New-York, 1838. A 
bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 

BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: 
with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act 
respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Vincr's Statutes. Declared to 
be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the 
same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George III. 1794. — Statutes 
at large. 

BILL of RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, 
was obtained from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognized the 
legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all 
manner of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass 
it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, 
passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only written law 
respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viner's 
Statutes. 

SILLS op EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their 
property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — Anderson. 
Bills were used in England, 1307. — The onlv legal mode of sending money 
from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 
— duty advanced. 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital 
to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of 
pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. 
The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many 
statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 
1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. 

SILLS of MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about 
a. d. 1536. but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the 



BiS J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259 



great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet 
afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- 
plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- 
ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years : — 

In the year 1780, Burials - - 20,507 

1790, Burials - - 18,038 

1800, Burials - - 23,068 



In the year 1780, Christenings - 16,634 

1790, Christenmss - 18,980 

1800. Christenings - 19.176 

■ 1810, Christenings - 19,930 

1820, Christenings - 26,158 

1830, Christenings - 27,028 

1840, Christenings - 30,387 



1810, Burials - - 19,892 

1820, Burials - 19.348 

1830, Burials - - 23,524 

1840, Burials - - 26,774 



BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, 
and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — 
Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an 
artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were 
introduced in England in 1827. 

BIRDS. Divided by Linnseus into sis orders ; by Blumenbach into eight ; and 
by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the 
bird : " If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or 
on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon 
the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the 
young." — Duteronomy, xxii. 6. 

BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; 
but. its importance as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of Wil- 
liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. 
The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- 
thew Boulton, in 1764. 

BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti- 
tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- 
dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30Z. — of a common 
person, 2s. — 7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of 
four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery 
recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five 
children at a birth, September 3. 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named 
Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at 
a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. 

BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but 
now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in 
a certa'n district. In England, the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. 
Petei, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a. d. 65. The bishops of 
Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by 
all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should 
belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. 

BISHOPS op ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York, 
London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d' Elire of the king 
to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the 
clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Conai d' Elire, 26 Henry VHI. 
1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- 
tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded 
from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. 
Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legality 
of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 
1641. Regained their seats. Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not 
reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring 
the Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power, and were tried and acquit 



260 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [_ BLA 

ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterburj (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops were suspended for refusing: to take the oaths to William and 
Maiy, 1689, and were deprived 1690. — 'Warner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of 
Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An 
order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to 
be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be 
created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded 
in 1846.— See Manchester. 

BISHOPS of IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this 
country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first 
planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of 
St. Patrick. 

BISHOPS op SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Tb.3 
see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, 
according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of 
Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrae, about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived 
of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- 
lution, 1688-9. Warner's Eccles. Hist. — There are now, however, six bishops 
belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's. 

BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be >ext to 
viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of 
Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of 
London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the 
others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in 
Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- 
cided in favor of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. 
The others rank according to consecration. 

BISHOPS in AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- 
bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at 
Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- 
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, 
Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop 
of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. 

- BISSEXTILE or LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every 
fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. 
It originated with Julius Csesar, who ordered a day to be counted before 
the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, 
and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added 
day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, 45 b. c. — See Calen- 
dar and Leap Year. 

B1THYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 
332 b. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed 
it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, 
except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, who, in a. d. 1327, took 
Prusa.. its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessad 
Constantinople. 

BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the 
scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the 
inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and 
hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you down in the 
black book." 

BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of 



BLO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 261 

England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the 
tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William 
III., 1696-7. — Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, 
on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- 
testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the 
same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, 
and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among 
other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as 
late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous 
writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's 
Bench. 

BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and Became heredi- 
tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the 
knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish 
them in the crusades. — Dugdale. 

BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India. Known 
in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system 
was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
1768. There are now immense bleachfields in both countries, particularly 
in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renferew, and in the 
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was 
introduced in 1795. — Blanchiment des Toiles. 

BLENHEIM, Battle of ; between the English and confederates, commanded 
by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal 
Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated 
with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among 
the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. 
The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of 
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest 
seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. 
Fought Aug. 2, 1704.— Hume. 

BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- 
ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- 
dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of 
sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a 
whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. 
See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from 
their heads. See article Eastern Empire. 

BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. — Freind. Blisters 
are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretams, a 
physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD, Circulation of the, through the lungs, first made public by Michael 
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of 
the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved 
afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Fatt er 
Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of 
the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician, by 
whom it was fully confirmed, 1628. — Freind' s Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- 
tem by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last ilmess, 
drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 



262 the world's progress. [beo 

strength, 1138. — Henault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah. Gen. ix. . 
and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles at 
the council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. 

BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that 
the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans*- 
fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the 
infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and 
prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera- 
tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving 
mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. Prac- 
tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in England, 
(but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One English physi- 
cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way ; he died in 1691." — 
Freind's Hist, of Physic. 

BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's 
household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, 
and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued 
by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the 
regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these 
and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of £500 
per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. 

BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally 
conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most 
active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished 
naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock- 
ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. oj 
Bowyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have 
worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- 
liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. 

BOARD of TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, 
established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- 
merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and 
plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- 
spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade 
was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 

BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot 
be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- 
land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again 
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was 
first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the 
inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. 

BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or 
novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, 
as is said by Petrarch, " possessing many charms." A copy of the first 
edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- 
burgh's sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for £2260, June 17, 1812. This 
identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, 
June 5, 1819. 

BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally 
celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes 
of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, 
Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Bceotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- 
dar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished 
and beautiful Corinna. 



BOI j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES 



263 



Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216 

Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 

The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages 
of obscurity follow - - - 112S 



Battle of Chasronea, in which the The- 
bans defeat the Athenians 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- 
nians at Leuctra, restores his country 
to independence, and puts it in a con- 
dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- 
bans and Athenians, near Chasronea - 



44* 



371 
333 



BCEOTIA continued. 

Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- 
mea - - - b. c. 1493 

Reign of Polydore • " - 1459 

Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 

Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, 
and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 

CEdipus, not knowing his father La'i us, 
kills him m an affray, confirming the 
oracle as to his death by the hands of 
his son ..... 1276 

CEdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- 
solves her enigmas - - 1266 

War of the Seven Captains - - 1225 

Here the greatness of this country ends. Alexander destroyed Thehes, the 
capital. 835 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all 
the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo. 

BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose 
soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated 
water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830 
The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot- 
land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. 

BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation 
of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. 

BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes: the title of king 
was obtained from the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their 
territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown 
was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ditary. — See Germany. 



The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are i 

ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550 

City of Prague founded - - 795 

Introduction of Christianity - - 894 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor 
Henry III., who spreads devastation 
through the country - - - 1041 

The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, 
the first king .... 1061 

The regal title is farther confirmed to 
Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199 

Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his 
arms into Prussia - - - 1258 

Ottos ;re, refusing to do homage to the 
emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- 
quished, and deprived of Austria, 
Styria, and Camiola - - - 1282 

In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of 
silver are first discovered, and agri- 
culture is encouraged and improved 
(fit seq.) - - - - 1284 

Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his 

vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 

John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen 

to succeed .... 1310 
Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 
King John slain at the battle, of Crecj 
fought with the English • • 346 



John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two 
of the first Reformers, are burnt for 
heresy, which occasions an insurrec- 
tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed 
them, is deposed, and the Imperialists 
are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the 
daughter of the late emperor and 
king, and receives the crowns of Bo- 
hernia and Hungary - - - 14?7 

The succession infringed by Ladislas, 
son of the king of Poland, and George 
Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1456 

Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected 
king of Bohemia, on the death of Po- 
diebrad ..... 1471 

The emperor Ferdinand I. marries 
Anne, sister of Louis the late king, 
and obtains the crown - - 1527 

The elector palatine Frederick is driven 
from Bohemia - - - 1618 

The crown is secured to the Austrian 
family by the treaty of - - 1649 

Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia - 1742 



Prague taken by the Prussians ■ - 1744 

The memorable siege of Prague - 1757 

Revolt of the peasantry - - - 1775 

The French occupy Prague - - 1806 
See Germany. 

BOILING to DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry 
VIIL, 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been 
poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of 
poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be punished by boil- 
ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in th« 
same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 



264 THE world's progress. [ boo 

BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens i>{ 
architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- 
dosius, a. d. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made 
his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting 
(as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 
1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for its 
pavement. Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth 
century. Taken by the French, 1796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by th6 
French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; restored to the pope in 1815 ; 
Austrians expelled by the people, August 8, 1848. 

BOMBAY, India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- 
erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by "Wil- 
liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the 
three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were 
lost. Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. 

BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a 
century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously 
used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in 
France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, 
and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- 
inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 

BONDAGE, or VILLANAGE, was enforced under William I. A villain in 
ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this 
species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See 
Villain. 

BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather im- 
perfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at 
Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science. 
— Freind's Hist of Physic. 

BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and 
bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- 
ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that 
country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. 
The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted 
together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of 
Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in 
profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still 
more ancient are preserved. 

BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy 
of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, 
by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30/.; 
and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat ; and 
they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at 
prices varying from 101. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value 
of some volumes is very great. A copy of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by 
Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butler. A yet more 
superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3.000Z. — Times. II 
Decamcrone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- 
burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260/.. June 17, 1812.— Phillips. 
A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever 
printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London 



BOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2S5 

in April 1846 for 50^. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 
in public libraries, is now in a private library in New York. 

BOOKS, Printed. The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and 
being printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The 
first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schasffer, his 
son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; 
but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed 
works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity 
on Faust ; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 
1460. See article Devil and Dr. Faustas. The second printed was Cicero tie 
Officiis, 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and 
Play of the CAes.se, by Caxton, 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, 
.in 1550. The first classical work printed in Russia was Com. Nepotis Vita, 
in 1762. Lucian's Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America 
(at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- 
stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — 
Stovje's CAronides. 

The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigreiv, (Biblio. Sussex.) 
the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by 
John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; 
and so excellent was the workmanship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- 
work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions 
for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible, 
as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies 
are now known to exist— all but one being in public libraries in Europe. 
[See previous article.] Specimens of the block books, printed with engraved 
wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, 
done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of 
New York. 

BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is 
supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards 
was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the 
book on which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation 
oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet 
was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum 
was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- 
mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth 
binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, 
or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- 
keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by 
Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century. 
It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- 
keeping in 1569. — Anderson. 

BOOK TRADE of Great Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new 
works published in successive years is thus stated : 

Gt. Brit. France. Germany. 

1823 - 842 - — - 5,654 

1830 - 1,142 - — - 5,926 

1834 • 1,220 - — - 6,074 

The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under 
the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 
65.474, or 1681 each year. 

England.— The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, 
from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550; equal to 253 yearly;— but deducting tha 
12 



Gt. Brit. France. Germany 
1836 - 1.332 - — . 7,891 

1849 - — . — - — 

1850 - — - 7,208 - — 



266 the world's PROGRESS. [ BOO 

reprints, pamphlets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new 
books may be computed at much less than 100. 

The number of new works, exclusive of " all pamphlets and other tracts," 
issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern 
Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," was 
5.280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. 

The number of new works, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued 
during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 
each year. 

The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- 
cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was ; 
according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, 
we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. 

Mr. McCulloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro- 
duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and 
periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average 
impression of each volume at 750 copies; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes; 
— value at 9s. a volume, £506.250. " The number of reprinted volumes, 
particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the 
reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- 
papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new 
copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about 
£750,000." 

France. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased 
since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive 
work (Notions Statistiqucs sur la Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the 
number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French 
press in 1816 at 66 852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483; and we believe 
that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any 
thing inferior. 

The first six months of the year 1837, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly 
review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other 
languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. 

Germany. — The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- 
fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michjelmas, which are attended by the 
booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, 
as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814 ; 
the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but 
the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 
5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. 

" An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) 
" that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed 
in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names of 
more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now 
living upwards of 50.000 persons who have written one or more books. The 
total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated 
from 5 to 6,000,000 dollars." 

Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were 
published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. 

Sweden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- 
holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several otoer 
places. 

BOOK-TRADE of the UNITED STATES. The number of new works which 
appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formmg 



BOK J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



267 



1,300 volumes and the cost of which may be estimated at $1,220,000. In 
1836, the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the books 
published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston, 
New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. 
Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : —originals 
1,030. reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; — number of volumes printed (1,000 for 
each edition), 1,884,000. 

la most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more 
frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted 
English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers 
of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a 
book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four 
editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of. 

The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled 
during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments 
amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. 

The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- 
ported literary productions in 1834 : 

Education 
Divinity - 
Novels and Tales 
History and Biography 
Jurisprudence 

Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful 
predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from 
foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the 
United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may 
be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- 
pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten 
years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent 
income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, 
the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly 
doubled. 

[The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in trie Booksellers' Advertiser, edited by 
G. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of publi 
cations in successive years : but the following list is compiled from the semi-monthly register 
m the Literary World.] 

American Publications — January to June, 1849. 



riginal. 


Reprint. 


Jrtginai. 


Reprint 


73 


9 


Poetry - • - ; 


3 


37 


18 


Travels - - - 8 


10 


19 


95 


Fine Arts - - -8 





• 19 


17 


Miscellaneous works - 59 


• 43 


-20 


3 









Original. 


Reprint. 


Original. Reprint. 


Education 


36 


7 


Travels - • - 21 - 7 


Divinity - 


- 25 


25 


Metaphysics - 3-8 


Novels and Tales 


18 


28 


Miscellaneous • -25-10 


History 


- 20 


12 


Law ) 


Biography 


15 


6 


Juvenile > not ascertained. 


Political Economy 


3 





Periodical ) 


Medicine 


12 


11 


__ __ 


Science 


- 11 


9 


For six months - 200 - 128 


Poetry 


11 


6 


Total, 328. 



The number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- 
sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. 

BOOTS. They are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were 
made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their 
invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 
907 b. c. 

BORODINO or MOSKWA, Battle or, one of the most sanguinary in the 
records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ; 
commanded on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusofi; 



268 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: [ BOl 

240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the 
loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, 
for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The 
road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little 
opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved 
the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the 
French military power over Europe. See Moscow. 

BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term 
has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the. 
election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were firs I 
admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the 
Irish, 1365. 

BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger sen 
inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to 
have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassaFs bride, 
and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- 
sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is 
mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished 
by Malcolm III. in 1062.— Haydn. 

BOSPHORUS, now called Ci? -cassia. The history of this kingdom is involved 
in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- 
actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by 
order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- 
oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- 
vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the 
Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- 
miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. 

BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- 
menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. 
The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- 
liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- 
ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more 
actively sustained than by the people of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was 
born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration 
of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. 
. Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18,038; in 1810, 33,250 ; in 1820, 43,298; 
in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. 

BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle op, the thirteenth and last between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of 
Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. 
The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the 
battle was fought, and Henry was so -impatient to be crowned, that he had 
the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- 
tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- 
dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost 
their lives. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. 
The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors 
on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of 
the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study 
was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and others, between 
1535 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, 
the fiist botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sys- 



BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 

tem, in 1758. At the time of Linngeus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of 
plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of 
species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. 

BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. 
The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived 
at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- 
tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of 
herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, 
about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and 
Transportation. 

EOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The 
art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans 
at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found 
in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was 
blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. 

BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France 
upon the peace. 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, 
and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here 
with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. 

BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited 
much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was made in 
1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The 
coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of 
defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into 
volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely 
for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- 
sion. 

BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the 
Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, 
Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of 
Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostock, 1838-9, 
suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New 
Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. 
army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- 
ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern 
boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, 
June 1846. 

BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- 
ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British pai-liament. 
The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in 
England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been 
granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. 

BOUNTY, MUTINEERS op the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, 
armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put 
their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, 
one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of 
Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 
4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti 
neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three 
were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. 

BOURBON, House op. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of 
Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage 
with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly 



270 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ BOT 

styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The 
crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- 
teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact 
took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were 
restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch 
was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, 
a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that 
year. — See France. 

BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French 
first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered 
to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are 
styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 
1829, by Avhich immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the 
Island. See Mauritius. 

BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of 
England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black 
Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the 
battle of Poitiers in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, 
Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian 
statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the 
victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS. a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, 
who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, 
Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and 
some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity 
does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- 
ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the 
World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and taught her 
pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. 
She died in 1680. 

BOWLS, or BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth 
century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. 
played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at 
Tunbridge. — Memoires de Grammont. 

BOWS and ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to 
Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was 
again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- 
aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- 
bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and 
the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and 
were discharged by a trigger. 

BOXING, or PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatus of the Romans, and a favorite 
sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an 
advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- 
ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and 
a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, 
behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach 
boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," 
selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c, 
the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing 
have declined. 

BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi 
Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his 
genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures 
in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- 



8RA] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 271 



Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and 
September to November — endowed 1691. 

BOYNE, Battle or, between king William III. and his father-in-law, James II., 
fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 
1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James 
immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to 
France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. 

BRABANT. It was erected into a duchy a.d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- 
bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of 
Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 
seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, 
and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the 
great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 
— again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom 
of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgium. 

BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read 
of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillce were usually 
distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. 
Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are 
female ornaments to the present day. 

BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and 
bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off 
the Spanish yoke, which liad become intolerable, advanced John, duke of 
Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbs 
VerM. 

BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- 
thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- 
sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive 
their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to 
their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. 
They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- 
ments. — Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- 
positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. 

BRANDENBURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say 
it was founded by the Sclavonians. who gave it the name of Banber, which 
signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified 
Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- 
stowed the government on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of 
Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. 
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- 
berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. 

BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- 
cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell 
to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. 

BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the 
seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the 
early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted 
with its use. — Whittaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the 
ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- 
gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, 
formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- 
ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artista 
had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 



272 the world's PROGRESS. [ BRB 

and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that 
Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles 
made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig- 
nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. 

BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was 
driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the 
Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red 
wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The 
goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- 
ered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, 
the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution 
took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don 
Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the 
throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant 
son, now emperor, April 7,1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil 
war ensued. — See Portugal. 

BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the 
first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 
Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. 
Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which 
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made 
from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — 
Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of 
barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; 
and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been 
eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of 
land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- 
isiana (1) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat 
a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. 

BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendons work 
was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the 
great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, 
and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 360 feet in breadth at the 
bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of 
granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a 
million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of 
the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. 

BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The 
breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in 
the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. 

BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the 
Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided 
here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was 
taken by the French in 1793 : and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The 
French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of 
France ceased here. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was 
worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, 
it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Cassar. In the reign of Ho- 
norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from 
Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other conn- 
tries, and at length it became general. 



BR1 J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 



BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of 
Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757; they were driven 
out by the Hanoverians in 1758; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen 
was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- 
dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. 

BRESLAU, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under 1 
prince Bevern. who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody ov 
both sides, Nov 22,1757, when Breslau was taken; but was regained the 
sa'me year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- 
rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. 

BREST. It was besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English. 
a. d. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and * 
British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. 
The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 
1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot 
of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
during the late war. 

BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting 
formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- 
try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of 
England, 1066. 

BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- 
land retained Gascony and Guienne. acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, 
Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- 
sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to 
receive 3,000.000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long 
prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. 

BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church 
of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and 
both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among 
the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils 
of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII.. and other popes. The 
quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the 
type called brevier at the present day. 

BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo 
Saxon ancestors. — -Tlndal. ; ' One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, 
of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414."- — S'owe. There 
are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in 
Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which 
there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c, 
who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, 
many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and 
the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. 

BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- 
tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the 
land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- 
liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery 
in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000/. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. 
Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord 
Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- 
citing a bribe, January 1784. 

BRIBERY at ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable 
offence, Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 
12* 



274 the world's progress. [bbj 

an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; 
and several similar instances have occurred since. 

BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, 
Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made 
under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886.— Saxon Chron. The 
size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed. 1784. The number of 
bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the 
number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. 
See Building. 

BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 
1he ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her 
spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the 
Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on 
her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her 
parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. 

BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king Join, near 
Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was 
given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this 
name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality 
near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- 
lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. 

BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so 
various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient 
bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos 
is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. 
Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was 
built in a. d. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its 
frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could 
scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were 
invented to account for it At Shaffhausen an extraordinary bridge was 
built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the 
middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a 
man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons 
heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by 
the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 
29, 1848. 

BRIDGES in ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and 
were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built 
at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest 
erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in 
China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are 
Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 
1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, 
in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the 
Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was 
begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in 
that country, in 1758 : Mr. BrirTdley was the architect. The canal com- 
mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is 
an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the 
navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. 

BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain 
date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on 
public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are 
without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are 



BKI 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 



distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten on 
parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St 
Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces 
and dispensations, as well as business. 
BRIENNE, Battle op, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and 
the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The 
allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which 
the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. 

BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus. 
a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a 
distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- 
ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 
1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. 
Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into 
the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. 
He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- 
sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate 
until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some 
of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, 
and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832 ; four 
were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during 
his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. 

BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- 
scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the 
Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- 
tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, 
the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to 
only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar, 
65 b. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- 
erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty 
pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- 
pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. 



Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at 
York - - - - a. D. 306 

The Roman forces are finally with- 
drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 

The Saxons and Angles are called in to 
aid the natives against their northern 
neighbors the Picts and Scots • 449 

Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- 
ons attack the natives themselves, 
driving them into Wales - • 455 

Many of the natives settle in Armorica, 
since called Brittany - - - 457 

The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided 
into seven kingdoms - - 45. 

Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 

Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and 
establishment of Christianity - - 598 

Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, 
began his reign - - - 678 

The Saxon Heptarchy ends • - 828 

See England, and also Tabular Views, p. 
75, &c. 

That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- 
lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- 
stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, 
a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. 
Phillips's Annals. 

BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the 



First invasion of Britain by the Romans, 

under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 

Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 

Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 
London founded by the Romans - 49 

Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 
The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 

70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 

A vast army of Britons is defeated by 

Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 
Reier. of Lucius, the first Christian king 

of Britain, and in the world - - 179 

Severus keeps his court at York, then 

called Eboracum - - - 207 

He dies at York - - - - 211 

Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne 

of Britain - - - - 286 

He is killed by Alectus, who continues 

the usurpation - - - 293 

Constantius recovers Britain by the de- 
feat of Alectus - - - - 296 



276 the world's PROGRESS. [ BR.* 

grant by parliament of 20,000?. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- 
ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature 
and art, which had cost him 50,000Z. The library contained 50,000 volumes 
and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- 
alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same 
year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- 
tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased 
to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of 
curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its 
rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, 
&c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- 
ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections,. 

BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the 
crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Chron. 

BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- 
riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- 
nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. 
— Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, 
in 1757. 

BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which 
are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of 
Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The 
cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- 
land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. 

BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- 
land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was 
enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 
William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 
'6 George I. 1719. and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- 
brokers. 

BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various 
other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian 
statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 

10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight 
of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added 
one fifteenth of lead and silver. 

BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, 
under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- 
side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- 
ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest 
penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 

11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope 
Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, 
which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471.—/^. Chron. 

BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert 
Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- 
tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all othei 
communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a 
benefice in the church of England. — Collins' s Eccles. Hist. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The 
illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller/' set out in June 1768, and pro- 
ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the 
desert to the Red Sea. and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia 
Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital of" Abys- 



•VJC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 

sinia, hi Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained the great object of his 
wishes— a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 
1773, and died in 1794. 
EKUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of 
Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of 
Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- 
father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry H. 
of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of 
any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- 
sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. 
The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family 
of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he 
retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg 
were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several 
branches. The present duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the 
eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this 
last sprang the royal family of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- 
wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to 
retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. 

BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The 
memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches 
and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. 
Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 
25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and 
tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur- 
ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 
feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly 
furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- 
play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834, 

BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising 
money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- 
trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such 
projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and 
Law's Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and 
Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon 
after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. 
The principal commanders of the first expedition were. Montbar, Lolonois, 
Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The 
expedition of Van Horn, of Qstend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont. 
in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. 

BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, 
who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied the 
end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, whea 
her followers dispersed. 

BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place 
between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be 
the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent 
war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE. London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was 
pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and aftoi 



278 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [_ BUi. 



expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- 
pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. 

BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Prcetus and Acri- 
sius. of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- 
nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and sih er, 309 
b c. See article Armor. 

BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II. ; 
but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, 
wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were 
however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. 

BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solynian II. at 
the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, 
and 200.000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- 
gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- 
ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See 
Hungarij. 

BUENA VISTA, Battle op, between the American force, of about 5,000 men, un- 
der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under 
Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. 
American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- 
cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. 

BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It 
was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was 
retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British 
suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, 
July 6. 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816 : 
the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- 
nos Ayres and Monte Video, England and France blockaded the port of Bue- 
nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845 ; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, 
defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. 

BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The 
shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- 
ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described 
as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they 
were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- 
verted the jesters into poet- laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; 
Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. 

BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, 
and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone 
was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every 
nation pursued a different system. The art' of building with stone may be 
referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d. 670. The first 
bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick 
was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it 
in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl cf 
Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase 
of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by 
Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. 

BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the 
emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 
15.000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one 
eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen 



BUO] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 270 



home. Bulgaria was governed by Roman dukes till 1186 ; subdued bj 
Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. 

BULL, or EDICT op ths POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient 
use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, 
deriving its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and 
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the 
name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden 
bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal : 
and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet ci 
Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- 
tors, and corsigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 
1588. 

BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of 
Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights 
of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- 
ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a 
sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter 
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought "for their heads, and lusty bulls and 
huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the 
Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish 
bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence 
of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- 
tom, May 24, 1802. — BiUler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cru- 
elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- 
ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There waa 
a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- 
tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. 

BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514; and iron ones are first 
mentioned in the Fazdera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close 
of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for 
musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, 
instead of iron. — Ashe. 

BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston.) between the British under Howe, 
and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 
1054 killed and wounded ; American. 453. The latter obliged to retreat for 
want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has 
always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and 
is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which 
the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished 
July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary 
contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- 
cession, &c, and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 60,000 
people present, June 17, 1843. 

BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most 
extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most 
of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. 
See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads 
throughout the volume : — 



Napoleon born at Ajaccio, in Italy, 

Aug. 15, 1769 
He first distinguishes himself in the 

command of the artillery at Toulon - 1793 
He embarks for Egypt • May 10, 1798 
Is repulsed before Acre • May 27, 1799 
He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 



Deposes the French directory, and be- 
comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 

Sends overtures of peace tc the king of 
England - - - Jan. 1 180C 

His life attempted by an "infernal ma- 
chine" • - - Dec. 21. L80C 



280 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[bub 



BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, continued. 



Elected president of the Italian, late 

Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 

Elected consul lor 10 years - May 8, 1802 
Made first consul lor life - Aug. 2, 1802 
Accepts 'he title of emperor from the , 

sena'.c; in name of the people May 18, 1804 
Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 
Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1605 
Divorced from the empress Josephine 

Dec. 16, 1809 
Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 
A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, 

and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 
His overtures of peace to England re- 
jected - - - April 14, 1812 
[The reverses of Bonaparte now follow 

in quick succession.] 
He renounces the thrones of France 
and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of 
Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 
Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 
Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 

Again appears in France ; he quits Elba 

and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 
Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 

Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 
Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 
The allies sign a treaty for his exter- 
mination - - - March 25. 1815 
He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 



Is defeated at Waterloo - June 18, 181S 
Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 

And abdicates in favor of his infant 

son - - - June 22, 1815 

Intending to embark for America, he 

arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 

He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the 

Belleroplion - - July 15, 1<?16 

Transferred at Torbay to the Norlhum- 

berla?id,a.nd sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 
Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- 
creed by the allied sovereigns he shall 
remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1816 

The family of Bonaparte excluded for 
ever from France by the law of am- 
nesty - - - Jan. "2, 1816 
Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 
His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 
His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22. 1832 
The French chambers decree, with the 
consent of England, that the ashes of 
Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- 
na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 
They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 
The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives 
at Cherbourg with the 'emains of 
Napoleon, in the care of lie prince 
de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1840 
They are interred with great solemnity 
in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 



Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815 

BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with 
its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ; 
in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident 
in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 
1413. — Viner's Statutes. See Borough. 

BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- 
ished with death. 

BURGOS, Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, 
which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British 
and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but 
the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- 
tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. 

BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger 
many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- 
nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed 
the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- 
gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip EL 
of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the 
Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to 
France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. 

BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth. 
The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- 
ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See 
Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — 
Eusebius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in 
cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were 
erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- 
land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland. 1729 ; and woollen 
shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries. 
BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in 



BUR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 281 

stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1586. — Stowe. A tax 
wao exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, .£50, and foi 
that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783. — 
Statutes. See Bills of Mortality. 

BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It 
was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- 
trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by 
pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose 
of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The 
crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. 
The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- 
cuted with Williams., one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian 
boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as 
being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar 
murders), December 5, same year. 

BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- 
pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India. 

BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, 
and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest 
in the ascending and descending degrees The Jews had two ways of burn- 
ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- 
ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio animce, to burn 
the soul. — See Suttees. 

BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn- 
ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished 
heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This 
punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered 
in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- 
count of religions principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, 
parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the 
reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop 
of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer, archbishop of 
Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others 
suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* 

BURNING the DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- 
ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- 
mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was 
very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the 
dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead 
is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. 

BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown 
to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful 
by the modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen, 1680; of Buffon, 
174? ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- 
ments of the fusion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning 
mirror : 



* It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violences 
aitd barbarities were carried on, there were 27? persons brought to the stake; besides those who 
were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were 
i bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 34 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 
56 women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gar- 
diner and Bonner. The latter especially was a man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a 
savage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 



282 the world's PROGRESS. [ BYZ 



Substances fused. Weight. 77m*. 
A topaz 3 grains 45 seconds 

An emerald • - 2 grains 25 seconds. 
A crystal pebble - 7 grains G seconds. 

Flint - - - - 10 grains 30 seconds. 
Cornelian • - 10 grains 75 seconds. 

Pumice stone - - 10 grains 24 seconds. 



BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued. 

Substances fused. Weight. Time. 

Pure gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver - • - 20 grains 3 seconds. 

Copper 33 grains 20 seconds. 

Platina - - 10 grains 3 seconds. 

Cast iron 10 grains 3 seconds. 

Steel - • - 10 grains 12 seconds. 

Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are 
calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. 

BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, where Creon ordered 
Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman 
vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dross 
or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia 
was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia 
was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives 
instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- 
mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- 
dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls 
built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this 
species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greect. 

BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is 
the same with the hernia, of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts 
from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about 
a. d. 1466. — Vasari. 

BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii pro- 
vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Land, whose office was to kill. The 
butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, 
although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — 
Annals of London. 

BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the 
early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- 
tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- 
tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow 
dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable 
butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, 
than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park. 

BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were 
prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- 
tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement 
from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- 
proved . — Phillips. 

BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round 
the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- 
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- 
gust 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, u Foul- weather Jack."— 
Bellchambers. 

BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 715 
B. c. — Eusebiiis. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins 
by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after 
him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople 



CAD J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283 



CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists, 
and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- 
tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, 
supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellatioa 
of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord 
Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- 
dale, 22 Charles II. 1670.— Hume. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so eaily as the reigu 
of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690 ; Offa. king of the Mercians, 758, 
and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret 
deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the 
great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now 
styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. 
Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- 
structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members:* 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 
President of the board of control. 
President of the boart of trade. 



Lord president. 

Lord chancellor. 

Lord privy seal. 

First lord of the treasury. 

Chancellor of the exchequer. 



Master of the mint. 

First lord of the admiralty. 



In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods 
and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of 
Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of 
the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of Englana. 

CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making 
the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented 
in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making 
cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British 
navy in 1812. 

CADDEE, or League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence 
in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 
to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray 
league, 1424. 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- 
try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 
20.000 Kentish men, who armed "to punish evil ministers, and procure a 
redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time 
bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and 
several other persons of consecpience. The insurgents at length losing 
ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- 
serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- 
sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. 

CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley. 
One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, 

* The term cabinet council is of comparatively modern date, and originated thus: the affairs 
*f state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the 
earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- 
nament ; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries, Vane and 
Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, 
meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee cl 
state, reproachfully called the junto, and afterwards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Cijl- 
EBH30N. 



284 the world's progress. [ cal 

against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587, 
Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, 
September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he 
failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, 
under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by 
the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. 
Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca 
in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. 
Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. 

CiESARS, ERA of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 
38 b. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was 
much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held 
in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. 
Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John 
of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 
1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- 
dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the 
year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. 

CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- 
mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, 
broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of 
the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by 
the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming 
flood, a. d. 1642. 

CAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for 
the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in 
what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 
969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- 
saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their 
empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 
1754, when 40 000 persons perished. Set on fire by a lady of the beglerbeg, 
Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 
1801. 

CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held 
by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, 
and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it 
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- 
barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long 
exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. 

CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It 
was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta 
was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, 
in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed 
into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence 
twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- 
taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme 
court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See 
Bengal and India. 

CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived 
from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, 
who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of 
Caledonia ; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- 
able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded 
by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appeal 



CAL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 

to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, wb*> passed 
over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
centurj of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- 
rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven 
the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to 
the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, 
customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders 
and the inhabitants of the southern borders. 



Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 
founded by Fergus 1., about • b. c. 330 

The Picts irom the north of England 
settle in the southern borders • - 140 

Agricola carries the Roman arms into 
"Caledonia, with little success, in the 
reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- 
bred II. - - - A. d. 79 

He is signally defeated by the forces of 
Corbred 80 

Christianity is introduced into Caledonia 
in the reign of Donald I. - • 201 



The country is invaded by the Scuyths, 
or Scots, and the government is over- 
thrown, about - - a. d. 306 

The Caledonian monarchy is revived by 
Fergus II. 404 

After many sanguinary wars between 
the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- 
neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, 
unites the whole country under one 
monarchy, and gives it the name of 
Scotland ■ - - 838 to 343 

See Scotland. 



The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- 
tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed 
Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- 
able fictions. 
CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means 
of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between the western 
ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- 
tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum 
exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, 
and opened in 1822. 
CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by 
almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into 
ten months, comprising 804 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was 
of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than 
the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with 
any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by 
adding two months ; and Julius Cassar, desirous to make it more correct, 
fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- 
ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. 
The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar 
year consisted of 865 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 
365 clays six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had 
amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead 
of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, 
that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- 
larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- 
sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 
1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 
2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 
ysars, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The year of* the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to 
correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are 
avoided. See Nev> Style. 
CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, 
which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought 
to England by the East India Conpany, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 



286 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ Cm 

Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro- 
hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first 
made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. 

CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror 
of Mexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate 
Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by 
Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego 
and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. 

CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- 
bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used 
natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 
1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New California 1769. 
Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a province of Mexico, 
1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- 
plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with 
that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 
1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by 
Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper 
California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- 
ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c, 1846. Cali- 
fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold 
placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. 
Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Con- 
vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- 
stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, 
Dec. 1849. 

CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle ; the title assumed by the Sophi of 
Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- 
sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of 
the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of 
time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the 
title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. 
Herbert. 

CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- 
tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 
B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and 
beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, 
creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he 
presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, 
enchased in a ring and. border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- 
rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, 
the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. 
— Holinshed. 

CALLAO, in Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, 
and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. 
The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, 
with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to 
whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. 

CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by 
Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously 
known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced 
by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some 
centuries before. 



CAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 

CALVARY", Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33. 
Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated 
to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time 
of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount 
Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. 
Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from al] 
Christian countries. 

CALVTNISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- 
former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal 
errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- 
ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angouleme, where he composed his Insti- 
tutio Christiana Rehgionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He 
subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he 
differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider 
themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A 
formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561 
where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs 
burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric 
takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- 
prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war 
of the French involution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, 
when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to 
surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to 
fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. 
Colville. June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was 
occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. 

CAMBRAY, League op. This was the celebrated league against the republic 
of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and 
Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in 
the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. 

CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for raffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrica 
were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- 
beth, 1580. — Stoive. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and 
was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 
1786, but afterwards again prohibited: the importation of cambrics is now 
allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- 
quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. 
Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of 
king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by 
Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during 
the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains 
thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most 
ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the 
chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. 

CAMERA LUCID A. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674 — Wood's Ath. Ox. 
Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- 
scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger 
Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural 
magic, about 1500. — Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent 
invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- 
nent ; the last was produced in 1839. 

CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, 
and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -Bumvt. 



288 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAS 



CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently 
most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are 
told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- 
trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments 
are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The 
last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. 

tAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- 
lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the free- 
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up 
the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 
1662. 

CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south 
of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral 
Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter 
losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. 

C 4MP0 FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the 
latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, 
and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- 
able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the 
Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the 
Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands. Oct. 17, 1797. 

CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d. 
1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously 
visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- 
stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was 
confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two 
provinces. Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates 
on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke 
and Mr. Fox arose. 

CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- 
treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. 
Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were 
repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, 
governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, 
April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- 
ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at 
Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes 
took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several 
hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- 
bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of 
Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of £l, 000 for Papi- 
neau, Dec. 5, 1837. M'Leod (charged with the destruction of the Caroline, 
American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 
1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United 
States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- 
calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, 
took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- 
ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for payin* 
losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. 
Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against 
such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, 
the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. 

CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes 
over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The 
canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean 



RAN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 

w?,s commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- 
menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 
1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That Detween 
the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between 
the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was 
by Henry L, when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. 
That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 
are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- 
land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the 
length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there 
are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the 
Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — Williams. 

CANALS in the UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal 
in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. 
The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- 
peake and Delaware canal opened, &c, July 4, 1829. 

CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu- 
nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, 
about 140 b. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, 
a. d. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which 
flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts 

of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. 

■ 

CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. 
It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken 
by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians. 1194, and held by them till the 
Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 
men perished, 1669. 

CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, 
or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the 
lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were 
little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The 
wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said 
to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of 
modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are 
made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which 
is fragrant, and yields a bright light. 

CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feasi instituted by the early Christians, who conse- 
crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the 
year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of 
the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- 
sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, 
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice 
of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order 
of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 

CANNiE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to 
the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50 000 Africans. Gauls, and 
Spaniards ; and Paulus j3Lmilius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of 
whom 40000 were slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels 
of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. 
Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the 
battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 
216 b. c. — Bossuet. 

CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform 
us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 
13 



290 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ CAM 

American tribes and natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the 
present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage 
nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the 
Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. 
The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in 
America See Anthrofophagi. 

CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According 
to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but 
iliis Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at 
the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by t 
the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymer's Fcedera. Louis XIV., 
upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed 
upon his cannon, "The last argument of kings." See Artillery. 

CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast 
in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in 
Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen 
feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet 
four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge 
of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, 
in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- 
pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 
feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, 
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, 

" Charge me well, and sponge me clean, 
I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." 

Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A. leathern cannon was 
fired three times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. 

CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. 
Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon 
existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. 
Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon 
law author in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — 
Stowe. 

CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the 
Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallent's Tables. Saints have so 
accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henault. 

CANTERBURY. The Durovemum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, 
king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during 
the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous 
for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and 
Edward the Black Prince. 

CANTERBURY, Archbishopric op. This see was settled by St. Austin, who 
preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of 
Kmt. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great 
favors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert'a 
dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, 
although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas a Becket, mur- 
dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- 
litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of 
all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had 
formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. 
This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and 
to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. 
Austin was the first bishop, 596. The see was made superior to York, 1073. 



cap] dictionary of dates. 291 

— See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at £2816. !■< 5. 9d. — 
Bcatson. 

CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver- 
ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into 
medica. practice by Aretasus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c.— 
Freind\ History of Physic. 

CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed 
up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- 
pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- 
land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating 
to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 
15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 
more than 1000 persons in October 1833. 

CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes 
by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, 
called Hazvia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe 
trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — 
See India Rubber. 

CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the head, 
and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But at one 
period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their 
slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark 
of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in 
France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear 
a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is icferred to the year 1449; 
the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. 
into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A 
statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20^. (40 cts.) nor cap 
above 2s. 8d. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. 

CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the 
French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and 
re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison 
and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven 
ships of the French navy Avere captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng 
land at the peace of 1763. 

CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to 
the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British 
settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the 
Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to the English 
by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. 

('APE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East 
Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally 
called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," 
and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of 
Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having 
reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage 
to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the 
Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general 
Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by 
sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to 
England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 
1820. The Caffres have made several irruptions on the British settlements 
here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown, in Oct. !834 
Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1818. 



292 the world's PROGRESS. [ CAP 

CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients undet 
the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered 
by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1446. 

C A.PE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, 
and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, 
with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve 
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1698. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of 
the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being 
in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the 
Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off this Cape, and signally defeated the 
enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several 
others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English 
peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 
3000Z. a year. 

CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count 
of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- 
vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, 
a. d. 987. — Henault. 

CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built 
to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- 
quinius Priscus, 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to 
this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds 
were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- 
stroyed by lightning, 188 b.c; by fire, a. n. 70. The Capitoline games in- 
stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. 

CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- 
cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of 
Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes H. 
became king of Cappadocia. 

Pharnaces is declared king • b. c. 744 
His successors are unknown for nearly 
three centuries. 



Reign of Ariarathes I. - - - 362 

Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- 
rathes is crucified - - - 322 
Defeat of the Parthians - - -217 
Irruption of the Trocmi • - - 164 
Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- 
cends the throne - - - 162 
Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 
Attains assists Philopator, and Oro- 
phernes dethroned - - - - 154 
Philopator joins trie Romans against 

Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 
His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- 



ing the throne, poisons five of her own 

children, the sixth and only remaining 

child is saved, and the queen put to 

death - - - - - 153 

This young prince reigns as Ariarathes 

VII. 153 

Gordius assassinates Ariarathes \TI. - 97 
Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96 

Cappadocia declared a free country by 

the senate of Rome - - - 95 

The people elect a new king Ariobar- 

zanes 1. - - - - 94 

His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns - 65 

He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 

Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, 

dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to 

the Roman empire - a. d. 17 



CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- 
rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, 
during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a 
sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir 
Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 

CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, 
from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or 
hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- 
chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although tho 



car] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



293 



rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for then 
extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. 
CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. Tha 
covered cars (currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. Triumphal 
cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the 
Elder, according to others. 
CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province 
declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by 
a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks 
and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or 
their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. 
CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for 
freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror 
in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- 
ment in Sept, 1820. 
CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, ai»d constitute the 
conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or 
incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the 
eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the 
popes till a. d. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they 
ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes 
of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; 
and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1680 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange. 
CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed 
that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. 
during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought 
him to his grave.— Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an 
amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of 
wisdom. — Malkvrb. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Dairies 
Barrington. Picquet and all the early e-ames are French. Cards first taxed 
in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. 
In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs 
paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th 
Jan. 1840. — Pari. Reports. 
CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he 
first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by 
bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — 
De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; 
and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the 
initials H. B., are political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. 
CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a 
strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was 
made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken 
by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. 
CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit of 
emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic 
government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come 
to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- 
nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies 
and free institutions, August 1, 1819. 
CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of thts 
four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. 
Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 



294 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAR 

Interrupted succession from Elijah. Elisha, &c. Mount Camellias a monas- 
tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 
feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often 
referred to in Jewish histories. 

" See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, 
And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pope. 

CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, 
amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- 
lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See 
iV. <$• S. Carolina. 

CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of 
Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on 
which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses, 
even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- 
cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's 
splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in 
winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture 
of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of 
Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France 
in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 
1750. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially 
the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- 
minster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu- 
facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within 
fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. 

CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who 
produced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France 
in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, 
and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555 ; but not the 
art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used 
by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen- 
ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- 
rious : they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were 
then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; 
and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first 
let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; and hence their name. 
See Coaches. 

CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene" des Cartes, the French 
philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker : 
his metaphysical principle"" I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke ; 
and his physical principle, that " nothing exists but substance," is disprov- 
ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great 
singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent thought prevails 
throughout it, and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des 
Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — 
Dufresnoy. 

CARTHAGE, founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 
869 b. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took 
refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of 
the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total dem»- 
lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground, 146 b. c. 
when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants 
perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The 
Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of 
this once powerful republic. — Eusebius. 



CAS] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



295 



CARTHAGE, continued. 

Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Eyrsa. 

—Blair ■ - - b. C. 869 

First alliance of the Carthaginians with 

the Romans 
The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated 

by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes, 

Herodotus, I. vii. 
They send 300,OUO men into Sicily 
The siege of Syracuse 
The Carthaginians laiid in Italy 
Their defeaf by Timoleon 
They are defeated by Agathocles, and 

immolate their children on the altar of 

Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 
The first Punic war begins - - 264 

The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro 

mans in a naval engagement - 
Xantippus defeats Regulus 
Regulus is crucified - - - 

Asdrubal defeated by Metellus 
Romans defeated before Lilybceum 
End of the first Punic war 
War between the Carthaginians and 

African mercenaries - - - 241 

Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he 

takes with him his son, the famous 



DO'.) 



480 
407 
396 
379 
340 



260 
255 

- 256 

- 251 

- 250 

- 241 



Hannibal, at the age of nine years, 
having first made him swear an eter- 
nal enmity to the Romans - B. C. 237 
Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- 
tones ..... 227 
Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 

Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as 

the Iberus - - - - 219 

The second Punic war begins - -218 

First great victory of Hannibal - • 217 

Hannibal crosses the Alps, an 1 enters 

Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 

Great battle of Cannae {which see) - 21G 
New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 
Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated 

and slain in Italy - - - 20? 

The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 
Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege 

to Utica 204 

Hannibal recalled from Italy - - 203 

Great battle of Zama (uhich see) - 202 

An ignominious peace ends the second 

Punic war .... 201 

The third Punic war begins - - 149 

Destruction of Carthage, which is burned 
to the ground .... 146 



CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, tbe Ca; tha- 
ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable 
march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps. 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, 
was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of 
£1 ,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but 
he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. 

CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired 
from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of 
Daiiphine". Their rules were formed by Basil VII.. general of the order, and 
were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not 
leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave ; and their clothing was 
two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The 
general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, 
from which the order is named. — -Auberti; Mirai Origines Carthus. 

CARTOONS of RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- 
tican, under Julius II. and Leo X.. about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them 
that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of 
England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- 
sent — 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter 
and John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- 
nias ; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to 
Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. 

CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- 
odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. 
and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and 
afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers 
and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- 
cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares, are mention- 
ed by Homer. 

CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls 
is described as being "the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." 
The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that 
Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well 
imitated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersfield. 



296 the world's PROGRESS. f CAT 

Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thihetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about 
the year 1650. — Bernier. 
CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, 
Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful 
visitation of earthquakes: in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- 
ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded 
that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, 
looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 
persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. 

CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French 
arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, 
commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively, 
from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in 
this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 
000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. 

CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here 
about a. d. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 
1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the 
whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. 
See Arragon and Spain. 

CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and 
built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo 
Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi 
steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the 
nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d.. 1185, and 1154: most of these 
were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possessions, 
on his accession, in 1154. 

CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted 
the toinbs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places 
of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, 
explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years 
ago: among others, a chef-d'ceuvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- 
maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental 
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- 
tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The 
Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- 
combs, especially "hose of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. 

CATANIA, or CATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony 
from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women 
were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful 
overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity 
to Etna, which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava 
four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in 
a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 
1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- 
lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried 
in the. ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number 
of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. 

CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- 
gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of 
the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with 
needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. 

CATAPULTtE. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense 
weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They 



CAUj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 297 

were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards length.— 
Pardon. 

C A.THOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- 
gory III. to Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnanied the Catho- 
lic; a. d. 739 The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. 
See Spain. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, 
having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and extravagance, 
and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the rain cf 
his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, 
as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set 
Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, 
whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices 
arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. 
Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius 
attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspir- 
ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c. 
His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence 
he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is 
said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths 
more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. 

C ATO, SUICIDE of. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." 
Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which 
alone " sustains the name and dignity of man:" unable to survive the inde- 
pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of 
suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- 
ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of 
no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might 
have moderated Caesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public 
affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. — Montesquieu. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and 
desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of 
the crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, 
and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb. 
23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates, Brunt, Davison, 
Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, which ended in their 
co rviction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, 
on May 1, following. — Haydn. 

CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of 
Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently 
by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It 
was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with 
fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to 
gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- 
out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by 
Jupiter, and. continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors, 
1548 b. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasia Portee, and 
it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their 
way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Strabo. Hero- 
dotus. 
CAUSTIC in PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of 
burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was 
the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress 
Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gai- 
lands of flowers: and from this circumstance the picture, which was 
13* 



298 the world's PROGRESS. [ CEM 

bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of StepAa- 

noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinil Hist. Nat. 

CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those 
who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought 
Charles; I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- 
heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. 

CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated foi 
their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the 
Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turrnas ; the com- 
mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In the 
early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field : 
they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 b. c. : and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch. 

CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654, It 
was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. 
These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by 
the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 
1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne 
pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 
368 b. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. 
The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. 
The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, 
and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in 
diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is 
eighteen feet. See Globes. 

CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by 
pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the 
same period. 

CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about 
a. d. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate 
places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at 
the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 
692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 

, 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Piacentia, 
held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- 
ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bioa 
Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the following 
among the moderns : — Newton, Locke, Bo}de, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, 
Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, 
Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, 
Handel. Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, 
Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. 

CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all 
their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre 
cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom 
of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans 
were at a distance from their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in 
gard3ns — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — 
Matthew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish 
clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being 
interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- 
some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many line plants thai 
grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only 



CEY ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 



within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in thes« 
countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the 
danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called 
for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Phre la Chaise at 
Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London 
suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid 
out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- 
teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, 
Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, especially 
that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia 
(183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in 
their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. 

CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and 
correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over 
private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors 
were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. 

CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and 
personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : 
established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c. — Legal Polity of the Roman State. 
In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial 
periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new 
census, 1841. 

CENSUS op the UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, 
viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken 
this year, 1850. — See Population. 

CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- 
man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was 
distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the 
Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 566 b. c. 

CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally 
observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our 
Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded 
by church historians. — Pardon. 

CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by 
M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the 
naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying 
power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by 
Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. 

CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- 
covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in 
the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the 
Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The 
Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by 
the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements 

* Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and 
Ms confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by 
this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the 
graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it ia 
then usual to throw a sort of herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs ; which in Asia Minoi-, and 
Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or 
cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamented 
stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- 
tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, 
which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to put about 
their graves. — Mailet ; Chandler; Butler. 



300 the world's progress. Lcha 

were seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatani, in 
Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens 
in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned 
by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- 
reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 

CHiERONEA, Battles op. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, 
and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chseronea, in which 
Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- 
erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle 
of Chasronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by 
Sylla, and 110.000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to 
be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top ot 
one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the first 
chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the 
chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of 
Wales, July 1818. — See Menai Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the 
Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgas of Britain in the time 
of Caesar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the 
royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an 
enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- 
pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHAISE or CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a 
light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Cassar, about a. d. 7. Aure- 
lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, 
about a. d. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chario* 

CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 
2234 b. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 
331 b. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- 
thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed 
from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. 

CHAMP DE MARS, an open square space in front of the Military School at 
Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to 
the rver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here 
was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous " federation, " or solemnity of 
swearing fidelity to the "patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- 
ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by 
the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- 
nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held 
here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the 
country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced 
abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under 
the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ ale Mai. 

CHAMPION of ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- 
tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion 
still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one 
that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary 
in the Dymocke family. 

CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, or ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks 
after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the 
office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards 
bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who 



CHA j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



301 



was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own 
judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office waa 
more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very 
ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588, 
In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission : but it 
was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancellor 
was permanently held. 



LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, I 

{From the time of Cardinal Wolsey.) 
1515 Cardinal Wolsey. 
1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). 

1533 Sir Thomas Audley. 

1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 
1545 Lord Wriothesiey. 
1547 Lord St. John. 

1547 Lord Rich. 

1551 Bishop of Ely again. 

1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Lord Keeper. 

1653 Bishop of Winchester. 

1555 Archbishop of York. 

1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 

1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 

1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. 

1592 Sir John Packering. 

1596 Sir Thomas Egerton. 

1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord 

Verulam. 
1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 

1639 Sir John Finch. 

1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord 

Littleton. 
1645 Sir Richard Lane. 
1648 In commission. 
1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 
1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 

Clarendon. 
1667 Sir Orlando Bridseman, L. K. 

1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 

1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of 

Nottingham. 
1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 
1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 
1690 In commission. 
1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- 

son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. 



1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lorS 

Somers. 
1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 
1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 
1710 In commission. 

1713 Lord Harcourt. 

1714 Lord Cowper again. 
1718 In commission. 

1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of 

Macclesfield. 
1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord 

King. 
1733 Lord Talbot. 
1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 
1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord 

Henley, and earl of Northington. 
1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 
1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next 

day. 

1770 In commission. 

1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- 

ed as earl Bathurst. 
1778 Lord Thurlow. 
1783 Lord Loughborough and others 

(in commission) - - April 9 

1783 Lord Thurlow again - - Dec. 23 

1792 In commission. 

1793 Lord Loughborough again. 

1801 Lord Eldon. - - April 14 

1806 Lord Erskine. - - Feb. 7 

1807 Lord Eldon again. - March 25 
i 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. - - April 20 

1830 Lord Brougham. - Nov. 22 

1834 Lord Lyndhurst again - Nov. 14 
j 1835 In commission. 
1836 Lord Cottenham. - - Jan. 16 

1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - Aug. 31 
1846 Lord Cottenham again - July 6 



CHANCELLOR op IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by 
Richard I. a.d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The 
office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- 
ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, 
being so named, 1232. 

CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned 
a. d. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes 
assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the 
nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for 
keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, 
afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the 
office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. 

CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a 
better footing by William I., in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in 
the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other 
courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to ot 
against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 



302 the world's PROGRESS. [ CHI. 

women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches 
of trust and confidence, for which there is no ledress at common law, are 
relievable here. — Blackstone. 

EPFECT8 OP SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS. 

1770 - Amount lodged - £5,300,000 I 1810 - Amount lodged - £20,212,000 

1780 - ditto - - 7,741,000 1820 - ditto - - 34,208.785 

1790 - - ditto • 13,338,000 1830 - - ditto - 38,886,1,35 

1800 - ditto - . 19,834,000 | 1840 - ditto • - 39.772746 

There are ahout 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number 
of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari 
Returns. i 

CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the 
souls of the donors. — Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement ol 
the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chants 
ers. — See Chanting. 

CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of 
inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of 
the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power 
of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom 
the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely 
drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. o. 
See Geology. 

CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses 
to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot 
racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian 
officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in 
the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Caesar relates that Cassi- 
belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 
war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our 
phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, <f-c. 

CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevolence. In England there are tens 
of thousands of charitable foundations ; and the charity commission reported 
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to 
£1.500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted 
in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic 
seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. 

CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French 
refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- 
scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 
1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until May follow- 
ing. Population in 1790, 16,359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820, 24,780 ; in 1830, 
30,289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 
slaves. 

CHARTERS of RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of 
England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry I. 
a. d. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known as Magna Chaita. 
or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, Jime 15, 1215! 
The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified 
by Henry III. in 1224, el seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of 
frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. 

CHARTERS to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 
1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles II. 



CHE J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 30t 



1684; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in arv 
oak to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of 
charter governments in America, 1688. 

CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient 
chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating 
to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry 
III., about 1243. 

CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so 
called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the 
law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. 
Proclamation against tunmltuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. 
Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate . 
defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- 
ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near 
London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in 
Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are; 1. Uni- 
versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual 
parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. 

CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- 
tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respect- 
ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is takea 
as a plane, was drawn, 1556. 

CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another 
whirlpool called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- 
ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation 
of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- 
ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the 
ancients. The words Incidit in ScyUam qui viilt vitaie Charybdim, became a 
proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. 

CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from, the pa- 
gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in 
churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory 
the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church 
song. — Dufresrioy. 

CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- 
sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted 
against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning 
at any time more than 10Z., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, 
and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- 
stone's Comm. 

CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the 
process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts 
with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. 
Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu- 
ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- 
don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyere of Switz- 
erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, 
a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons. 

CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish 
Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, 
and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- 
tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine \ 



304 the world's progress. [ ch1 

and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an 
early acquaintance with chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo- 
sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c. 
The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, 
who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the 
production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with 
Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, 
and other distinguished men. 

CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 
s. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia ; the finest plums from 
Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons 
from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree 
was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were 
brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an 
orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year £1000, a. d. 1540. See 
Gardening. 

CHESAPEAKE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bay of that name, between 
the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the 
naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 
1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet 
in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British 
frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1813. 

CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c. ; and ac- 
cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and 
Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that 
the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-playor 
was exhibited in England in 1769. 

CHEVALIER D : EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in 
a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial 
had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be 
a woman, July 1, 1777- He subsequently wore female attire for many years; 
yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of 
his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — 
Bio. Die. 

CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos- 
ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on 
highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases 
they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom 
which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to 
the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — 
Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury 
with her, in the same grave, such of her children as were unable, from their 
tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- 
perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infanta 
to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to 
prevent them from immediately drowning. 

CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. n. 
1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span- 
iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected ior them gold and 
silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to ths subsequent 
cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, 
in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, aid with various 
success, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by Si>.n Martin cvei 



*HI ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 



305 



the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- 
pressors, and declared independent. 
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain 
of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- 
hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members 
of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an 
office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again 
returner! by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. 

CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- 
neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when 
they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the 
stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of 
stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among 
them ; but this is disputed. 

CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed 
many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- 
ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By 
others it is said to have been founded by Fohi. supposed to be the Noah of 
the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the 
sun, moon, and planets, and were ncute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, 
which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards 
the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes 
more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, 
the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the 
coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. 



The Chinese state their first cycle to 
have commenced - - b. c 2700 

The first of the 22 Chinese dynasties 
commenced .... 2207 



In the history of China, the first dates 

which are fixed to his narrative, by 

Se-ma-tsien, begin 
Confucius, the father of the Chinese 

philosophers, born 
Stupendous wall of China completed 
The dynasty of Han - 
Literature and the art of printing encou 

raged - 
Religion of Ta '-tse commenced 
Religion of the followers of Fo, com 

menced about 
Embassy from Rome 
Nankin becomes the capital 
The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin 

flourishes 
The Nestorian Christians permitted to 

preach their doctrines 
They are proscribed, and extirpated 
The seat of the imperial government is 

transferred to Pekin 
Wonderful canal, called the Yu Ho 

completed about 
Eur 2~eans first arrive at Canton 
Macao is granted as a settlement to the 

Portuguese 
Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope 

from Rome .... 
The country is conquered by the East 

em Tartars, who establish the pre 

sent reigning house 
An earthquake throti shout China buries 

300,00 persons at Pekin alone - 1662 



651 

551 
211 

206 

202 
15 

60 
166 
420 

449 

635 

845 

1260 

1400 
1517 

1536 

1575 



1C44 



Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- 
blish Christianity - - - - 1692 

The Jesuits are expelled through their 
own misconduct - - - 1724 

ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. 

Earl Macartney's embassy; he leaves 
England - - Sept. 26, 1792 

He is ordered to depart from Pekin, 

Oct. 7, 1793 

Edict against Christianity - - 1812 

Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves 
England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 

[His lordship failed in the objects of 
his mission, having refused to make 
the prostration of the kou-tou, lest he 
should thereby compromise the ma- 
jesty of England.] 

The exclusive rights of the East India 
Company cease - April 22, 1834 

Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- 
intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 

Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, 

Nov. 7, 1834 

Commissioner Lin issues an edict for 
the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 

British and other residents forbidden to 
leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 

The factories surrounded, and outrages 
committed - - March 24, 1839 

The opium destroyed during several 
days by the Chinese - June 3, 1S39 

The British trade with China ceases, by 
an edict of the emperor, and the last 
servant of the company leaves the 
country this day - - Dec. 6, 1331 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all 
trade and intercourse with England 
for ever - - - Jao. 5, 154* 



306 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[cia 



CHINA, continued. 



Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 
15 sail and several war steamers, hav- 
ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders 
from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 

Seizure of Capt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 

Lin deprived of his authority, and 
finally degraded; Keshin appointed 
imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 

Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the 
Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 

Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great 
Britain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to 
be paid within ten days to the British 
authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841 

Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the 
conditions of the treaty made by Ke- 
shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 

Hostilities are in consequence resumed 
against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 

Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 

Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
50,000 dollars to be given for ring- 
leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 

Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- 
mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 
guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 

Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of 
the army - - March 2, 1841 

Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 
guns captured - - May 25, 1841 

The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 
of which 5,000,000 are paid down, 
and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 

British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 

Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Pottin- 
ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- 
claims the objects of his mission ; 
Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10. 1841 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and 
destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 

The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 

The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 guns 
captured, and the island of Chusan 
re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 

Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many 
of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 



Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, 
on board the Corniced- s by sir Henry 
Pottinger for Englanc, and Keying 
Elepoo and Neu-Kien on tht part of 
the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1842 

CONDITIONS OP THE TREATY. 

Lasting peace and friendship between 
the two empires. 

China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part 
forthwith and the remainder within 
three years. 

The ports of Canton. Amoy, Foo-choo- 
foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be 
thrown open to the British. 

Consuls to reside at these cities. 

Tariffs of import and export to be esta- 
blished, <fcc. &c. 

The emperor signifies his assent to the 
conditions - - Sept. 8, 1842 

Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger 
as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 184* 

Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar 
and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar- 
tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 

Treaty between China and the Uni- 
ted States negotiated by Caleb 
Cushing, American Commis- 
sioner - - July 3, 1844 

ratified at Washington 

Jan. 16, 1845 

Alexander H. Everett appointed 
commissioner to China from the 
United States - - - 1845 

John W. Davis appointed commis- 
sioner from the United States - 1847 

CHINESE EMPERORS. 

The following is a list of those who have 
reigned for the last two centuries : — 

Chwang-lei 1627 

Shun-che ..... 1644 

Kang-he 1669 

Yung-ching .... 1693 
Keen-lung - - - - - 1738 

Kea-ding 1796 

Taou-kwang- - - - - 182] 

Sze-Hing, present emperor • - 1850 



The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic 
information respecting this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- 
vinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole country is 
given at 333 000,000; its annual revenues at £66,000,000; and the army, in- 
cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry ; the religion 
is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci- 
ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and 
influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middls 
Kingdom." , 
SHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; 
it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain 
was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at 
Bow in 1758 ; in various other parts of England, about 1760 ; and by the 
ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, 
in Staffordshire, 1762 etseq. 

CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological, 
Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- 
dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events 



CHO] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 307 



said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, 
more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of 
course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their 
empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. 

CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were ie- 
feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- 
tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the 
latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. 

CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif- 
teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of 
most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties 
of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- 
self to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to 
practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous 
adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the 
feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. 

CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, 
that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of 
James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court 
of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter 
and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are 
found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by 
the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account 
of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into 
the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds ;" p. 53. "William 
de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the wife of 
Geoffrey de Faucre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in 
custody until he is of age to become a knight ; he paid into the exchequer 
ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. 

CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It 
is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used 
in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish- 
ment, Vbm.— Tatler. 

CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time 
of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- 
bury, a. d. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. 
— See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient 
chorus. — Warburton. 

CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form 
as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries 
of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where 
alone it had carried off more than P.00,000 persons in its progress within two 
years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. 
Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform 
quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- 
burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London, 
February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3. same year. The mortality Avas very 
great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 
18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this 
continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832 ; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- 
lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It 
again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- 
don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- 
peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 



308 the world's PROGRESS. [ CH* 

May,, and continued more or less in various parts of the United States 
until November of that year. 

CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer 
of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- 
siah in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom 
they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This 
appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Saviour), the name of 
the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, 
the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on 
the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before 
the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first 
Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity 
of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred 
and ninety-nine bishops against eig-hteen. 

CHRISTIAN. This name was first givon to the believers and followers of 
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Ad: xi. 26, in the year 38, accord- 
ing to Butler ; in the year 40, according to Tacitus ; and according to other 
authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, 
presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistoi, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who 
were to be exorcised. 

CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it 
dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th 
Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian 
period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very 
generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era 
a. d. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516. 

CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was 
given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a 
distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions 
obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons 
were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign. — Henanlt ; Fleunj. 

CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of 
the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first 
taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success 
in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- 
tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in 
England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time 
it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into 
Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. 
Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 
201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. 



Constantine the Great made his solemn 

declaration of the Christian religion a. d. 312 
Christianity was established in France 

under Clovis the Great - - 496 

In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643 
In Flanders in the seventh century. 
In Denmark, under Harold - - 827 

In Bohemia, under Borzivoi - • S94 

In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 

In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - - 992 
In Hungary, under Geisa • - 994 

In Norway and Iceland, undei. Olaf I. - 1000 



In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries.; 

In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights, 
when they were returning from the 
holy wars - - - A. d. 1227 

In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- 
lished, about .... 1386 

In China, where it made some progress 
(but was afterwards extirpated, and 
thousands of Chinese Christians were 
put to death) .... 1575 

In Greece, where it was once more re- 
established .... 1628 



* It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one 
day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who 
were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he, is 
gaid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed Angeli,forent, si essent Chris- icmi.'' 



OHU] 



DICTIONARY DF DATES. 309 



Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola, 
and Congo, in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some 
progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the 
world. 

CHRISTMAS-DAT. A festival of the church, universally observed in com 
memoi ation of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ. 
mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to 
express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a 
festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be 
performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* 
In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany (which see} were 
deemed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally 
keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hdly and misletoe used 
at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so 
with many other like customs. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, 
Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all 
well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally 
priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. 
— Phillips. 

CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- 
tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the 
Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- 
dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived 
at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is 
the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the 
first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the different eras through the 
volume. 

*VHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first 
century ; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See 
Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of 
an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be- 
lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral 
at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- 
tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- 
light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early 
churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 
1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of 
Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- 
don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- 
yards were permitted in cities in 742. 

CHURCH op ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, 
and was formall) established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church 
consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of 
Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- 
drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor 
canons, and priest vicars ; the^e, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, 

that is, "they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time lie wag 
struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named 
Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the 
year 596. — Goldsmith. 

"Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the 
Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered ihe 
doors to be shut, and the church to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in the buming pile. 
This was the commencemt it of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303. 



310 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CIN 

and chcipelries, ma ke the number of preferments of the established church, 
according to the last official returns, 12,827. The number of churches foi 
Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. 

CHURCH op IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the 
United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- 
ralities Act of "William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and 
eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that act 
providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord ■ 
ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- 
estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other 
houses of prayer. See Bishops. 

CHURCH of SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its 
distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuiary of 
faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It 
was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by 
an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the 
treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- 
pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- 
oprics, which were then dissolved; but there are now six bishops. The 
Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the 
Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. 

CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the 
Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- 
terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century 
Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting. 

CHURCH- WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first 
canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also 
appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti- 
tuted. — Johnson's Canons. 

CHURCHING op WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, 
a. d. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any 
signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley. 
It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days 
after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the 
expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a 
young pigeon or turtle, and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. 
See Purification. 

CIDER. Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine, 
about a. d. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, 
he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that coim- 
try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in 
England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — 
Butler. 

CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus 
Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of 
the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans are slain. 105 b. c. The Teutones are de- 
feated by Marius in two battles at Aqua? Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are 
killed, and 70.000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by 
Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120.000 
are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk 
in that of the Teutones or Saxons. 

CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the 
United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and 



etR. j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 

New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,540 ; in 1820 
9,642 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338. 

CINCINNATI, Society op. Established by the officers of the American army, 
in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- 
ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- 
ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed 
away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. 

CIRC ASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- 
ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated ""imur ; but in the six- 
teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the 
Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little 
Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic ia 
the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, 
and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the 
merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener- 
ally Jews. — Klaproth's Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened 
by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had 
little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed.— Fergu- 
son's Biog. 

CIRCULATION op the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- 
firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician 
and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- 
covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit 
of mankind. — FVeind's Hist, of Physic. 

CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant 
made by God with Abraham.— Josephus. Even to the present day many of 
the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to 
salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary 
by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious 
rite.— Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave 
of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted 
by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to 
which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity; it was introduced 
into the Liturgy in 1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- 
terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was 
first attempted, a. d. 1519 * The following are the most renowned of this 
illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed 
to their names. See Navigators. 



Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who 

entered the Pacific ocean - A. d. 1519 

Groalva, a Spanish navigator - - 1537 

Avalradi, a Spaniard - - • 1537 

Mendana, a Spaniard - - - 1567 

Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 

Cavendish, his first voyage - . 1586 

Le Maire, a Dutchman - - - 1615 

Quiros, a Spaniard - - - 1625 
Tasman. Dutch .... 1642 

Cowley,' British - - - - 1683 

Dampier, an Englishman • - 1689 

Cooke, an Englishman - - - 1708 



Clipperton, British - - A. d. 1719 

Roggewein, Dutch - - 1721 

Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740 

Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764 

Wallis, British - - - - 1766 

Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 

Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768 

On the death of Captain Cook, his last 

voyage was continued by King - 1779 

Bougainville, French - - - 1776 

Portlocke, British - - - 1788 

Wilkes, American - - - - 1837 

D'Urville, French - 1837 



'The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was 
Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a 
westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- 
pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was killed or his homeward passage, a! 
•he Philippines, in 1521. — Butler. 



312 the world's progress. ["cit 

Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, by 
the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else- 
where. 

CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; 
the largest of them was called the Circus Mazimus, which vas built by the 
elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia 
and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman 
feet. This circus was enlarged by Cajsar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and 
was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and 
Julius Csesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could 
be covered with an infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. — 
Pliny. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- 
knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of 
Campo Formio {which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution 
in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- 
leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- 
roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. 

CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh 
century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe 
in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- 
stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most 
austere. — De Vitri. 

CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at 
which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland 
is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in 
the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- 
tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, 
manners, and arts. — Robertson. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England 
a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade 
therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as 
freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- 
zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, 
with the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder- 
men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stowe. The title of 
citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, e.t seq. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French 
June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained 
in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded 
by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon 
Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from 
the position. 

CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body 
of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first 
collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and 
a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The 
Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and the 
Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the 
emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian 
code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil 
law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Blair. Civil law was intro- 
duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards 



CLE] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 313 

archbishop of Canterbury, in 1188. It is now used in the spiritual courts 
only, and in maritime affairs. See Laws. 

CIVIL LIST in ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the 
kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The 
entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600.000/. and that of Charles I. 
was but 800,000/. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on 
the new king and queen of 700.000/., iho parliament taking into its own 
hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list 
of George II. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th 
year of his reign, was 1,030,000/. By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil 
list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000/. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec, 
1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000/. ; and Prince Albert 
obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30.000/. per aim. 4 Victoria, 
1840. 

CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same 
name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laws. They may be 
said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. 
Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- 
land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty 
of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746. — Ruff head. 
The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's 
feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — 
Chambers. 

CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament 
held at Clai'endon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous 
power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of 
Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up 
under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted 
without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to 
prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical 
affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, 
threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume. 

CLARION. This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 
800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their 
tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the 
common trumpet. — Pardon. 

CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servius in making divisions of 
the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of 
eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 
573 b. c. 

CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- 
tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he 
succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Nicerdn. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor. — 
Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
years, then merged into a common monk. 

CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted 
for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the 
others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of 
Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various 
interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts 
of France. Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 
14 



314 the world's progress. I CLC 

England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the 
death of Gregory XL 1378. — Hume. 

CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of 
presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher 
functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites : 
this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under 
Constantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- 
lar power. 

CLERGY in England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh 
century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness waa 
forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fruits 
of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler- 
gy were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tho 
Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conference. Two 
thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, rathei than 
subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- 
nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The 
Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had 
been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under iiames II., 1689. 
The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. 

CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen 
after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the officers being cler- 
gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- 
stone's Comm. 

CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 
158 b. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- 
bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Csesar on invading Britain, 
55 b. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope 
Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, 
invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, 
was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century. 

The scapement, ascribed to Gerbert, a. d. 1000 i den) and the younger Galileo con- 

A clock constructed by Richard, abbot strutted the pendulum - a. d. 1641 

of St. Alban's, about - - - 1326 Christian Huygens contested this disco- 

A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 I very, and made his pendulum clock 

A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 | some time previously to - - 1658 

The first portable one made - - 1530 | Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the 

In England no clock went accurately pendulum, about - . - 1659 

before that set up at Hampton-court Repeating clocks and watches invented 

(maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1540 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 

Richard Harris (who erected a clock in I The dead beat, and horizontal escape- 

the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- I ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 

The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and 
the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; 
the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, 
Arnold, Earnshaw and others. 

CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. 

CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse 
woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of 
cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s in- 
vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer's Faz- 
dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- 
factured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 
1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one" Brewer, from the Low Coun- 
tries, 1667. The maiufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen 



30A J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 315 



countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. See 
Woollen Cloth. 

^LOVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- 
narchy was Clovis L, who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike 
prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and pub- 
lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, 
he exclaimed, "0, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would 
have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, 
and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed 
the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of 
his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henault. 

COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- 
temporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which 
belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but 
without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account 
of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France 
travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode 
behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of 
Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — 
Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of 
Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making 
them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. , A bill was brought into parliament 
to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. 
See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 

COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the 
French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out 
of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They 
were entered into as follows : 



1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- 
nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 

2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 
sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, 
signed - - - June 22, 1799 

3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 

and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 



4th. By Great Britain. Russia, Prussia, 

and Saxony ' - - Oct. 6, 1306 

5th. By England and Austria - April 6, 1809 
6th. By Russia ar.ri Prussia ; the treaty 

ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 
See Treaties. 



TOALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated min- 
istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an 
extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- 
like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards 
the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, 
same year. See Administrations. 

C( )ALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they 
are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use 
by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro- 
hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human 
health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coals 
were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard H. 
1381. — Rymer's Fozdera. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints 



* In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned evei 
nnce. the Gunpowder Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn aboul 
with six horses in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that mannel 
PMsca tiom the tower through the city. — Rapin. 



316 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ CO* 

against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lou- 
don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign 
of Charles I., 1625. 

NUMBER OF CHALDRONS OF COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS: 

1650 - - 160,000 chald. I 1800 - - 814,000 chald. I 1830 - - 1,588,360 chald. 

1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 1S35 - 2,299,816 tons. 

1750 - - 510,000 ditto. | 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. | 1810 - - 2,638,256 ditto. 

The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in 
extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are 
also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. 
The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, 
supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there are 
now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips. 
Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries 
there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- 
kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from 
Newry, in 1742. — Bums. 

COALS in the United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- 
nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in 
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c, extend 700 miles. 

COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen ; they held, 
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, 
after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian 
faith, 1665. 

COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards 
soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in 
Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. 
The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 
1,081,776, in 1845. 

COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. 
It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and 
was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the 
reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and 
again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was 
a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- 
couraged by the law. 

COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition ("?) practised upon the credulous 
multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance 
was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she 
was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was 
carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London; but 
it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory 
and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 

COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1500. 
The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need 
of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, 
clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, 
cordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. 

CODES of LAWS. The laws of Phoronsus were instituted 1807 e. c. : those 
of Lycurgus. 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus 
Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- 
vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian 
and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 
435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529 — a digest from 



OOIj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 317 

this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation 
of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws. 

CODICILS to WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the 
first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, 
about 31 b. c. 

CCEUIi de LION, or the Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan- 
tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. 
This surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized 
himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This 
latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given Mm. 

COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a 
beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia 
Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, 
in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. 
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which 
country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- 
fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who 
made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson. 

COFFEE and TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods 
is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac, 1848) 
thus : — 



1821 


- Tea, 4,586,223 lbs. 


• Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 


1830 - 


" 6,873,091 lbs. - 


" 38.363.687 lbs 


18S5 


- " 12,331,638 lbs. 


" 91,753;002 lbs. 


1S42 ■ 


" 13,482,645 lbs. - 


" 107,387,567 lbs. 


1846 


- " 16,S91,020 lbs. 


" 124,336,054 lbs. 



COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, 
in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first 
house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom- 
bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the 
first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near 
Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. 
Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles II., 1675. The 
proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea 
and coffee. 

COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616 ; 
and wore carried to the West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at 
Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the 
plantations about 1732. 

COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree; ow- 
ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydides. Coffins of 
marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been 
buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. 
The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of 
king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542. 
— Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of 
coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money 

* Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- 
formed by a goat herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then 
wake at night, at d sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to proie its virtues. He ac 
cordingly tried it on his monks, to prevent their sleeping .at matins, and he found that it checked 
their slumbers. 



318 THE woi ud's progress. [ col 

Was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 
b. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 b. c. 
The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but 
others are bel''.eved to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that 
little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver 
were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used 
in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresnoy. Julius Caesar was the 
first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait 
on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more 
simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon 
their money : the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- 
ceived divine honors. 

COIN in ENGLAND. The fiist coinage in England was under the Romans at 
Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as 
square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was 
used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a. d. 1351. Coin was 
made sterling in 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stowe 



The first gold coins on certain record, 
struck, 42 Henry HI. - a. d. 1257 

Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. {Cam- 
den) 1337 

First large copper coinage, putting an 



end to the circulation of private lead- 
en pieces, &c. .... 1620 
Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665 

Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 
Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 

Half-farthings - - - - 1843 

Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles 
followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee: after- 
wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size ■ 
but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed fo> 
more. SeeGuineas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826 
See Gold. 

MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. 

■ £3,740,000 i George III. and regency, 

- 10,511,900 gold - - .£74,501,58& 

- 2,691,626 George IV. - -41,782,813 

- 8,725,920 William IV. - - 10,827,603 

- 11,966,576 | Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.S14 

The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was 
estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- 
ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. 
— Phillips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic 
currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of 
coin, 1830. — Duke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching 
forty-five millions. See Gold. 

COIN of the U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from 
that time to 1836 was thus : — 

Pieces. Value. 

Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035 

Silver - - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 

Copper - - 77,752,965 . 740,331 



Elizabeth - 


- £5,832,000 


James II. 


James I. 


- 2,500,000 


William HI. - 


Charles I. - 


- - 10,500.000 


Anne 


Cromwell 


- 1,000.1)00 


George I. 


Charles II. 


- - 7,524,100 


George II. 



Total - 197.891,502 . . $69,581,549 

1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - • $81,436,155 

Total ir, 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 
The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eagles, quarter 
eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- 
posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 
ounces, Dec. 8. 1848. 



COIiJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 319 

COINING, lliis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed 
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill wai 
invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- 
gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements 
of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 178b, and subsequently. 
The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery 
at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. 

COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- 
tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, 
the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 
1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and 
in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- 
est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 
16° below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See 
Frosts, Ice. 

COLISiEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in 
the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 
72. The splendid Colisasum of London, and one of its most worthy objects 
of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. 

COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which 
were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- 
ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said 
to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but sonle 
authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date 
is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at 
Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first 
doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. 



Cheshunt College founded 


• A.D 


1792 


Mareschal College, Aberdeen - 


a- d. 1593 


Doctor's Commons, civil law - 


1670 


Maynooth College 


-1795 


Durham University- 


■ 


* * 


Physicians, London - 


- - 1518 


Edinburgh University - 




1580 


Sion College 


-1329 


Eton College - 


■ 


1441 


Sion College, re-founded 


- - 1630 


Glasgow University- 




1451 


Surgeons, London 


-1745 


Harrow 


■ 


1585 


Trinity College, Dublin 


- - 1591 


Highbury College 




1826 


University, London 


• 1826 


King's College, Aberdeen - 


- 


■ 1494 


Winchester College - 


- -1387 


King's College, London - 




• 1829 






COLLEGES in the United 


States. 


Th( 


; first established was Harvard, at 



Cambridge, Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- 
portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William 
and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, 
College of New Jersey, Princeton, 1746. Fifth. Columbia, New- York, 1754. 
Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh, Brown 
University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. 
Ninth, Rutgers, New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the 
Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 
1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 
1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 
12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard 
College opened Jan. 1, 1848. 

COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled 
from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into 
ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In 
the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of 
St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- 
gins said to have been put to death along with her. 

COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 



Battle of Carabobo, the Royalists wholly 

overthrown - - June 24, 1821 

Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- 
gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1824 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 

formed - - - June 30, 1824 

Alliance with Guatimala - March 1625 
Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- 
sident of the republic - Aug. 1326 
Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 1826 
He assumes the dictatorship • Nov. 23, 1826 
Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1823 
Conspiracy of Santander against the 

life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 182S 

Bolivar resigns his office of president of , 

the republic - - April 11, 1825 

He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 



320 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ COL 

declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; hut its several chiefs 
have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prej 
to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. 
New Grenada, discovered by Colum- 
bus - - - a. d. 1497 
Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 
1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, 

under a captain-general - - 1547 

The history of those provinces under 
the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- 
niards, presents but one continuous 
scene of rapine and blood. 

Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 

Independence formally declared - - 1811 

Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 

Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 

Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of 
Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 

Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- 
nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840 

COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it 
is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by 
Thrasymachus about 373 b. c. — Stddas. It was known to Aristotle. Our 
punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. 
The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the 
sixteenth century. 
COLONIES of GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. 
The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, 
amounts to about 2 500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- 
tion, were 770.280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van 
Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not beeu 
ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British 
colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) 
was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Angust 1, 
1834. 
COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free 
people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- 
ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- 
cated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the 
legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod 
Washington ; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry 
Clay Liberia purchased 1821. 
COLOSSUS of RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, 
erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens 
on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg 
being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could 
enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be 
discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. 
The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been 
repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in 
transporting it to Alexandria — Vu Fresnoy. 
COLUMBIA, District cf. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- 
ginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown 



COM J D 2TIONARY OF DATES 321 

and Alexandria ; but in 1813 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- 
tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43.712, including 8.361 free colored persons, 
and 4,694 slaves. 
COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and 
Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed 
the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, 
for which they were rewarded with a basket of tigs and a cask of wine. — 
Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 
434 b. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies arc 
extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statius Cajcilius wrote upwards of 30 come- 
dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Laslius and Terence 
were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- 
land about a. d. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy 
(the Sr.li.ool for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best after- 
piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. 
COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by 
Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets 
appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- 
dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or 
the fourth part of the heavens. 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was 
seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were first 
rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577- A comet, which terri- 
fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 
3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, 
by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared 
in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. 
Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. 
COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account 
of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of 
the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 
Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- 
dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. 
Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage 
was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. 
COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly 
named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting 
its orbit, motions, and perturbations ;. it is, like the preceding, one of the 
three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 
COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest 
astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of 
the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same todies, 
and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet 
of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of 
the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to 
the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. 
— Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
about seventy-six years ■ it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on 
March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. 
COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in 
the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- 
eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241. — See Han se Toicns. The discoveries of 
Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 
14* 



322 THE WORLD S I'UUUKbfcft. L COM 

I 

sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage 
extensively in its pursuit.— See the various articles connected with this subject. 

COMMERCE. See Navigation. 

COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783. 

COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- 
land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward 
I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. — 
Anderson. See Treaties. 
COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208 | 
The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella- 
tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. 
COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has 
given the force of law, or rules generally received and heU as law, called 
lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law 
derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), a. d. 890. 
The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See 
Custom. Laws. 
COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of 
parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- 
liament, and the Directory (which see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- 
clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. 
COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of 
Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet 
the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen 
his own -power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was 
the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons 
were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. 
— Goldsmith. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament 
formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265 ; and 
writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the 
first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The 
first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260; he was 
killed at the battle of Efesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent 
members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was 
not represented in that assembly, until the latter end of Henry VIII's life. 
or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following 
is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the 
Reform Bills (which see,) in 1832 : — 

English and Welsh - 500 

Scotch. — County members • 30 

Cities and Boroughs - 23 — 53 

Irish. — County members - - 64 

University - - - - 2 

Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105 



English. — County members - 144 

Universities - - • 4 

Cities and boroughs - - 323—471 

Welsh. — County members - - 15 

Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 



English and Welsh - 500 

Total (see Parliament) - 658 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the 
decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the 
government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 
1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- 
well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person 
of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. 

COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown- 
ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the govern- 



CON J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 323 

merit of kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh 
and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome 
advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy 
received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- 
ria. Egypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- 
dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the 
Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; 
Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, 
in the Avest. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- 
til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement 
of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. 

COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in 
the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is 
said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth 
Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at 
least at Easter, 1215. The communion seiwice, as now observed in the 
church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. 

COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be 
named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company 
was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was 
the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Tlure are 
ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 



1 Mercers 


- a. d. 1393 


7 Merchant Tailors - 


A. D. 1466 


2 Grocers - 


- 1345 


8 Haberdashers 


- 1447 


3 Drapers 


- 1439 


9 Salters 


- - 1558 


4 Fishmongers 


- - 1384 


10 Ironmongers - 


-1484 


5 Goldsmiths 


- 1327 


11 Vintners - - ' 


i ■ - 1437 


6 Skinners - 


- - 1327 


12 Clothworkers - 


-1482 



COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have 
been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, 
was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, 
in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of 
families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 
1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for 
taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- 
curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were 
totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. 

COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 
1115 b. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- 
moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or 
water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the 
invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 
1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of 
Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a 
couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja in- 
troduced the suspension of the needle as Ave have it now, 1302. Its A'ariation 
was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- 
pass used by navigators were invented by William BarloAve, an English di- 
vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass 
was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. 

CONCEPTION op the VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in 
honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or 
without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of 
Dec. by the church, in 1389. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established 
1488. 



324 the world's PROGRESS. [ CON 

CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, a 
1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and 
talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- 
ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and 
frequent. 

CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aiistotle and 
ipliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It 
was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published 
nis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 
1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. 

CONCLAVE for the ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small 
cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the 
cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used 
for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a 
pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at 
Yiterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the 
choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the 
magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the 
gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till 
they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while 
they elect a pope. 

CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all 
the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- 
tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made 
under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 
monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abbb Lenglet. 

CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a 
prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat 
between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul 
was made, in effect, the head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics 
were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 
1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff was sign- 
ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. 

CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d. 
1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, 
both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very 
different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is 
formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and called, half-marriage, 
is still in use in some parts of Germany. 

CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this 
memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- 
tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the 
people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. See 

Champ de Mars, Bastile. 

CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- 
ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, 
the minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258.000 troops to 
serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 
See Germanic Confederation. 

CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court 
palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting 
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2 
James I. 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which 



CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 325 

was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the 
United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy 
were agreed upon, hut this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was 
done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same 
view was held in 1661. 

CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted 
about a. d. .1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, 
in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- 
nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done 
with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved ia 
heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, 
by the. council; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the church 
of England. — Burnet. 

TONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch; it was 
used by Peter and Paul; and was general, according to some church au- 
thorities, in a. d. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion 
by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the 
church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into 
a sacrament by the church of Rome. 

CONGE D'ELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- 
ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the 
interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had 
an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were 
elected by the king'si Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- 
ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held 
during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable 
congresses of Europe : — 

Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad - Aug. 1, 1819 

Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 

Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 

Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 

Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 

CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates 
from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. 
Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765 -Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Continental Congress 
met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774 : again May 10, 1775 : adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 
1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. 
Sep. 27, 1777 ; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778 ; at Prince- 
ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; 
at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until 
the adoption of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- 
ington, 1800. 

CONVENTION, The, for forming he Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. 
May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. 

CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. 
They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, 
when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they 
were employed in various operations in the late war with much succegs, dis- 
charged by a corps called rocket-men. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known 
to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of 
them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise 
was written by Aristteus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were 



Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 

Congress of Laybach - May 6, 1821 

Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 

See Alliances, Conventions, fyc. 



J26 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[cos 



written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo j 
the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. 

CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by 
various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force agamst 
them in England in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration >vas 
felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 
1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- 
meanor. — English Statutes, 

CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by 
a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the 
Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently 
hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New 
Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- 
ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, 
near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in 
the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c, burnt by 
the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, 
adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- 
ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237.946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 
309,978. 

CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke 
of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the 
crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the 
Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been 
erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded .to the crown of England 
by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated 
his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against 
him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- 
toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- 
merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- 
liam I. — Selden. 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the 
Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic 
and the Caesars : because their names were written in the registers of the 
senate. 

CONSECRATION. Tha/ of churches was instituted in the second century, 
the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a 
patron saint. Tl>? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, is admit- 
ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in 
the latter church in 1549. — Stowe. 

CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with 
the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law 
of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- 
sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called 
the Court of Arches. 

CONSPIRACIES and INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the 
recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- 
able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- 
ties of note : — 



Of Anthony Babington and others, 
against Elizabeth - - a. d. 1586 

T\,a Gunpowder Plot {which see) ■ 1605 

In»urrection of the fifth monarchy men 
against. Charles II. - - - 1660 

O'. Blood and his associates, who seized 



the Duke of Ormond, wounded hiin, 
and would have hanged him ; and 
who afterwards stole The crown - 1671 
The pretended conspiracy of the French, 
Spanish, and English Jesuits to assas- 
sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- 



con] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 



mous Tilus Oates, Dr. Tongue, and 
others .... - 1678 

The Meal- tub plot 1679 

The Rye-house plot to assassinate the 
king on his way to Newmarket. (See 
Rye-house plot) .... 1683 
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against 
Queen Anne. - 1703 



Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- 
turn the government - - - 1802 

Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when 
lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 

Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, 
against Bonaparte - Feb. 15, 1804 

Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the 
king's ministers. (See Cato-street) - 1820 



CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. 

Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the I John Henry's secret mission from the 

United States .... 1807 British government, to undermine 

the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 
CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of divines (!) which con- 
demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to he burnt 
alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, 
on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- 
cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in 
that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, 
he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend 
him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of 
his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and 
treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of 
Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration 
is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. 

CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to 
Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French 
occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French 
and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, 
but the French general, Daremont. was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the 
seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders 
who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. 
Retaken by Michael Palasologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. 
Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Palaeologus, the last 
Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453. The city, taken by as- 
sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing 
the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, 
and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred 
by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- 
or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 
years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe 
See Eastern Empire and Turkey. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. 
It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used 
in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- 
tical year towards the end of March ; the day is not exactly determined. 
To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 
5509 from September to the end. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arctums, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, 
are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained 
in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. 
Ptolemseus, about a. d. 140. 

CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends the 
whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 



328 the world's progress. [con 

it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. 
This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in 
this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought 
to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at 
any particular time. — Lord Bolvngbroke The king of England is not seated 
on a solitary eminence of power; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the 
co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in 
the law. — Sheridan. 
CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- 
gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states 
at different times. See the respective states. 
The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New 
York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced 
an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. 

CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, 
capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- 
riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, 
British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to 
the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important 
naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see 
Naval Battles. 
CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed 
regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius 
Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the 
first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 
9, 1799, when Bonaparte. Cambac^re, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and 
subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- 
mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 
1485. 
CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions 
to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of 
the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that 
in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- 
ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, 
sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,0002. ; and 200,000^ 
were transmitted from India in 1799. 
CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and 
were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from 
the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the 
schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, 
were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. 
CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through 

out the volume. 
CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d, 
270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — 
Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took 
the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. 
Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that 
of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More 
than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The 
emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 
31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all 
the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in 
Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. 



COP } DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 

CONVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany 
Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
Island. Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- 
portation. 

COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the 
Endeavor, on his first voyage. July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- 
ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead. July 13, 1771. Sir 
Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, 
accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to 
explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. la 
his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why- 
hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- 
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 

COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems 
to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were 
incorporated in 1501. 

COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more 
than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, 
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- 
sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, 
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- 
barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their 
engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen 
were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- 
bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- 
ral Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- 
boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- 
posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the 
planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are 
here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to 
have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 
This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be 
regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. 

COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have 
preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
copper, precious as gold.— Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this 
metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, 
soda, &c, will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in 
water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water 
touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The 
mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the 
world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now 
forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty 



* A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan- 
tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit 
of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, 
prepared tor that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed 
in July 176S, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, "doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous 
voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparison of the observa- 
tions made on this transit (June 3. 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed 
by men ot science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the 
distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at 
108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,000.— Butter. 



330 the world's progress. [ COI 

mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wii 
liam III. 
COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used 
rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money ia 
of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into 
use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined, 
by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- 
ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- 
land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- 
menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. 

COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in 
Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- 
vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a 
mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- 
per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. 

COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPYRIGHT on BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber 
regarding it, a. d. 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 
1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the 
consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- 
acted in 1709. ■ Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 George 
III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- 
thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- 
lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 
17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International 
copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- 
facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary 
Property. — Haydn. 

COPYRIGHT in UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary 
property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah 
Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, 
April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 
years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for 
International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. 
Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books 
to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library 
of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. 

COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid 
to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. 

POETRY. 

Byron's Works (in all) - . .£20,00} 

Moore's Lalla Rookh - • - 3,000 

Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000 

Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after 

ten years' publication) - - 1,000 

Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 

FICTION. 

It was estimated that Scott's novels 
produced for copyright at least - 250,000 

Bulwer received lor his novels, each 

1,200 to 1,500 

Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 

Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. 
Johnson for - - - 63 



HISTORY. 

Fragments of English History, by 

C. J. Fox - - - - £5,000 

History of England by Sir J. Mackin- 
tosh ..... 5,000 
Ditto, by Lingard - - - - 4,633 

Life of Napoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 
History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 
1 and remainder, £600 per annum 
for ten years, say - - - 3.000 

Prescott's Historical Works are said to 
have produced to the author (who yet 
owns the copyright) before 1850 - 8100,000 

BIOGRAPHY. 

LifeofWilberforce - - -£4,000 

Life of Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 

Lockhart's Scott (two years' use) - 12,500 
Irving's Columbus (paid by Murray) - 4,000 



Goldsmith received for '' Animated 
Nature" .... 

Noah Webster is said to have derived 
$1000 per annum from his Spelling 
Book. 



COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 331 

CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of 
leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the 
third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed 
and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See 
Hemp. 

CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of 
the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of 
Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. 

CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus 
in 1376 b. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was 
rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- 
braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Aero- 
corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. 
The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the 
Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans, 
Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. 



Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra, 

(Abbe Lenglet) . - B. c. 1520 

Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first 

called by its name - - - 1410 

Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon 

the city (idem) ■ - - - 1375 

The Pythian games instituted, it is said 

by Sisyphus .... 1375 
The reign of Bacchus, whose successors 

are called Bacchidse, in remembrance 



A colony goes to Sicily, and they build 

Syracuse - • b. c. 732 

Sea fight between the Corinthians and 

Coicyreans - - - 664 

Periander rules and encourages genius 

and learning .... 629 
Death of Periander - - - -585 

The Corinthians form a republic • 582 

War with the Corcyreans - . 439 

The Corinthian war (which see) - - 395 



of the equity of his reign - - 935 j Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ■ 242 

The Corinthians invent ships called | The Roman ambassadors first appear 

triremes ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth 



benches of oars - - • 786 

Thelestes deposed, and the government 
of the Prytanes instituted: Auto- 
menes is the first on whom this dig- 
nity is conferred . - - 757 



Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius 
who sends to Italy the first fine paint- 
ings there seen, they being part of the 
spoil (Livy) • - - -146 



CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, 
aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- 
cacy, tenderness, and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it 
is attributed to Callimachus. 540 b. c. 

CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles 
were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 895, by a 
confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against 
the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- 
tra, which see. 

CORN or GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who 
having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — 
Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making 
bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c— 
Univ. 'Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest 
ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. — 
See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century. 
by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first importation 
of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on its 
importation into England, in 1686. 

CORN LAWS in England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'' 
or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its 
importation when corn should be 80s. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- 
scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842 ; act fixing 



332 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f COfl 

tfcs duty on wheat at 45. until Feb. 1849, and after that at Is. per quarter, 
passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the Corn Laws— 
and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- 
fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. 

CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at 
Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was 
introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation 
of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, 
October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the 
crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, 
in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew 
Paris. Rymer. 

CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the 
kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards 
canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that 
now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The fetes 
given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- 
onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of 
former times. 

CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every 
county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward 
I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Mai ■ 
colm II., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of 
illness. Aug. 22, 1843. 

CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish 
the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry 
III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. 
But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of 
the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when 
the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idem. 

CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- 
quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from 
Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- 
arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized 
by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and 
members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in 
law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Cowel. Corporations 
were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- 
ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d. 
1100 ; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them 
to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, 
and conditions. — Blackstone. 

CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cymos. The ancient inhabitants of this 
island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- 
thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 b. c. In modern times, 
Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold 
to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first 
and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in 
the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many years subsisted on the be- 
nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency 



COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 333 

in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hie 
creditors, an I died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel- street, Soho. 
The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet erected near his 
grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street: — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 

The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, 
in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. 
The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 
1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and tie opened a parliament 
in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was "elin- 
quished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared for the 
French. 

CORTES or SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution of 
Spain ; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a 
long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and they settled the new constitution, 
March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states- 
general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- 
ularly convened. 

CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who 
was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. 

COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, 
and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- 
cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- 
ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. 
Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered 
women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as innocent, 
and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint 
more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on 
cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- 
tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take 
out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. 

COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, 
and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a 
plane. — Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the 
earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record 
of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- 
resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geography 
respectively. 

COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia,, 
Tartary, and Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys 
and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- 
phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursions 
of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body 
of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- 
vincibly 

€OSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote 
antiquity The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and 
graceful. The women of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, 
wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, 
and their gam ents. which were always white, were so clear and thin / thai 



334 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ COT 



their todies could be seen through them - Ovid. As relates to costume 
worn on the stage, ^Eschylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who 
erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited 
to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles. 

COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; but 
about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny 
with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- 
ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of 
machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton 
invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- 
ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since 
made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- 
nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that 
more than one thousand millions sterling have be m yielded by it to Great 
Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- 
ed in 1774. — Haydn. 

HISTORY OP COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 

The following brief items of the history of cotton, from 1730 to 1836, are taken from a iSouth 

Carolina paper : — 



1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn 
in England by machinery. 

1735. The Dutch first export cotton from 
Surinam. 

1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 
at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ; 
but not successful in its operations. 

1749. The fly shuttle generally used in 
England. 

1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made 
in England tor the first time. 

1761. Arkwright obtained the first patent 
for the spinning frame, which he further 
improvecf. 

1768. The stocking frame applied by 
Hammond to making of lace. 

1773. A bill passed to prevent the export 
of machinery used in cotton factories. 

1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 

1782. First import of raw cotton from 
Brazil into England. 

1782. Watt took out his patent for the 
steam-engine. 

1783. A bounty granted in England on the 
export of certain cotton goods. 

1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- 
wright — steam engir.es used in cotton fac- 
tories. 

1785. Cotton imported into England from 
the United States. 

1786. Bleaching first performed by the 
agency of the oxymuriatic acid. 

17S7. First machinery to spin cotton put 
in operation in France. 

178V. Sea Island cotton first planted in the 
United States ; and upland cotton first cul- 
tivated for use and export about this time. 

1790 Stator, an Englishman, builds the 
first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, 
Rhode Island. 

1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents 
the cotton gin, which he patents. 

1798. First mill and machinery for cotton 
erected in Switzerland. 

1799. Spinning by machinery introduced 
into Saxony this year. 



1803. First cotton factory built in New 
Hampshire. 

1805. Power-looms successfully and widely 
introduced into England. 

1807. The revolution in Spanish America 
begins to furnish new markets for cotton 
manufactures. 

1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the 
United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another 
by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 

1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa 
tented by John Bum. 

1813. The India trade more free, and more 
British manulactures sent thither. 

1814. The power-loom introduced into the 
United States ; first at Waltham. 

1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — 
higher than since 1810. New method of 
preparing sewing cotton by Mr- Holt. 

1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama 
cotton lands. 

1820. Steam power first applied with suc- 
cess extensively to lace manufactures. 

1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 
1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt 
into Great Britain. 

1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 
25 cents per pound. 

1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented 
in England by Roberts. 

1827. American cotton manufactures first 
exported to any considerable extent. 

1829. Highest duty in the United States on 
foreign cotton manufactures. 

1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced 
a machine from the United States into Eng- 
land for the purpose of making cards. 

1832. Duty on cotton goods imported into 
the United States reduced ; and in England 
it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, 
to work them more than ten hours per day, 
or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; in 
consequence they work at something else. 

1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 

1835. Extensive purchases made of cottoi 
lands by speculators and others. 

1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. 



eou ] 



DICTIONARY 01 DATES. 



335 



COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment 
by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, 
after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans 
during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 18 William 
III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's- 
yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained 
damage by lire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. 

COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to 
whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- 
ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first 
was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were 
admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the 
second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the 
present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king waa 
pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- 
tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right 
to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin 
of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the 
term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- 
endon. — See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c. 

COUNCILS of the CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable 
Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils 
(the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches 
or ecclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1601 councils. 



Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - A. d 
Of the western bishops at Aries, in 

France, to suppress the Donatists ; 

three fathers of the English church 

went over to attend it - 
The first Oecumenical or General Ni- 

cene, held at Nice, Constantine the 

Great presided ; Arius and Eusebius 

condemned for heresy. This council 

composed the Nicene Creed - 
At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- 

sius was canvassed 
The first held at Constantinople, when 

the Avian heresy gained ground 
At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which 

lasted eighteen months 
At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended 
Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and 

Constantine obliged them to sign a 

new confession of faith 
The second General at Constantinople 

350 bishops attended, and pope Da 

masius presided 
The third at Enhesus, wMh pope Ce 

lestine presided 
Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar 

cian and his empress attended 
The fifth at Constantinople, when pope 

Vigilius presided 
The sixth a* Constantinople, when pope 

Agatho presided 
Authority of the six general councils re 

established by Theodosius 
The second Nicene council, seventh Ge 

neral ; 350 bishops attended - 
Of Constantinople, eighth General; the 

emperor Basil attended 
The first Lateran, the ninth General ; 

the right of investitures settled by 

treaty between pope Calixtus II. and 

tbe emoeror Henry V. 



314 



325 



359 



680 



1122 



The second Lateran, tenth General, In- 
nocent II. presided ; the preservation 
of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, 
the principal subject, which occa- 
sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- 
thers of the church - - a. d. 1139 

The third Lateran, eleventh General ; 
held against schismatics - - 1179 

Fouvth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 
bishops and 1000 abbots attended ; 
Innocent III. presided - - - 1215 

Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under 
pope Innocent IV. - - - 1245 

01 Lyons, the fourteenth General, under 
Gregory X. - - - - 1274 

OfVienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth 
General ; Clement V. presided, and 
the kings of France and Arragon at- 
tended. The order of the Knight 
Templars suppressed - - - 1311 

Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre- 
gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, 
and Alexander elected - - 1409 

Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; 
Martin V. is elected pope ; and John 
Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
demned to be burnt - - - 1414 

Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431 

The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- 
ral, begun by Julius II. - - 1512 

Continued under Leo X. for the sup- 
pression of the Pragmatic sanction of 
France, asainst the council of Pisa, 
<fec. till 15V 

Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- 
ral council, styled (Ecumenical, as re- 
garding the affairs of all the Chris- 
tian world ; it was held to condemn 
the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, 
Zuinglius, and Calvin. — Abbe Lenglet 1544 



336 the world's progress. I co\ 

COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly 
of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 
I, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred; the executive was a 
Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. 
Cloud. Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sie"yes, consuls pro- 
■nsoires. — See France. 

COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion 
were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- 
sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William III. 1696. 
Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 
6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. 

COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king 
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The 
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were 
instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- 
liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259.— See 
Commons, and Parliament. 

COURIERS or POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and 
Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does 
not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of 
Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 e. c. Couriers or posts are 
said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. 
The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the 
reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- 
ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 
1463. — Henault. 

COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopa- 
gitce. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 
b. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other 
countries. 

COURT op HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., 
and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to 
prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these 
countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- 
stitutions. 

COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons 
who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby 
mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of 
tl^e king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between 
England and Scotland, was formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by 
parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. 

COVENTRY, PEEPING TOM op. The great show fair of Coventry owes its 
origin to the following tradition : — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such 
heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, 
importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her 
riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to 
consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and 
ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- 
dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to 
curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead; and has been 
famed evei since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown 
to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d\ 1057, at the great show fair 
the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom 



CREj DICTTONAB.Y OF DATES. 337 

panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to hei 
limbs. 

COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security 
against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general 
in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the 
ieats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- 
warded by parliament with the munificent grant of .£10,000, June 2, 1802. — 
See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination. 

CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with 
the spoils taken from the Franks, a.d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. 
in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one 
side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- 
led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to 
the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- 
pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles ; Sept. 1831. 
Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- 
corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. 

CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may 
be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 
220 b. c. — Livy. 

CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, 
started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheini fol- 
lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems 
to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all 
countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The 
science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- 
ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. 

CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng 
lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- 
mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555»; and Cran 
mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- 
duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a 
paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the 
stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, 
with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before 
the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand !" 
Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first 
martyr of the Christian church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit !" 

CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and 
twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said 
some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680. 
It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used 
for mourning. 

CRAYONS. They were known in France before a. d. 1422 — improved by 
L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREATION op the WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy., 
4004 b. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Wlviston. The first date agrees 
with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old 
Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation: 
some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- 
logue entitled Crilias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried 
in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- 
nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands oJ 
years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient ChaJ- 
15 



338 THE WORLD'S FUOGE.ESS. [ CB.I 

deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 
years. 

CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found 
convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting 
before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at 
a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right 
time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 
4700 b. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud 
make it 5344 ; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it 
vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 , but the 
Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- 
rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener- 
ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. 

CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while 
after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship 
in the Creek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman 'church. 
This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The 
Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in 

a. r>. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 
340. — See Apostles', Nicene, and other creeds. 

CRESSY, or CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- 
ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, 
king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs 
ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of 
Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French 
nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the 
English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich 
feathers, with the motto <; Ich Dien" in English, " I serve ;" and in memory 
of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- 
land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. 

CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies 
by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of 
crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- 
tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume 
of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns 
above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well 
on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. 

CRETE. Now Candia, tohick see. This island was once famous for its hundred 
cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 

b. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- 
ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It 
was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed 
into the hands of the Venetians, 1194: and was taken from them by the 
Turks, in 1669.— Priestley. 

CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a 
one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- 
sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth 
have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and 
every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- 
nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, 
as an almost necessary consequence, into crime/' A comparative view of 
foreign countries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and 
ignorance on the great mass of the pop-ilation. In North America pauper- 
ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- 



CEO J 



DICTIONARY Of DAlES. 339 



meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several 
states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly 
rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, 
are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- 
able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- 
ence ia painfully exemplified : — 

Scotland. England. Ireland. 
Instruction to the people- - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 

Criminals among the people • 1 in 5093 • 1 in 920 - 1 in 468 

There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several 
acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- 
gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law 
of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and 
revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, 
passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by 
statute 4 William IV, 1884. See Executions, Hanging, Triak, &e. — Haydn. 

•CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. 
The Genoese were expelled by the Grim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were 
tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took 
possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following 
year; and secured to them in 1791. 

CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus 
were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- 
velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian 
religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- 
tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the 
town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On 
this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them 
as their tutelar saints. 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class 
were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern 
times, the Journal ale Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- 
ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, 
ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published 
at Paris, May 30. 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work 
of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term 
being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Wales of Litera- 
ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly 
Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in 
England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the 
Edinburgh Review, in 1802; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American 
Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The 
North American Review was established by Wra. Tudor in 1818; the Ameri- 
can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila.. 1827; the New York Review, bj 
Prof. C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. Set 
Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English 
courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought 
by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- 
termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however 
sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. 

CROCKERY". In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and 
Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, 
many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, 
of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, 
about a. d. 1310; and it is still called fayence in French. See Earthenware, 



340 the world's progress [cul 

CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story 
of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- 
man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet 
tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- 
gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by 
pope Damasius II., in 1053;. John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 
1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- 
ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crowa 
with two circles. — Rainaldi. 
CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, 
Persians. Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on 
account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other 
tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- 
padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prison- 
ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, 
and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year 
of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- 
tine, a. d. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. 
CRUSADES, or Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- 
tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, 
called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter 
the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted 
the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy 
Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in 
possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- 
gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at 
Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- 
tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a 
general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 
000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The 
holy warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of 
Croise"s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God : s 
will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the 
end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, 
cost the lives of 2.000,000 of men. — Voltaire. 
^TUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered 
> by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- 
gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by 
admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of 
Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, 
defeated May, 1850. 
CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read 
of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Ke- 
brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Enghsh 
feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe 
extremity of the middle finger. — Calmet. 
CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and 
Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the 
poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. 
It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. 
CULLODEN. Battle op. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- 
berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the 
last of the Stuarts, near Inverness. April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men 



CYC J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



341 



in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, 
while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- 
tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless 
inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately 
after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued 
wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for sis months, while 30,- 
000Z. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, 
and died at Rome, in 1788. 
CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the 
French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with 
the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It 
was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a 
British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. 

CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This was a Norman institu- 
tion, introduced into England in the reign of William L, a. d. 1068. On the 
ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was 
abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. 
CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 
1533. The hawthorn currant-tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada 
in 1705. 
CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- 
sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands 
opposed to lex scripta. or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, 
and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. 
CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- 
red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, 
for 20.000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were 
farmed by Charles II. for 390,000Z. in the year 1666. — Davenant. 

In 1530 they amounted to - - .£14,000 

In 1592 ditto - - - 50.000 

In 1614 ditto . - 148,000 

In 1622 ditto - - - 168,000 

In 1642 ditto . - 500,000 

In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600 

The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool, 
3d. ; on every last of hides, Qd. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals 
of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disqualified 
from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George 
. III., 1782. See Revenue. 
CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected 
were, in 



In 1748 they amounted to 

In 1808 ditto 

In 1823 ditto 

In 1830 United Kingdom - 

In 1835 ditto 

In 1840 ditto 



.£2,000,000 
9,973,240 
11,498,762 
17,540,323 
18,612,906 
19,915,296 



1789-9. 


- $4,399,473 


1820 


1800 


• 9,080i938 


1825 - 


1505 


12,936.4 R7 


ia30 


1810 - 


8,583,309 


1835 - 


1815 


- 7,282,942 


1840 



$15,005,612 

■ 20,098,714 

21,922.391 

19,39i;311 

13,499,940 



1845 
1846 . 
1847 
1848 



$27,528,113 
26,712,668 
23,747,864 

- 31,757,070 



See Tariff. 

CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the 
week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen 
lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The 
cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the 
time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years by 
Victorius, a. d. 463. — Blair. 



342 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DAG 

CYCLOPAEDIA— See Encyclopedia. 

CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record, 
ft was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, 
hut smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- 
ment, whose invention is attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was 
used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 b. c. The 
festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- 
bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. 

CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 896 b. c. — Diog. 
Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- 
phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all 
sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did 
all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without 
blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on 
the ground. — Diog. Laert. 

CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love 
and pleasure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the 
time^of Cyrus, who subdued them; it ranked among the proconsular pro- 
vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but 
recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of 
England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570. — 
Priestley. 

CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of 
the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme 
good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual 
kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, 
and only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect nourished for several ages. 
— Laer. Ar. Cicero. 

CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristasus, who was the chief of the 
colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- 
olis, on account of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- 
lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 
b. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. 

CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. 
Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and 
made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and 
returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). 
— Aspin's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian 
Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. 

D. 

DAGUERREOTYPE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre Oi 
Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon 
thin copper plates, plated with silver. The images are produced by the ac- 
tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An 
apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same 
time by M. Niepc6, and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- 
don : the original idea, however, is traceable as far back sis the days of Roger 
Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above 
process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- 
portant a discovery in the fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the 
French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of G009 
francs. 



LAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 

DAMASCUS. This city was in being- in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It 
is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, 
Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- 
ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the 
Saracens, a. d. 683 ; by the Turks in 1006 ; and was destroyed by Tamerlam- 
in 1400. It was in a journey to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- 
lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the 
gospel, about a. d. 30. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 

DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were first manufactured at Damascus, 
and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and being 
raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the 
Dutch and Flemish weavers ; and the manufacture was brought to England 
by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between 
the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. 

DAMON and PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to 
go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the appoint- 
ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his 
engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, 
and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution ; but at 
this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. Dionysius was 
so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, 
and entreated them to permit him to share their friendship, 387 b. c. 

DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 
1584 b. c. — Eusebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to 
their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on 
the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced 
into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the 
first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country 
dance {contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
— Spehnan. 

DANES, Invasions of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to 
England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon 
Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under 
Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and 
ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy 
in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- 
mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. 

DANTZIC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Busching. It was built, accord- 
ing to other authorities, by Waldemar. I. in 1169. Seized by the king 
of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the 
French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- 
sit, it was restored to its former independen te, under the protection of 
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and after 
a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris 
it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to 
the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10.000 head of cattle 
and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast nnmber of lives lost, April 9, 
1829. 

DARDANELLES, Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called 
Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding 
the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor 
Mahomet IV., in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous 
town of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing 1 he passage of the Dar 



344 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DEA 

danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John 
Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them v 
which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, 
following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, 
each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. 

DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from 
the province of Dauphine", which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert II. 
to Philip of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throne 
should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. 

HA. VIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose 
name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- 
set among the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced 
at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the 
present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day. as is done in all 
other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- 
tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, 
and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. 
The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is 
the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and 
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of 
Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. 

DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the 
institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a 
long period in many churches, about a. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The 
original deacons were Philip, Stephen. Prochorus. Nicanor, Timon, Parme- 
nos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. 
Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. 

DEAF and DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb 
was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570. 
Bonet, who was also a monk, published a system at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. 
Wallis published a work in England on the subject, in 1650. The first 
regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in 
Edinburgh in 1773. 

DEAF and DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. 
In 1840 there were 6,916 blind persons, or 1 in 2.467 of the population ; 
7.659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. 
There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 
2,840 patients. 
Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have 
promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the 
United States, are Dr. Amariah Brie-ham, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe, of 
Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Hartford. 

DEATH, Punishment of. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- 
ment among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stowe. The most eulogized 
heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered 
on the cross, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture 
many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the 
fate of Mithridates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia ; 
see also Ravillac ; Boiling to Death ; Burning to Death, &c. Maurice, the 
son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first 
execution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment 



DEL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 

of death was abolished in a great number of cases by Mr. Peel's acts, 1824-9. 
in other cases 1832. for forgery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases 
of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, 'at Frank- 
fort, same day, August 4, 1848. 

DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the 
year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year is 
March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, 
in 71 5 b. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the 
year 

DECEMVIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- 
vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — JLivy. 
The decemviral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the 
attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, 
the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- 
suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. 

DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the 
earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, ia 
that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, 
the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English 
tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be 
used in all law-suits in May, 1731. 

DEFENDER or the FAITH. Fidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. 
on Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church 
of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei Catkolica, and against Luther, 
who had just begun the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave 
him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs 
of Great Britain : the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. 

DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded 
as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Snellius. The first 
degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude 
was determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- 
ern point was made the first general meridian. 162 b. c. Several nations 
have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; 
and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- 
wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. 

DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- 
teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to 
disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation 
than that of Atheism. — Virot's Instruction Chretienne, 1563. Deism is a 
rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the light 
of nature, believing that there is a God. a providence, vice and virtue, and 
an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- 
ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron 
of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, 
Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft. and Godwin. 

DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled 
in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus 
and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the 
Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 
1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wm. 
Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. 
This state bo' - e an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered much in 
the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 
15* 



346 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ DEN 

vote in convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population — 1790, 59,594; 1840, 78,085; 
including 2,605 slaves. 

DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire : :t is now in decay, but 
contained a million of inhabitants, in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah 
invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine 
followed: 100,000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to 
the amount of 62,000,000L sterling was said to be collected. 

DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of 
Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 
1263 b.c. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came 
to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- 
ple was burnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the 
Alcmseonidge, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered 
by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver; and Nero car- 
ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning 
the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced c n Delphi 
being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Fresnoij. 

DELUGE, the GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the 
world 1536 ; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark 
rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- 
ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 b. c. — Blair. The following 
are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. 



Septuagint b. c. 3246 
Jackson - 3170 
Hales - - 3155 
Josephus • 3146 



Persian - 


b. c. 3103 


Playfair - b. c 


2352 


Hindoo - 


-3102 


Usher 


■ 2348 


Samaritan 


■ - 2998 


English Bible 


2348 


Howard - 


-2698 


Marsham - 


2344 



Petavius - b. c. 2329 
Strauchuis - 2293 
Hebrew - - 22S8 
Vulgar Jewish 2104 



Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction 
(!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built 
to guard against the calamity ; but the season happened to be a very fine 
dry one, a. d. 1524. 

DELUGE of DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according 
to Eusebivs. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the 
general flood : but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely 
a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose 
course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and 
Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and 
some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. 

DELUGE of OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inun- 
dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it 
occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. Buffon 
thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from 
the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were 
taken by the British, 1796. but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara 
and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and 
commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed English colonies. 

DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri 
and the Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Gcths. The Teutones 
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were 
defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the 
Jutes; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi- 
fying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. 



DEN 1 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



347 



DENMARK, continued. 

Reign of Sciold, first king - B.C. 60 

The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings 
to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750 

[Ragnor is killed in an attempt to in- 
vade England, and for more thai 200 
years from this time the Danes were 
a terror.to the northern nationsof Eu- 
rope, and at length conquering all 
England. See Daves.] 

Reign of Canute the Great - - 1014 

Reign of Waldemar the Great - - 1157 

Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, 
makes immense conquests - - 1223 

Gothland conquered - - - 1347 

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
united into one kingdom • - 1397 

Revolt of the Swedes - • -1414 

The nations reunited - - - 1439 

Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 

Accession of Christian I., from whom 
the present royal family springs - 1448 

Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- 
pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 

Lutheranism established by Christian 
III. - 1536 

Danish East India Company established 
by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 

Christian IV. chosen head of the Pro- 
testant league - - - - 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades 
Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and 
makes large conquests - - 1658 

The crown made hereditary and abso- 
lute 1660 

Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, 
Tonningen, and Stralsund; reduces 
Weismar, and drives the Swedes out 
of Norway - - - 1716 et seq. 

Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which 
consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the 
university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 

The peaceful reign of Christian VI., 
who promotes the happiness of his 
subjects .... 1730 

Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- 
denly confines his queen, Caroline 
Matilda, sister of George III. who is 
afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 



KINGS OP 

&.. D 714 Gormo I. 

750 Ragnor Lodbrog. 
770 Sigefrid. 
801 Godefrid. 
809 Olaus I. 

811 Hemming. 

812 Siward and Ringon, killed in a sea-fight. 
814 Harold and Regner; the latter made 

prisoner in Ireland, and died in a 

dungeon there. 
849 Siward II. deposed. 
856 Eric ; killed in battle 
858 Eric II. 
8/3 Canute I. 
915 Frothon. 
920 Gormo II. 
925 Harold. 
928 Hardicanute 
930 Gormo III. 
935 Harold III. 
980 Suenon. 



The counts Struensee and Brandt are 
seized at the same time, on the charge 
of a criminal intercourse with the 
queen ; and the former confessing to 
avoid the torture, both are beheaded 
for high treason - April 28, 1772 

The queen Caroline Matilda dies at 
Zell • - - May 10, 1775 

Christian VII. becomes deranged, and 
prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784 

One-fourth of Copentagenis destroy sd 
by fire - - - June 9, 17 Jo 

Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard 
Copenhagen, and engage the Danish 
fleet, taking or destroying 18 ships of 
the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- 
ed. The Confederacy of the North 
(see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- 
solved - - - April 2, 1801 

Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart 
bombard Copenhagen, and seize the 
Danish fleet of 12 shins of the line, 15 
ft fates, and 37 brigs, &c. - Sept. 7, 1807 

Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to 
Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 

Commercial treaty with England - 1824 

Frederick bestows a new constitution 
on his kingdom - - - 1831 

A new constitution offered by Christian 
VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 

Duchies of Schleswig and, Holstein de- 
mand separation from Denmark 

March, 1848 

The king grants freedom of the press 
and of public meetings - March, 1848 

Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
volt and join the great German na- 
tion - - - March 26, 1848 

Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- 
izes the Grand Duchy of Posen 

March 26, 1848 

Danes victorious over the Germans, 
April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswig 

April 23, 1848 

Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- 
ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- 
while) - - - July 10, 1848 

Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1848 
(See Copenhagen.) 

DENMARK. 

1014 Canute n. the Great. 
1036 Hardicanute II. 
1041 Magnus I. 
1048 Suenon II. 

1079 Harold IV. 

1080 Canute III. assassinated. 
1086 Olaus II. 

1097 Eric III. 

1106 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 

1135 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 

1138 Eric V. 

1147 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldamsr 

for assassinating prince Canute. 
1157 Waldemar the Great. 
1182 Canute V. 
1202 Waldemar II 
1240 Eric VI. 
1250 Abel I., killed in an expedition against 

the Frisons. 
1252 Christopher I., poisoned by the bishop 

of Arhus. 



348 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



, r UIA 



1523 Frederick. 

1534 Christian III. 

1559 Frederick II. 

1588 Christian IV. 

1648 Frederick III. 

1670 Christian V. 

1699 Frederick rv. 

1730 Christian VI. 

1746 Frederick V. 

1766 Christian VII. 

1808 Frederic VI. 

1839 Christian VIII. died Jan. 21, 1&S&. 



DENMARK, continued. 

1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 

1286 Eric VIII. 

1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of 

seven years.) 
1340 Waldemar III. 
1375 Olaus III. 
1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 

Norway. 
1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 
1439 Christopher III. 

1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 
1481 John. 
1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a 

dungeon, where he died. 

DENIS, St. An ancient town of France, six miles trom Paris to the north- 
ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital,— famous for 
its ah bey and church, the former abolished at the Revolution; the latter 
desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place at 
sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. 

: DEVIL and DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the 
policy to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition 
of "The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- 
temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at 
present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate 
those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at 
Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty 
crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- 
tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and 
lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity 
of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police 
against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great 
number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which 
they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously 
adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he 
would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned 
in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. - Nouv. Diet. See Printing. 

DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and 
which was consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or 
wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. 
Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — 
T'dlemont. 

DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the 
sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius 
Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times 
of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. 
They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. 

DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the 
mine of Sumbulpour was the first known; and where the mines of Golconda 
were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. 
The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, 
weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, 
and was valued by M. Romeo de l'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- 
lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated 
to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400.000Z. The diamond 
called the " mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul. was 
the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest water, and the size of 



tm] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 



an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a h,ilf. The great dia- 
mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., 
troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104,166^. besides an annuity 
for life, to the owner, of 1041/!. which was refused ; but it was afterwards 
sold to Catharine's favorite, count OrlofF, for the first mentioned sum, with- 
out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- 
day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond weighed 
136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold tc the king of France 
for 125.000Z. in 1720. 

DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, 
built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect 
was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing 
this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, 
and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons 
of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It w&j set on fire on the 
night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him 
to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name 
to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the 
Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Univ. Hist. 

DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in 
stituted 498 b. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap 
pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the 
Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. 
Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion 
of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to 
exist in Rome, 44 b. c. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing 
about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations 
somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who 
lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- 
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaps 
the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one 
in eight languages, about a. d. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton 
was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to 
think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle 
of the arts, sciences, &c, was published in 1728. The great dictionary of 
the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis 
Grose's Dictionaiy of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from 
this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. 
Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two 
quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- 
printed in 1 -adon, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous 
abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since bom published. 
See Encyclopedia. 

DI£T of the GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire 
may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. 
The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of electore, the 
college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with 
the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise 
constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The 
diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. 
The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was 
held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529; 



350 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



I rut 



and the famous det of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the GermaD 
princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- 
fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- 
solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany, 

DIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the pardeot 
the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, 
in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ; 
and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et mow droit " 
the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained 
a. d. 1198. — Rymer's Foidera. 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared 
by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Or at. 
Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of 
eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- 
nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the 
civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were 
at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine, a. d. 328 ; but 
Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long 
before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- 
diction are coeval with Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of 
which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and three to York. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian 
writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and 
is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. 
It is called the era of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- 
tians in the reign of Diocletian. 

DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an 
object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 
1823. The diorama differs from the panorama iu this respect, that, instead 
of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture 
at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama 
and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and 
in the completeness of the illusion. 

DIPLOMACY of the UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to 
Great Britain and France. 



GREAT BRITAIN. 

1783 John Adams. 
1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. 
1792 Thomas Pinckney, of S. C, min. rlen. 
1794 John Jay, of N. Y. do. 

1796 Rufus King, do. do. 

1803 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly, 
180S Wm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 
1808 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do. 
1S15 John Quincy Adams, Mass. do. 
1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. 

1826 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do. 

1828 James Barbour, Va. do. 

1830 Louis McLane, Del. do. 

1831 M. Van Buren, N. Y. do. 

1832 Aaro-r. Vail, charge d'affaires. 

f?36 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 
1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. 

JS15 Louis McLi.ie, Md. do. 

1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 

1849 Abbolt Lawrence, do. do. 



do. 



PRANCE. 

1776 B . Franklin , S. Deane, & A. Lee, com'm 
1790 Wm. Short, of Va., charge d'affaires. 
1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plen. 
1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 

1796 C. C. Pincknev, S. C. 

1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, 
1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, 

and W. Vans Murray, do. 

1801 James A. Bayard, Del. cd. 

1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. co. 

1804 John Armstrong, do. no. 

1811 Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo. 

1813 Wm. H. Crawford. Geo. do. 

1815 Albert Gallatin. Pa. do. 

1823 James Brown, La. do. 

1830 Wm. C. Rives, Va. do. 

183.3 Edward Livingston, La. do. 

1836 Lewis Cass, Mich. co. 

1844 Wm. R. King. Ala. do. 

1849 W. C. Rives, Va da 



DIV J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 

DIRECTORY, the CHURCH. The book so called was published in England 
at the period of the civil war. It was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the 
ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- 
sion of the Book of Common Prayer. There were some general hints given, 
which wei'e to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no 
form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to 
make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an 
ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor. 

DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little Lux- 
embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November 
1, 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of five 
members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of An- 
cients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who, 
with Cambacdres and SieVes, became the ruling power of France, the three 
governing as consirls. the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. 

DISSENTERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in 
the Reformation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish 
models of church government and discipline. They were reproached with 
the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious 
worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- 
beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this country in 
those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was 
established at Wandsworth, near London. Nov. 20, 1572 ; and now, in Lon- 
don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c, for all classes of Dis- 
senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters 
from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. 
c. 17. By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act. so much of 
the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- 
sity of receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for 
certain offices, &c. was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- 
orating effect have been since passed. 

DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of 
divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- 
tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, 
augurs, and other like professors, till the coming of Christ, when the doc- 
trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy banished such visionary 
opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted 
by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Augury, Witchcraft, fyc. 

DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, -though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, B.C. 
The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been 
used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish 
Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, 
it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground 
at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force 
down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell in 
Ireland, were drowned, June 1. 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which 
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving- 
bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed 
in sub-marine surveys. The first diving-Zxr/Ze was the wife of Captain Mor- 
ris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. 

DIVORCES for ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- 
cal and civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- 
vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, 
that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 



352 the world's PROGRESS. [ DOG 

to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a.d. 1539. The bill to 
prevent women marrying- their seducers was brought into parliament in 
1801. 

DOCKS of LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- 
structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- 
don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the 
principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in 
July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 
27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, 
decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London 
docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. 
The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, 
and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks 
was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until 
they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 

DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church 
was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysos- 
tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the 
Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title 
of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 
8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the 
time >jf the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it 
is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d. 725. 
See Collegiate Degrees. 

DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law 
residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- 
lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' 
Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- 
stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the 
old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, 
bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See 
article Civil Law. 

DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole 
race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," 
assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of 
instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known iD 
Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken 
from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, 
landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned 
to Vienna. 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end 
on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard 
the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sim, as the cause 
of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed 
as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies 
in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and 
later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same 
rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hutton. 

DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by s 

* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ; 
and they compute its distance from our earth at '2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that 
a sound" woull not reach our earth from Sirius in 50.000 years, and that a cannon-ball, flying with 
its usual velocity of 4S0 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to ou7 
([lobe. 



DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 

prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against 
their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an 
aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying 
the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was 
observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- 
pensed with. See Adriatic. 

DOMINGO, ST- Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The 
city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and 
nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. 
Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French 
colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died 
in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- 
tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- 
ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 
1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti, in 
which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- 
mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. 

DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This 
island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the 
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the 
subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- 
licane in 1806; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently 
occurred. 

DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days 
of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as 
by the first seven letters of the alphabet. A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one 
of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin 
on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is 
G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter 
call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the 
first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap 
years count two letters. 

DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- 
versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, 
and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and 
the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's 
rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation 
of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they 
erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called 
Blackfriars. 

DOOM'S-DAY or DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis 
Ansiice. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign 
of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register 
whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from thisbook 
the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still 
decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, 
consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- 
ished in a. d. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- 
day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Camden. The taxes were 
levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu- 
rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day 
book. 

DORIC Order of Architecture. The most ancient of the five, the invention 
of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name to 



354 the world's progress. I^dra 

the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu:! took 
* place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies 
into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native 
country. 
DOR1 . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in 
the breaking down of the dykes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10 : 000 
persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- 
lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 
villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for 
ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Frot- 
estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the 
differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- 
pally upon points 'A' justification and grace. The synod condemned the 
tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. 

DOUAY, in France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who 
founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay 
was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was 
taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the French 
next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of tlu Bible, 
which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the successive 
popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version 
authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes 
of Catholic divines. 

DRACO, Laws op. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a 
code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written 
in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as 
murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could 
not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. — 
Sigonms de Repub. Athen. 

DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, 
No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many 
perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral 
under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict 
with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over 
the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- 
rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the 
common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents 
to Indian chiefs. — Stowe. Rapin. 

DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the 
Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarionand Dolon, 
on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 
556 b. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, 
on a wagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- 
gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a 
goat, 536 b. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- 
troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- 
dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. 

DRAMA in ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion 
of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and 
C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- 
tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. 
Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. 
•Subsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and 



DEO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 

afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, abandoning 
satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy. 
Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- 
ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger 
exhibitor. — Livy. 

DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of 
minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. 
Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin 
of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 864, on the Passion 
of Cbrist, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to 
have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not 
clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that 
" London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- 
tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries 
were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the 
parish clerks in 1897, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- 
rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual 
characters were introduced in Henry VII. 's reign. The first regular drama 
acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect 
in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England 
was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, 
to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- 
speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 
1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two 
companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's 
and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. 

DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- 
zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 
1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- 
tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an 
error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme 
pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all 
his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal 
wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 

DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of 
Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. 
Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, 
and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and 
pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and 
buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with 
precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 66007, ; and he had a suit 
of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, 
rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could 
afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the 
pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. 

DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is saii to 
have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the 
fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societiei 



356 the world's progress. [i>uk 

have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane 
Society in England is very appropriate : — Latent scintillula forsan — a small 
spark may lurk unseen. 

DRUIDS. A celebrated order among -the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, 
who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted 
as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with 
supreme authority" In England they were chosen out of the best families, 
, that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- 
cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the 
administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and 
supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed 
Caesar's first landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending 
the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- 
linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland'? 
Mona Antique/,. 

DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, 
" Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice 
of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- 
ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. 
In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. 
Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. 
He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed 
from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the 
commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. 

DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d. 140. 

DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First 
struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Du Cange. Coined by Robert, king of 
Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- 
son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that of 
the gold 9s. 6d. — Pardon. 

DUELLING and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- 
bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, 
took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 
1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. 
to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- 
duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should 
be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling 
was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, fyc. As 
many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- 
macteric. — Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in 
which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases 
both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- 
tence of the law. — Hamilton. 

DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In 
England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, 
duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of 
Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black 
Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was 
created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The 
first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, 
piince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. 

DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and 
immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged 



EAR j 



IICTIONAE.Y OF DATES. 357 



the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night, 
and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope 
Pius V. in 1569. 
DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John 
Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- 
ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English unde- 
Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. 

DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and 
Freni h, and put into the hands of the English, June 24. 1658, the last year 
of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000^. U 
Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- 
tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the 
basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. 

DUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal 
Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinaue was fought the renowned battle 
between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- 
land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., 
whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who 
was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in 
Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- 
ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. 

DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at 
Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen 
Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, 
who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Brace's soldiers were cut to 
pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- 
sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 

DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing 
and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their 
manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England 
for sale. The art of dyeing woollens*was brought from the Low Countries 
in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the 
north" (of England) 1628. 

E. 

EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the 
Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and 
sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a 
spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When 
Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added 
the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of 
Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- 
perial standard of Napoleon ; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 
It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. 

EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages 
the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard 
II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They 
had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the 
sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their 
title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or 
shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and 
their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for 
king. 



358 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 4 EAR 

EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of 
Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n 
arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the 
sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all 
towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round 
the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- 
lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. 
The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to 
be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- 
covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. 

EARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient 
nations. Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 b. c. 
The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1810. Wedgewood's patent 
ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to 
a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- 
poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c, and thereby rendered a 
very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See 
China. — Porcelain. 

EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with 
any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- 
duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the 
vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, 
and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which 
have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, 
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- 
men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, 
when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. 
Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to 
suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors 
or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. 
These principles at the same time ^vere advanced by Signor Beccaria, with- 
out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has 
been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- 
ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into 
steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which 
occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the 
most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from 
the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all 
that have occurred : — 



Antioch destroyed 

Nicomedia, Ceesarea, and Nicea in 

Bithynia, overturned 
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 

cities and towns damaged. - 
Nicomedia again demolished, and 

inhabitants buried in its ruins 
One felt by nearly the whole world 
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroy 



One which made the peninsula of 

Eubo?a an island - - b. c. 425 

Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, 

swallowed up ... 372 

One at Rome, when, in obedience to 

an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and 

mc tinted on a stately horse, leaped 

into the dreadful chasm it occasion- 
ed (Livy) • ■ - - 358 
Duras. in Greece, buried with all its Aii.uiisiaiiiiiiopie: us eumce* 

inhabitants; and twelve cities in ed, and thousands perished 

Campania also buried - - 345 

Lysimachia totally buried, with all its 

inhabitants .... 283 
Awful one in Asia, which overturned 

twelve cities - - - a. d. 17 

One accompanied by the eruption of 

Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and 

Herculaneum buried • ■ 79 

Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a.id 

two in Galatia, ovu'turned • - 107 



In Africa ; many cities overturned 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and 
Asia ; more than 500 cities were de 
stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- 
ed all calculation 
In France, Germany, and Italy 
Constantinople overturned, and all 

Greece shaken 
One felt throughout, England - 
One at Antioch ; many towns destroy 



114 
126 

357 

353 

543 

553 

560 



742 
801 



1039 



EAS J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



553 



EARTHQUAKES, continued. 

ed : among them, Marisaum and Ma- 
mistria - - - a. d. 1114 

Catania in Sicily overturned, and 
15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 

One severely felt at Lincoln - - 1142 

At Calabria, when one of its cities and 
all its inhabitants were overwhelm- 
ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1 186 

One again felt throughout England - 1274 

At Naples; when 40,000 of its inhabit- 
ants perished .... 1456 

One felt in London : part of St. Paul's 
and the Temple churches fell - 15S0 

In Japan, several cities made ruins, 
and thousands perished - - 1596 

Awful one at Calabria - - - 1638 

One in China, when 300,000 persons 
were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 

One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 

One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- 
ed Port Royal, whose houses were 
ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 
persons perished - - - 1692 

One in Sicily, which overturned 54 
cities and towns, and 300 villages. 
Of Catania and its 18.000 inhabit- 
ants, not a trace remained ; more 
than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 

Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 
persons perished - - - 1726 

Again in China ; and 100,000 people 
swallowed up at Pekin - - 1731 

One in Hungary, which turned a 
mountain round - - - 1736 

Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 
persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 

One at Palermo, which swallowed up 
a convent ; but the monks escaped 1740 

In London, the inhabitants terrified by 
a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 

Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752 

At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 
40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 

Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about 
eight minutes most of the houses, 
and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, 
were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
Oporto, and Brasa, suffered dread- 
fully, and St. Ilbes was wholly over- 
turned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One naif of 
Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
more than 12,000 Arabs perished 
there. Above half of the island of 
Madeira became waste : and 2,000 
houses in the island of Meteline, in 
the Archipelago, were overthrown : 
this awful earthquake extended 5000 
miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 

One in Syria extended over 10,000 
square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 

One at Martinico, when 1600 persons 
lost their lives - - Aug. 1767 

At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- 
habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 

EASTER So called in England from the 
of Easter was instituted about a. d. 65 
was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 



A destructive one at Smyrna - a. d 1774 

At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, 
and multitudes buried - - 17S0 

One which overthrew Messina and a 
number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 
40,000 persons perished - - 1783 

Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 
12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening 
of the earth swallowed up many 
houses and 1000 persons - Ssps. 1783 

Another fatal one in Sicily - • 1791 

One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing 
forth its flames overwhelmed the city 
of Torre del Greco - - -1794 

In Turkey, where, in three towns, 
10,000 persons lost their lives - 1791 

The whole country between Santa Fe 
and Panama destroyed, including the 
cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of 
whose people were, in one second, 
hurled into eternity ... 17913 

One at Constantinople, which destroy- 
ed the royal palace and an immen- 
sity of buildings, and extended into 
Romania and Wallachia. - - 1800 

A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 1804 

In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 
persons lost their lives - - 1805 

At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- 
chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling 
water appeared in its place - Aug. 1810 

Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 

Several felt throughout India. The 
district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons 
were buried with it - - June 1819 

In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many 
other towns ; great damage sustain- . 
ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 

One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826 

One in Spain, which devastated Mur- 
cia, and numerous villages; 6000 
persons perished - March 21, 1S29 

In the duchy of Parma j no less than 
40 shocks were experienced at Bor- 
gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many 
houses were thrown down, and not a 
chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1834 

In many cities of Southern Syria, by 
which hundreds of houses were 
thrown down, and thousands of the 
inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337 

At Martinique, by which nearly half 
of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 
700 persons killed, and the whole 
island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839 

At Ternate : the island made a waste, 
almost every house destroyed, and 
thousands of the inhabitants lose 
their lives - - Feb. 14, 1840 

Awful and destructive earthquake at 
Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts 
of Armenia 3137 houses were over- 
thrown, and several hundred persons 
perished - - July 2, 1840 

Great earthquake at Zante, where 
many persons perished Oct. 30, 1840 

Saxon goddess Eostre. The festival 
! ; the day for the observance of it 
597. It was ordarned by the council 



360 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



( EC1 



of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian 
world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full ma on that occurs after 
the 21st of March. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in^the 
defeat and death of Constantine XIIL, the last Christian emperor, in 1453. 
Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- 
tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by 
assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, 
seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the 
enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were 
massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the 
conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- 
menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, 
in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and 
ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. 
The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- 
nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, 
probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Rome. In 

a. d. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it 
into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove 
into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the 
same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Veniee ; and, in 1800, 
cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of 
Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This 
power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his 
temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; 
but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. 

ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philalethes, 
or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they 
chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- 
andria, about a. d. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian 
church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of 
the doctrine of the Christian. 

ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 

b. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to 
be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during 
its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. 
at 8' 40" p. m. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with 
accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary 
eclipses of the sun and moon : — 



OF THE SUN. 

That predicted bv Thales ; observed at 
Sardis (Pliny jib. ii.) - b.c. 585 

One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) - 424 

Total one ; three days'' supplication de- 
creed at Rome (Livy) - - 188 

One general at the death of Jesus Christ 
(Josephus) - - - a. D. 33 

One at Rome, causing a total darkness 
at noon-day (Livy) - - - 291 

One observed at Constantinople - 968 

fr. France, when it was dark at noon- 
day (Du Fresnoy) ■ June 29, 1033 



In England, where it occasioned a total 
darkness (Win. Malmsb.) - -1140 

Again ; the stars visible at ten in the 
morning (Camden) - June 23, 1191 

The true sun, and the appearance of 
another, so that astronomers alone 
could distinguish the difference by 
their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) - 1191 

Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1331 

A total one ; the darkness so great that 
the stars shone, and the birds went to 
roost at noon (Old'xiiron's Annals of 
Geo. I.) - - April 22, 1714 



£DJ J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 3G1 



Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius") - 219 
One at Rome, predicted by Q,. Sulpitius 

Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 

One terrified the Roman troops and 

quelled their revolt ( Tacitus) a. d. 14 



ECLIPSES, continued. 

Remarkable one, central and annular 
in the interior of Europe - Sept. 7 1820 

OP THE MOON. 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at 

Babylon {Ptolemy, lib. iv.) - b. c. 721 
A total one, observed at Sardis ( Thu- 

cydides,lib. vii.) - - - 413 

The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 
836 b. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, 
who died 823 b. c. 

EDEN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- 
tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some 
in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in 
Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon ; and a learned Swede asserts 
that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a 
peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below 
the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 
27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may 
have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden 
extended into Armenia. — Caltnet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a 
view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good 
for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — 
Genesis ii. 8, 9. 

EDGEHILL, Battle op, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and 
the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; 
Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded 
the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. 

EDICT op NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of 
France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- 
voked by Louis XIV, Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to 
France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 
industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of 
manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet 
remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued 
the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they 
excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- 
derson's Orig. of English Commerce. 

EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were 
two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public 
and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; 
they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- 
kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and 
treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties 
of ediles have suggested similar offices in our own polity, and served in 
many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. 

EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest 
cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records, Dun Edin, 
signifying the 'hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, 
king of Northumbria. who, having greatly extended his dominions" erected 
it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of 
the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by 
Ca nelon, king of the Picts. 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and befora 
the use of great guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 
16 



362 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[euv 



EDUCATION in U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of II- 
struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New 
York, Oct. 20, 1830. 

EDUCATION in ENGLAND. A grant of 3Q,000Z. for national education, pro- 
posed in parliament liy Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, 
and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the 
grant, July 11, 1839. 

EGALITFj. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the 
infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the 
abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of 
Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. Ho 
was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. 

EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the 
son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; 
it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- 
ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The 
famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim 
I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys 
till 1799, when a great part of the country . was conquered by the French, 
under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, 
and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern 
events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. 



Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) b. c. 2188 
Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- 
per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and 
Memphis (Abbe Lenglet, Blair) - 2126 
Athotes invents hieroglyphics - - 2122 

Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) - 2111 

Osymandyas, the first warlike king, 
passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, 
and causes his exploits to be repre- 
sented in sculpture and painting 
( Usher, Lenglet) - - 2100 

The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt 

and hold it 260 years ( Usher) - 2080 

The lake of Moaris constructed - 1938 

The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt 

to avoid the famine in Canaan " - 1921 
Syphoas introduces the use of the com- 
mon letters ( Usher) ■ - - 1891 
Memnon invents the Egyptian letters 

(Blair, Lenglet) - ... 1822 

Amenophis I. is acknowledged the 

king of all Egypt (Lenglet) - - 1821 

Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt 

as a slave (Lenglet) ■ ■ - 1728 
He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 
His father and brethren settle here - 1706 
Sesostris reigns ; he extends hits do- 
minion by conquest over Arabia, 
Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- 
let)' 1618 

Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 
Rampses, who imposecl on his sub- 
jects the building of walls and pyra- 
mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 
Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the 
Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, 

Blair) 1492 

Reign of Egyptus, from whom the 



country, hitherto called Mizraim, is 
now called Egypt (Blair) - B. o. 
Reign of Thuons (the Proteus of the 
Greeks) who had the faculty of as- 
suming whatever form he pleased, 
as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 
fire ..... 
[These fictions were probably intend- 
ed to mark the profound policy of 
this king, who was eminent for his 
wisdom, by which his dominion 
flourished. — Blair.] 
Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages 
Judea, and carries off the sacred ves- 
sels of the Temple 
The dynasty of kings called Tanites 

begins with Petubastes (Blair) 
The dynasty of Sailes (Blair) 
Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the 
king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to 
be roasted alive ( Usher) 
Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 
He invests Azoth, which holds out for 
19 years, the longest siege in the an- 
nals of antiquity ( Usher) 
Necho begins the famous canal be- 
tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- 
terranean sea (Blair) 
This canal abandoned, after costing 
the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) 
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes 

Apries ( Usher) 
Apnes taken prisoner and strangled in 

his palace (Diod. Siculus) - 
The philosopher Pythagoras comes 
from Samos intr Egypt, and is in- 
structed in the nystenes of Egyp- 
tian theology ( Usher) 



.189 



825 
781 



737 
660 



647 



610 
609 



- 581 

571 



533 



* The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. 
As to the achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings^ 
attributed by tlu Egyplian priests to Sesistris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 



ELE J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



363 



EGYPT, continued. 

The line of the Pharaohs ends in the 

murder of Psammenitus by Camby- 

ses (Blair) ■ ■ - b. c. 

Dread! ul excesses of Cambyses ; he 

puts the children of the grandees, 

male and female, to death, and makes 

the com .try a waste (Herodotus) 

He sends an army of 50,000 men across 

the desert to destroy the temple of 

Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish 

in the burning sands (Justin) 

Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again 

subdued by Xerxes (Blair) ■ 
A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - 
Successful revolt under AmyrtEeus, 
who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) - 
Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its 

lemples pillaged ( Usher) 
Alexander the Great enters Egypt, 
wrests it from the Persians, and 
builds Alexandria (Blair) 
Philadelphia completes the Pharos of 

Alexandria (Blair) - 
The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- 
tament made about this time 
The famous library of Alexandria also 

daws about this period (Blair) 
Ambassadors first sent to Rome 
Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, 
and returns laden with rich spoils, 
and 2500 statues and vessels of gold 
and silver, which Cambyses had 
taken from the Egyptian temples 
(Blair) - 

Reign of Philometer and Physcon 
At the death of Philometer, his brother 
Physcon marries his queen, and on 
the day of his nuptials murders the 
infant son of Philometer in its moth- 
er's arms .... 
He repudiates his wife, and marries 
her daughter by his brother (Blair) 



526 



521 



524 



283 
283 



233 
269 



His subjects, wearied with his cruel- 
ties and crimes, demolish his stat- 
ues, set fire to his palace, and he 
flies from their fury (Blair) b. O. 129 

He murders his son by his new queen ; 
also his son by her mother, sending 
the head and limbs of the latter as a 
present to the parent on a feast day 129 

Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he 
recovers his throne ; and dies - 128 

Pestilence from the putrefaction of 
vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- 
sons perish in Egypt - - - 12S 

Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous 
city of Thebes destroyed altera siege 
of three years (Diod. Siculus) - 82 

Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to 
his eldest sou, Ptolemy, and the fa- 
mous Cleopatra (Blair) ■ • A 

During a civil war between Ptolemy 
and Cleojiatra, Alexandria is be- 
sieged by Cassar, and the famous 
library nearly destroyed by fire 
(Blair) - - - -47 

Caesar defeats the king, who, in cross- 
ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the 
younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra 
reign - - - - - 46 

Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 

years of age) and reigns alone - 43 

She appears before Mark Antony, to 
answer for this crime. Fascinated 
by her beauty, he follows her into 

Egypt 40 

Antony defeated by Octavius Ca?sar 

at the battle of Actium (Blair) - 31 
Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and 
Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the 
kingdom becomes a Roman prov- 
ince - • - - - 30 



ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to 
have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Rujfhead's Statutes. 
Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving 
excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their 
votes, 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. 

ELECTORS of GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic 
body made choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which 
prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed 
the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
peror. — Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648 ; and a ninth 
in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to 
eight, in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. 
The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when 
the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. 

ELECTRICITY. That of amber was known to Thales, 600 b. c. Electricity 
was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substances 

- by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its 
power, of <. onductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that 
two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock 
was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the 
"Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, 
and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 



364 the world's PROGRESS. [ EM* 

was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the Au- 
rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. 

ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- 
vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries 
of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), 
and discovered the mode of combining the metals ; constructed what is 
very properly called the Voltaic pile ; and extended the whole science into a 
system which should rather be called Voltaism than Galvanism. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism werf[ 
discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, :n 1807. This analogy was established 
in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, 
Germany, the United States and other countries 

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, having more or less 
bearing upon its practical use in telegraphic communication, were made by 
Winckler, at Leipsic, 1746 ; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; 
Lomond, in 1784; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of 
"Galvanism," at Bolonga 1791. Prof. Volta's " Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 
1801 ; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in 
telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great 
advance made by Prof. Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- 
netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1882, patented 
1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between 
Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- 
gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States 
in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in 
Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. — See Supplement. 

ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- 
tory of the Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed 
1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants 
were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus 
were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- 
ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of 
enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. — 
Baker's Chron. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed 
by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- 
ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumol- 
pus, 1356 b. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one 
revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon 
him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis 
into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- 
dosius the Great, a. d. 389. 

ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived 
chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, 
of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- 
dias about 500 b. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during 
his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by 
the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in 
1816. 

EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that then- souls, after many 
thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter 
were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. 
The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and 
wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible^ 



EJ4P J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 



but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal 
likeness. They called the embalmed bodies mummies, some of which, buried 
3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now 
lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last 
duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh 
and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38. 

EMBARGO m ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is 
rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to 
war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- 
tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all 
Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, 
owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 

EMBARGO in the UNITED STATES. Embargo on all -essels in the ports 
of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with 
Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- 
pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 
days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. 

EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to 
implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which 
penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four 
times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer 
to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. 

EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we 
learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- 
larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very 
early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. 
An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- 
try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux 
Tapestry. 

EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in 
Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no 
true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- 
uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., 
who died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred 
that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. 

EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- 
ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American 
colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the 
decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively 
of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- 
ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were 
registered as born in 

Denmark - - - - 210 

Switzerland - - - - - - 319 

Other countries or unknown • - 3,013 



Great Britain and Ireland . - 148,212 
Germany .... 58,018 
France - .... 7,743 

Sweden and Norway - - 903 



EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. 
This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter 
Fatima, about a. d. 650.—Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given 
the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers 
(another title being joined). 

EMPALE MENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode uf putting criminals U 



366 the world's PROGRESS. { ENG 

death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, particularly 
by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through 
the body on a stake fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in 
Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked 
in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil- 
liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- 
cliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. 
This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. 

EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- 
nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus 
Caesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor 
of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of 
Germany, crowned by Leo III. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- 
ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia 
was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal 
was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. 

EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hy- 
pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was 
useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of 
the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of 
Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. 

ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was 
practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in 
England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel 
which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was 
made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, 
after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, 
a. d. 1749. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly 
given, was that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. 
Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- 
ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, 
in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encyclopedic 
Methodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, and other savans contri- 
buted, was published in 1782 et seq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- 
cyclopedia, printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the 
first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David 
Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States. 
Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of 
the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. edited by Professor Napier, and 
published by A. & C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc., was stated to have been 
.£126,000, of which £23 000 were pa '.d to the contributors. This was pro- 
bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter- 
prise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished 
in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished 
writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 
1796-1830 and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- 
menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30. Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. 

ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called 
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. 
The chief engineer was called camp- master-general in 1634. Captahj 
Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Ths 
corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military 
force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a 



sng] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 



colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty 
colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The 
Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at 
Washington. 

ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- 
land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative 
had been used as far back as A. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- 
fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons* 
and land, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession ot 
Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England 
and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, 
and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated 
with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and 
the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 

ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or 
Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of thu 
most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- 
glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had 
been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English 
tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry 
VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the 
Latin disused, May 1731. 

ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- 
tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal 
rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- 
tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- 
dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The 
art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United 
States during the last ten years. 

ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their 
appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, 
surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The 
earliest date known of a copper- plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses 
for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it 
followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis 
Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532. — ■ 
De Piles. 

ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois 
Sennefekler may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced 
on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 
1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of 
London in 1817. 

ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- 
proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further impioved" 
it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, 
■was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non ; about 1662 ; he com- 
rmnicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished 
for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Cbiaro-oscuro en> 
graving originated with the Germans, and. was first practised by Mair, one 
of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincographj, fyc. 

ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, aftei 
it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in- 



368 the world's PROGRESS. [ EP1 

definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of 
Philadelphia, in 1819. 
ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief maiden, or manufacturer's 
of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of 
printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See 
Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German; it was greatly improved byDurer and Lucas Van Leydea 
in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, 
and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c, 1789. et. scq. The earliest wood en- 
graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher 
carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. p. 1423. 

ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- 
ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London 
Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the 
study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods 
of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. 

ENVOYS. They enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. 
Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of 
France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the 
royal carriages, a. d. 1639. 

EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was 
one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, 
and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings 
contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to 
perpetuate his memory, 356 e. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was 
richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — 
Univ. Hist. 

EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- 
trol the royal power, 760 b. g. They were five in number, and acting as 
censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the 
kings, and even imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities. 

EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See 
Homer. 

EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the 
founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a 
happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but 
from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with 
itself. His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his 
system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. 

EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the 
ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin 
epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all 
others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- 
ing Latin epigram on the miracle of onr Saviour in turning water into wine 
at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: — 

" Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." 
And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Di 
Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen is 
our language : — 

" Live while we live !" the epicure will sav, 
" And taste the pleasures of the present day." 
" Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, 
" And give to God each moment as it flies." 
Lord ! in my view let both united be, 
We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Doddridge. 



EltA J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



369 



EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus. Its early 
history is very obscure, and it is only during tbe reign of this sovereign, 
who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- 
lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in 
the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. 

Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 273 

He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, 
thrown at him from a house-top by a 
woman .... 272 

Philip unites Epirus to Macedon - !i30 
Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 

Annexed to the Ottoman empire A. D. 1469 



Reign of the great Pyrrhus • b. c. 306 
He enters into a league against Deme- 
trius ; the battle of Bei-sea 
Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first 
battle against the Romans •■ - 
^e gains another great battle - 
^is conquest of Sicily - - - 

His last battle with the Romans 
He takes Macedon from Antigonus 



294 

280 
279 
278 
274 
274 



EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It 
may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's 
chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second 
century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- 
tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. 
In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 
1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — • 
Burnet. 

EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New- 
York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of 
the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- 
sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First 
Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and 
Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. 

EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- 
mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- 
land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the 
epigram . — Boileau. 

EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial 
complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- 
rus from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — 
Bossuet. 

EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknow- 
ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to 
regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- 
larly adopted. — See Eras. 

Creation - • - • b. c. 4004 

Deluge 2348 

Calling of Abraham - - - 1921 

Argonautic expedition - - - 1225 

Destruction of Troy ■ - - 1184 

1st Olympiad - - - - 776 

EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places 
and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When 
the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, 
the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; 
once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next ia 
the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. 

EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity 
and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See C/Wra- 
cery. 

ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order ; 
a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonass-er, after which 
16* 



Building of Rome • 


- B. c. 753 


Nabonassar 


- 747 


The Seleucidse 


■ - 312 


The battle of Actium 


- 38 


The Christian era - 


A. D. 1 


Diocletian 


- 284 



370 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. r EMB 

the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb 
26, 747. The era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 
312 e. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 
776 b. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning 
a. d. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- 
mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards 
from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted 
among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand th e Catholic. The disci- 
ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from 
Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. 

ERAS of the CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christiana 
have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefly 
used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the 
World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians have 
made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, 
when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot 
of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the 
birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — 
Cassiodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- 
land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in 
this work. — See Creation, and Christian Era. 

ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most 
magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; 
and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms 
a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some 
notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according 
to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than 
four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way 
being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English 
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 
11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. 

ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, 
or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires 
by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a 
pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the 
armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire 
was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. 
—Stowe. Meyrick's Ancient Armor. 

ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- 
covered by Kunkel. in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the 
chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by 
count Lauraguais, same year; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by 
Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said 
to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by 
Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for 
about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist 
and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of 
Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- 
ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. 
It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, 
and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- 
ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- 
burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is 
inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first 
used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance 



GVE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 



called chloroform, originally discovered by Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first 
employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. 

ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely 
more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and 
government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with 
astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in 
the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years 
before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not 
only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. 

ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called 
by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus 
Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions 
as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were eruptions, 125, 121; and 43 
b. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. — 
Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 
inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful 
and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens 
of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over 
the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and 
in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava 
reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte 
destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. 

EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished 
there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- 
able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented 
by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who 
reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- 
rems of his own, to render the whole a complete and connected system of 
geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynams, 
in a. d. 1533. 

EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian 
and Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in 
courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- 
ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng- 
let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on 
the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. 

EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken 
by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British 
forces, under admiral Eodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It 
was recovered by th« French under the marquis de BoiiiUe", Nov. 26, same 
year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- 
stored in 1814. 

EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 
55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil 
at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of 
Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. 
— Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of 
the adopted Evangelists. 

EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, 
and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one 
period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who 
did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, ' : Do not 



372 the world's PROGRESS. [ EIB 

kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broka 
up the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. 

EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. 
The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind 
in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- 
nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, 
June 7. 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in 
Ja"n. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1 S44, 

EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site 
of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and 
finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, 
also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. 

EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting of officers whose 
functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the 
first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the 
barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon- 
don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- 
ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles II. 1673.— Stowe. The English 
and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 

EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- 
ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized 
as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an 
office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions 
to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was 
built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and 
customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782 
See Revenue. 

AMOUNT OP THE EXCISE REVENUE OP GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 



1744 Great Britain - 


£3,754,072 


1830 United Kingdom 


£18,644,385 


1786 Ditto 


. 5,540,114 


1834 Ditto 


- 16,877,292 


1808 Ditto 


- - 19,867,914 


1837 Ditto 


- 14,518,142 


1820 Ditto 


- 26,361.702 


1840 Ditto 


■ - 12,607,766 


1827 United Kingdom 


- - 20,995,324 


1845 Ditto - 


- 13,585,583 



EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- 
tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of 
the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- 
gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to 
be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the 
Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian 
churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar 
punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. 

EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- 
cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes 
have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose 
sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant 
power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab- 
solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, 
"his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to 
bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign; 
and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all 
England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were 
excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to 
queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- 
gences were offered to all who should assist in deposing her. 

EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight yearu) 



E»j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



373 



it is shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed. — 
Htowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- 
land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the numbel 
of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, 
the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years 
ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, 
they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. 

EXECUTIOSS IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

In the year 1820 - 43 I In the year 1835 - nil I In the year 1838 - nil I In the year 184K - 1 
In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 In the year 1842 - 2 
In the year 1830 - 6 | In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 | In the year 1843 - 1 

EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. Si), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of 
war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, 
smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, 
Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- 
tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The 
Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes 
(flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, 
June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 
8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- 
pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 
EXPORTS, and IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. 

Exports. Years. Imports. Exports. 

$19,012,041 1820 - 74,450.000 - 69,691,669 
20,753,098 1821 - 62,585,724 - 64,974,3S2 
26,109,572 1822 • 83,241,541 - 72,160,281 
33,026.233 1823 - 77.579.267 - 74,699,030 
47,989,472 1824 - = 80,549,007 - 75,986,657 
67,064,097 1825 - 96,340,075 - 99,535,388 
56,850,206 1826 - 84,974,477 - 77,595,322 
61,527,097 1827 - 79,484,068 - 82,324,827 
78,665,522 1828 - 88,509,824 - 72,264,686 
70,971,780 1829 • 74,492,527 - 72,358,671 
94.115,925 1830 - 70,876,920 ■ 73 849,508 
72,483,160 1831 -103,191,134 - 81,310,583 
55,800,033 1832 - 101,029,266 - 87,176,943 
77,699,074 1833 - 108.118,311 - 90,140,433 
95,566,021 ia34 - 126,521,332 - 104,336,973 
101,536,963 1835 - 149,895,742 - 121,693,577 
108,343,150 1836 - 189,980,035 - 128,663,040 
22,439,960 1837 - 140,989,217 - 117,419,376 
52.203,231 1838 - 108,486,616 - 113,717,404 
66,757,974 1839 - 121,028,416 - 162,092,132 
61,316,831 1840 - 131.571,950 - 104,805,891 
38,527,236 1841 - 127,946,177 - 121,851,803 
27,855,997 1842 - 100,162,087 - 104,691,534 
6,927,441 1843 - 64,753,799* - 84,346,480* 
52,557,753 1844 - 108,435,035t - lll,200.046t 
81,920,452 1845 - 117,254,564t - 114,646,6061 
87,671,569 1846 - 121,691,797t - 113,488,5161 
93,281,133 1847 - 146.545,638t . - I58,64t,622t 
70,142,521 1848 - 154,977,876t - 154,032,131t 

EXPORTS, Great Britain. Edward III., by his encouragement of trade, 
turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance 
of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000?., 
and the imported to only 38,000/. 

VALUE OP EXPORTS PROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD, VIZ: — 

In 1700 - - £ 6.097,120 I In 1820 - - £51,733.113 I In 1842 - -£102,180,517 

In 1750 - - 10,130.991 I In 1830 - - 66.735,445 In 1S43 - - 100,260,101 

In 1775 - - 16.326,363 | In 1835 - - 78,376,732 | In 1844 - - 117,877,278 

In 1800 - - 38,120,120 I In 1840 - - 97,402.726 I In 1845 - - 131,564,509 

In 1810 - - 45,869.S39 In 1841 - - 102,705,372 In 1846 - - 134,509,118 



Years. 


Imports. 


1791 


$52,200,000 


1792 - 


31,500,000 - 


1793 


31,100,000 


1794 - 


34,600,000 . 


1795 


69,756,268 


1796 - 


81,436,164 - 


1797 


75,379,406 


1793 - 


68,551,700 - 


1799 


79/168,148 


1800 - 


91,252,768 - 


1801 


111,363,511 


1802 - 


76,333,333 - 


1803 


64,666,666 


1804 - 


85.000,000 - 


1805 


120,000,000 


1806 - 


129.000,000 - 


*S07 


138,500,000 


1808 - 


56,990,000 - 


1809 


59,400,000 


1810 - 


85,400,000 - 


1811 


53,400,000 


1812 . 


77,030,000 - 


1813 


22,005,000 


1814 - 


12,965,000 - 


1815 


1 13,041 i274 


1816 - 


147,103,000 - 


1817 


99,250,000 


1818 - 


121,750,000 - 


1819 


87,125,000 



Only nine months of 1843. 



t For the year ending June 30. 



374 the world's PROGRESS. [ FAX. 

The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom 
of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and 
colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follows : 

In 1341 - -£116,479,678 I In 1843 - -£113,844,259 I In 1845 - - £145,961,749 
In 1842 . • 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 • - 150,879,986 

In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the 
United Kingdom was 85,281,9582; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- 
land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65,598,0282. But even this 
great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year 
immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — 
Brit. Revenue Returns. 
EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most 
bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- 
manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were 
so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians 
on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss 
in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. 



FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from 
faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they 
were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and 
were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war against 
the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in 
which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There 
only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. 

FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful 
as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. 
xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- 
ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, 
called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. 
— Sir William Jones. The well-known ^Esop's fables {which see), were 
written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. 

FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- 
riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, 
a green, blue, red, and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in 
coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both 
the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- 
cular color than the rest ; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, 
between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed on both sides, the 
name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in 
religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. 

FAIRS and WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in 
England by Alfred, a. d. 886.— Spclman. They were established by order of 
Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Feriee, at which the monks celebrated tho 
festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- 
mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people making 
merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- 
land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the 
first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and 
Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. 

FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, 
commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter were slaib 



FEU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 

the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with 
dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. 
FAMINES, and SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of 
the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine that 
raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 
436 b. c. Livy. 

Awful famine in Egypt - a.d. 42 j voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, 

A;. Romej attended by plague - - 262 

In Britain, so grievous that people ate 
the bark of trees - - - 272 

In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 

In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 

Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 

So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate 
their children (Dufresnoy) - - 450 

In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 



and vermin - - -a.d. 1315 

One in England and France (Rapin) - 1353 
Again, one so great, that bread was 

made from fern roots (Stowe) - 1438 

Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 

One general in Great Britain - - 1743 
One which devastates Bengal • - 1771 

At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- 
sons perish .... 1775 



Again, when thousands starve - - 823 j One grievously felt in France - - 1789 
4gain, which lasts four years - - 954 1 One severely felt in England - - 1795 



Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 
In England and France ; this famine 
leads to a pestilential fever, which 
lasts from 1193 to - - -1195 

Another famine in England - - 1251 

Again, so dreadful, that the people de- 



Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 
At Drontheim, owing to Sweden liter- 

cepting the supplies - - - 1813 

Scarcity of food, severely felt by the 

Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 



FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc flabellum el 
ventulum huic sicfacito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies 
was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false 
hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England 
from France.— Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in 
church. — Pardon. 

FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows 
which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. 
These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined 
form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called 
comedies. See article Drama. 

FASTING, and FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations 
from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other 
stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, 
to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained aa 
a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. 

FEASTS and FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by 
Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest 
magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- 
mon, 1005 b. c. — Josephus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, 
Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be 
observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. 
Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. 
See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- 
tled at the Reformation, el seg., see Book of Common Prayer. 

FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa. a feast 
which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when 
sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the 
dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- 
viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. 

FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex- 
cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner 
of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600. The 



376 the world's progress. (_ na 

slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1008. This was 
done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain 
persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- 
ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XI. 
in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- 
ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into 
Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 
20 George II. 1746. — Littleton; Ruffhead; Blackstone. 

FEUILLANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues 
and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where 
their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins 
invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, 
Dec. 25, 1791. 

FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about 
a. d. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M. rocco 
States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than 
seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth 
century. 

FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means 
of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became 
checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, 
in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " no fiction op law 

SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO 

prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. This constitutional 
maxim is now a rule of law. 

FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert 
I., a. d. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, 
before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons 
(see Feudal Laios). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. 

FIELD of the CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet 
Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 
1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with 
such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview 
(an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the 
king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and 
were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain 
splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the 
interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. 

FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of 
Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at 
hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal 
monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! 
Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. 

FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of 
computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900. 
They were first known in England about the year 1253, previously to which 
time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. 

FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The 
poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, 
king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of 
Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- 
tries of the East, 2115 b. c. — Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the 
world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and 



FIR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 



taught this theory ahout 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is 
said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the 
burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. . 
John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, 
as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. 
FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were 
brought to, England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- 
land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the 
earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at 
the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who 
armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the 
Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the 
Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns at the 
battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See 
Artillery. 
FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although the forcing 
pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The 
fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 
the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the 
present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 
1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. 
FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most 
formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to 
destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use oi 
them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement 
with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin. 
t'IRE- WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : 
they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a.d. 1360; and were first 
exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 
in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- 
sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with 
a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected 
over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 
1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21. 1770. Madame Blanchard 
ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by 
fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and 
dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. 
FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. 

New York, destroying 302 stores and 
dwelling-houses, and property worth 
$6,000,000-4 lives lost - July 19, 1845 
St. John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the 
whole town destroyed — 6,000 people 
made houseless - - June 12, 1846 

Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons 

burned to death - - June 14, 1846 
Nantucket : 300 buildings, valued 

$800,000 - - - July 13, 1846 

Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 

18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 

At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides 
steamboats <fcc. , 24 acres burned over, 
loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17. .849 

At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, 

$750,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848 

At St. Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 
blocks of houses destroyed, loss about 
$3,000,000 - - ' May 17, 1849 

At Philadelphia, 300 houses July rf, 1860 



In New York, destroying 600 warehou- 
ses and property to amount of $20,- 
000,000 - - _ - Dec. 16, 1835 

At Washington, destroying the General 
Post Office and Patent "Office, with 
10,000 valuable models, drawines, 
&c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 

At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and 
1,158 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 

New York ; 46 buildings ; loss, $10,- 
000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 

Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, 
$500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and 
property valued about $6,000,000 

' April 10, 1845 

Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, 
immense loss of property, and se- 
veral lives. May 28, 1845. Another, 
burninr 1,300 dwellings; in all, two- 
thirds of the city - June 28, 1845 



378 the world's progress. (_fto 

FIRE op LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four days eighty- 
nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the 
Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, 
besides 13.200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened 
(not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three 
days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of 
houses. — Hume; JRapin; Carte. 

FIRST FRUITS. Primituz among the Hebrews. They were offerings which 
made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruita 
were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306 ; and were collected in 
England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- 
land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIIL, 1535, when the 
first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- 
sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of 
the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of 
First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 
1838. 

FLAGELLANTS, Sect of. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d. 
1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- 
lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the 
cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad 
Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. 

FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgse ; conquered by Julius Cassar, 
47 b. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by 
its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the 
house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders 
shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it 
was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrun by 
the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It 
was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected 
into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831.— See Belgium. 

FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many 

ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. 

A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the 

flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. 

, See article Hemp. 

FLODDEN FIELD, Battle op, between the English and Scots. James IV. of 
Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. 
of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy ; 
and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army 
were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, 
lost only persons of small note. Henry VIIL was at the time besieging 
Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513. 

FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en- 
larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- 
built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- 
aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are tp be fourd the 
rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- 
emy, and the Accademia della Cru'sca, were instituted to enrich the literature 
and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it 
rejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the 
French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. 

FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot 
sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven« 



FLO] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



379 



turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1518. In 1539, 
Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- 
sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years 
after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for 
Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United 
States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the 
Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another 
protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 
1842. General Jessup. general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The 
Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723 ; 
in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. 

FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. KJloren was issued by Ed- 
ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. — Cam- 
den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because 
the latter was of the best gold. — Ashe. The florin cf Germany is in value 
2s. M. ; that of Spain 4s. i^d. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. (yd. ; that of 
Holland 2s. — Ayliffe. 

FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our 
gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is 
said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for 
the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of 
our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good- 
ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even 
the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Sturm. From the 
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, 
for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers 
in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects 
of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented 
in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of 
whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the 
following- : — 



FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. 

Acacia, N. America, before - a. d. 1641) 

Allspice shrub, Carolina - - 1726 

Armiseed tree, Florida, about - - 1766 

Arbor Vitse, Canada, before - - 1596 

Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope - 1774 

Auricula, Switzerland - - - 1567 

Azarole, S. Europe, before - - 1640 

Bay, royal, Madeira - - - 1665 

Bay, sweet. Italy, before - - 1548 

Camellia, China - - - - 1811 

Chaste tree, Sicily, before - • 1570 

Christ's thorn, Africa, before • • 1596 

Canary bell-flower, Canaries • - 1696 

Carnation, Flanders - - - 1567 

Ceanothus, blue, New Spain - - 1818 

Canary convolvulus, Canaries - - 1690 

Convolvulus, many-flowered - • 1779 

Coral tree, Cape - - - 1816 

Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape - 1791 

Coral tree, tremulous, Cape - - 1789 

Craeper, Virginian, N. America - 1603 

Dahlia, China - - - - 1803 

Dryandra, New Holland - - 1803 

Evergreen thorn, Italy - - - 1629 

Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape 1781 

Everlasting, giant, Cape - - 1793 

Fernbush, sweet, N. America - - 1714 

Fox-glove, Canaries - - - 1693 

Geranium, Flanders - - - 1534 

Gillyflower. Flanders - - - 1567 



Gold-plant, Japan 

Golden bell-flower, Madeira 

Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer 

ica, before ... 

Heath, ardent, Cape 
Heath, beautiful, Cape 
Heath, fragrant, Cape • 
Heath, garland, Cape 
Heath, perfumed, Cape 
Honeyflower, great, Cape - 
Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - 
Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 
Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America 
Hyssop, south of Europe, before, - 
Jasmine, Circassia, before 
Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - 
Judas-tree, south of Europe, before 
Laburnum, Hungary 
Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before 
Laurestine, south of Europe, before 
Lavender, south of Europe, before 
Lily, Italy, before - 
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 
Lily, red-colored, South America - 
Loblolly-bay, N. America, before 
Lupine tree, Cape, about - 
Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America 
Magnolia, dwarf, China 
Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America 
Maiden-hair. Japan - 
Mignionette, Italy 



1783 
1777 

1683 
1800 
1795 
1803 
1774 
1803 
1688 
1806 
1752 
1656 
1548 
1548 
1629 
1596 
1576 
1713 
1596 
1568 
1460 
1800 
1623 
1739 
1793 
1688 
1786 
1734 
1714 
1528 



380 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[for 



Rose, tube, from Java and O.ylon 
Rose without thorns, N. America, be 
fore .... 

Rosemary, south of Europe 

St. Peter's wort, North America - 

Sage, African, Cape 

Sage, Mexican, Mexico 

Sassafras tree, N. America, before 

Savin, south of Europe, before 

Snowdrop, Carolina 

Sorrel tree, N. America, before - 

Sweet bay, south of Europe, before 

Tamarisk plant, Germany - 

Tea tree, China, about - 

Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - 

Trumpet-flower, N. America - 

Trumpet-flower, Cape 

Tulip, Vienna - 

Virginia creeper, N. America, befon 

Virgin's-bower, Japan - 

Weeping willow, Levant, before • 

Wax tree, China 

Winter berry, Virginia 

Youlan, China - 



1629 

1726 
1548 
1730 
1731 
1724 
1663 
1584 
1756 
1752 
1548 
1560 
1768 
1739 
1640 
1823 
1578 
1629 
1776 
1692 
1794 
1736 
1789 



FLOWERS, continued. 

Milk-wort, great- flowered, Cape • - 1713 

Milk-wort, showy. Cape - - 1814 

Mountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 
Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 

Myitle, candleberry, N. America - ■ 1699 

Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - - 1776 

Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 

Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730 

Olive, sweet-scented, China - - 1771 

Oleander, red, south of Europe • 1596 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - - 1724 

Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 

Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 1792 

Pigecn-berry, N. America - - 1736 

Pink, from Italy - . - - - 1567 

Ranunculus, Alps - - - 1528 

Roses, Netherlands - - - 1522 

Rose, the China, China - - 1789 
Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and 

south of Europe, about - - 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China - - - 1793 

Rose, the moss, before - - - 1724 

Rose, the musk, Italy - - • 1522 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from 

China - - - . - - 1821 

FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarch. 
The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; 
and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay 
claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru- 
ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- 
relli came over. — See Music. 

FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton/ 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- 
nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, 
La Grange, and La Place. 

FLYING, Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- 
tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac- 
tice, a. d. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man 
call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him 
call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away pre- 
viously to the accomplishment of these predictions. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in 
1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and 
Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- 
poleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- 
tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon- 
tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here 
Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, 
April 5, 1814. 

FONTENOY, Battle of, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, 
• and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the 
carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and 
the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end 
defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which 
he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring 
his troops that the day would be their own ; April 30, 1745. 

FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off in 
a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early 



FOB J 



DICTIONARY OF DaTES. • 381 



ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser 
voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- 
tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167. 
FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and 
were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of 
absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed 
jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu- 
rope), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as S8 
forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- 
shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, 
pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, 
a. d. 1079-85.— Stowe. 
FORGERY in England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c, 
made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut 
off, the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual 
imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 
1634. 
FORGERY, Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- 
bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- 
uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4.200Z. : the greatest interest was made, 
and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came 
before the council, the minister of the day said to George III., " if your 
majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he 
was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London 
banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- 
chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for 
forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. 
FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — 
Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- 
son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he 
cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner ot 
using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate 
the Italian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. 
FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified 
cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycense, where statues 
were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about 
a. d. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- 
ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. 
FO THERINGAY CASTLE , Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard 
III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death 
is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded 
in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8, 
1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- 
land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. 
FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provision 
for the preservation of exposed children ; but foundling hospitals are a 
modern institution. ' That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1807 
had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings in 
1784, was 40,000- in 1798, over 51,000; in 1822, 138,500. The increase 
in Europe during the last fifty years has been very great. In England 
these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine II. built a 
tostly one near Moscow, where 8000 infants were succored. 



382 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[FRj& 



FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans hy the name of Gaul. In 
the decline of their power it was conquered hy the Franks, a people of Ger- 
many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave 
the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, 
are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, 
France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, 
first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica 
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views, 65 et seq. 



The Franks, under their leader Phara- 
mond, settle in that part of Gaul till 
late called Flanders - - A. D. 420 

Reign of Clovis the Great - - 481 

[The Events in French History and the 
succession of sovereigns will be found 
in the Tabular Views in this volume, 
commencing p. 65.] 
720. Childeric II. 
737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic 

sway during an interregnum. 
742. Childeric III., the Stupid ; turned 
monk. 

THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 
tel ; this race called Carlovingians. 

768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great; 
also emperor of Germany. 

S14. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, 
the Debonnxire ; dethroned, and im- 
prisoned in a monastery. 

840. Charles II., surnamed the Bald; poi- 
soned by his physician Henault. 

877. Louis the Stammerer. 

879. Carloman and Louis III. The latter 
died, 882. Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. 

887. Eudes or Hugh. 

898. Chanes III., the Simple ; deposed and 
died in prison. 

923. Rudolph. 

936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 
from his horse. 

954. Lothaire HI. poisoned ; it is said by 
his wife Emma. 

986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by 

his wife Blanche, and in him ended 
the vice of Charlemagne. 

THE CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of 

kings are called Capevingians. 
996. Robert the Sage. 
1031. Henry I. 
1060. Philip I., the Fair. 
1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. 
1137. Louis VII., the Young. 
1180. Philip II., Augustus. 
1223. Louis VIII., the Lion. 
1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis; died in 

his camp before Tunis ; canonized. 
1270. Philip III., the Hardy. 
1285. Philip IV., the Handsome. 
1314. Louis X., Hutin. 
1316. John, who reigned only eight days. 
1316. Philip V., the Long. 
1323. Charles IV., the Handsome ; king of 

Navarre. 

HOUSE OP VALOIS 

1328. Philip de Valois. 



1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
in London. 

1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise; th« 
first prince who had the title of dau- 
phin. (See article Dauphin.) 

1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 

1422. Charles VII., the Vicarious. 

1461. Louis XI., detested for his atrocious 

1483. Charles VIII., the Affable. 

1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed 

the Father of his People. 
1515. Francis I. 
1547. Henry II. : died of a wound received 

at a tournament. 

1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart, 

afterwards queen of Scots ; died 
the year after his accession. 

1560. Charles IX. Cathjsi'ine of Medicis, his 

mother, obtained the regency, which 
trust she abused. 

1574. Henry HI., elected king of Poland; 
murdered Aug. 1, 1589, by Jacques 
Clement, a Dominican friar. In this 
prince was extinguished the houss 
of Valois. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, 
king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- 
cis Ravillac. (See Ravillac.) 

1610. Louis XIII., the Just. . 

1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled 

1715. Louis XV., the Well-Beloved; bu*. 

which surname he lost. 

1774. Louis XVI., his grandson; guillo- 
tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen 
Maria-Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 

1789. The Revolution commences with the 
destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 

1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. 

FRENCH EMPIRE. 

1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- 
ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the 
pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes 
the iron crown, May 26, 1805. Re- 
nounces the thrones of France and 
Italy, Apr. 5. 1814. 

BOURBONS RESTORED. 

1814. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the throne* 
May 3, 1814 ; dies, Sept. 16, 1824. 

1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, 1830; 
retires to Rambouillet same day, 
and subsequently seeks protection 
in England. 

HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 

1830. Louis-Philippe ; declared " king at 
the French," August 9. 



FRE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 



FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction; and an- 
ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, 
churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they 
were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun- 
ties on persons having 40s. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruff head's 
Statutes. See Electors. 

FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church 
of Rome, founded hy Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some 
authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared ia 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII., 
they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a. d 1536-88. 

FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken 
several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the 
iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- 
anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was 
established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. 

FREDERIC KSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable by the death of 
Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, 
and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. 
He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer- 
book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis- 
tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- 
brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the " Madman of the North." 

FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves 
masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and 
harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build- 
ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, 
Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- 
tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been 
fixed at the year a. d. 674 ; although by other authorities it is assigned a 
much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free- 
masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into 
great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that 
of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- 
sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French 
laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- 
land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of 
Edward III., 1362— Stowe. 

FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the 
American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the 
British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- 
can commander and his troops were made prisoners. 

FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng- 
land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689 The 
French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me.. &c, 1690 ; but were defeated 
by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. " Queen Anne's 
war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish 
invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French 
in Port Royal, 1707 ; and against Canada, '1710; both failed. Peace of 
TTtrecht. 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744; Louisbourg and 
Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en- 



384 the world's PROGRESS. [_ FRO 

croachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3. 
Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c. taken 
hy French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbonrg taken by the Eng- 
lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon- 
deroga. Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. 
Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, 
Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. 
French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 
1778. French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in trie 
United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. 

FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga. a goddess wor- 
shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same 
with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, 
and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of 
our Saviour's crucifixion, April 3, 33. See Good Friday. 

FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on 
the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- 
pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 
50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by whicli 
Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nea-ly half hei 
dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands were discovered by Tasman, a. d. 1642. 
Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook, 
who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi- 
tion of the natives, 1773. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in 
the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into 
importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative 
enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than 
twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly 
Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities. 

FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince 
Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han- 
over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- 
land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but 
Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Frise (some- 
times, though rarely, written Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived 
from Friesland, where it was invented. 

s'ROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng- 
lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. 
After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which 
has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, 
bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain 
gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and 
lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up 1 o a 
third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. 

FROSTS, The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a.d. 401. — Univ. Hist. 
A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued 
until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred 
miles from the shore.— Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day 
was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035.— Speed. The 
frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that 
country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the 
French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable 



FUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 385 

year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the 
frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses 
fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the effects 
of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
more than 400,000 men. 

FRUITS of FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned 
as having- been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and 
flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought 
thither in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII. , and of Mary and Elizabeth, 
between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Flowers. Among 
others of less note, were musk-melons plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- 
dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips. &c. ; also saffron, woad, and 
other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with- 
out success. — Hackluyt; Lord Kaimcs. The following are among the fruits 
whose introduction into England has been traced : — 

fruits, etc. Mulberry, the red, from North Ame- 



Almond-tree, Barbary 

Apples, Syria 

Apple, the custard, North America 

Apple, the Osage, ditto 

Apricots, Epirus 

Cherry-trees, Pontus 

Cornelian cherry, Austria - 

Currants, Zante - 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 

Fig-tree, south of Europe, beforD 



1548 rica, before - - - a. d. 1629 

1522 Mulberry, the paper, from .U pan, before 1754 

1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - - 1562 

1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - - - 1730 

1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China - 1771 

100 Oranges 1595 

1596 Peaches, Persia - - - 1562 

1533 Pears, from various climes - . * * * 

1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568 

1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - - 1525 



Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy .... 1522 
Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 , Plum, the date, Barbary - - - 1596 

Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 ! Pomegranate, Spain, before - - 1548 

Lemons. Spain - - - 1554 I Quince, Austria - - - - 1573 

Limes, Portugal .... 1554 Quince, the Japan - - - 1796 

Lime, the American, before - -1752 Raspberry, the flowering, N. America - 1700 

Melons, before .... 1540 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before - 1696 
Mock orange, south of Europe, before - 1596 1 Strawberry, Flanders - - -T530 

Mulberry, Italy - - - - 1520 | Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724 

M ilberry, white, China, about - - 1596 Walnut, the black, N. America, before 1621, 

FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in 
a. d. 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 
1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies 
for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues 
(the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. — Mor- 
timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of 
the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea- 
ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three 
per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house. 1751. Three and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- 
ties, 1761. Four per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities, 1797, and 
1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. 

FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks 
they were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions and tne 
mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were 
abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- 
then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in- 
dispensable among the Romans; the custom of led horses took place a. d. 
1268. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. 

FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, 
when people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- 
ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 b. c. Po- 
pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funera] 
17 



386 the world's progress. [ on 

which was done by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Juliua 
Caesar did the like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, 
Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- 
tus, 580 b. c. 
FUR. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- 
ury advanced, they were used by princes as finings for their tents. They 
were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward III. enacted that 
all such persons as could not spend 1001. a year, should be prohibited fhii 
species of finery, 1337. 

G. » 

GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were 
invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens, 
786 b. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting 
in them, see Polybius. 

GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent ; it was first noticed in 1767, by 
Saltzer ; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani 
of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and 
from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs, Galvani 
having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the 
contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon: and 
in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. 
Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- 
rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers. 
See Electro-Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles 
of galvanic electricity by Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 
livres, in 1808. — Phillips. See Mesmerism. 

GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the 
riorth of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by 
William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of 
property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. 
Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters : and they protested against 
ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 
1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume- 
rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. 

GAMING, Excessive. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was 
often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. — 
Camden ; Slowe. Act, prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting 
tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c, to inferior people, except at Christmas time). 
33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act 
to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and 
the games of Fa.ro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. 
— Ruffkead's Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaminghouse in London 
for one season have been estimated at 150.000Z. In one night a million of 
money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. 

GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their "espectiva 
heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on 
new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
games were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See 
the Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular, and other Games. 

GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of 
building houses. — Walpolc. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine. 
Of fruit, flower, and kitchen gardens, the garden of Eden was, no doubt, 



SAR j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



387 



the prototype. — Idem. There wants nothing hut the emhroidery of a par- 
terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one 
in that of our William III. — Idem. The art of gardening became better 
understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our 
vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign 
of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 
1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : — 



ROOTS AND VEGETABLES. 


Carrots 


■ Flanders 


Plums - 


Damascus 






Brocoli 


■ Cyprus 


Oranges - 


Spain 


Rice, from 


Ethiopia 


Beans • 


■ Greece 


Lemons 


Spain 


Buckwheat • 


Asia 


Peas - 


- Spain 


Pink 


Italy 


Borage 


Syria 






Provence-rose 


Marseilles 


Cresses 


Crete 


FRUITS AND 


FLOWERS. 


Convolvulus 


Canaries 


Cauliflower 


Cyprus 






Arctopus 


Cape 


Asparagus - 


Asia 


Jasmine 


• Circassia 


Bell-flower 


Canaries 


Lettuce - 


Brabant 


Elder-tree 


Persia 


Cherr.cs 


Pontus 


Artichokes - 


Holland 


Tulip - 


Cappadocia 


Figs - 


Italy 


Garlic 


The East 


Daffodil • 


- Italy 


Date-plum - 


Barbary 


Shallots 


Siberia 


Lily - 


Syria 


Mulberry - 


Italy 


Horse-radish 


China 


Tuberose - 


Java, &c. 


Nectarine - 


Persia 


Kidney-beans 


East Indies 


Carnation • 


Italy, &c. 


Passion-flower 


Brazil 


Gourds 


Astracan 


Ranunculus 


Alps 


Pomegranate 


Spain 


Lentils - 


France 


Apples 


Syria 


Rosemary 


Italy 


Chervil - 


Italy 


Apricots - 


• Epirus 


Laburnum - 


Hungary 


Celery - 


Flanders 


Currants 


- Zante 


Laurel 


Levant 


Potatoes • 


Brazil 


Damask-rose 


■ Damascus 


Lavender 


Italy 


Tobacco 


America 


Hops - 


- Artois 


Peaches - 


Persia 


Cabbage - 


■ Holland 


Gooseberries 


- Flanders 


Quince 


Austria 


Anise - 


Egypt 


Gilly-flowers 


- Toulouse 


Weep. Willow Levant 


Parsley - 


Egypt 


Musk-rose 


- Damascus 


Fennel - 


Canaries 



Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and 
the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c. 
were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- 
rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. , about 
1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal. of Plumstead, 
in Sussex, 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng- 
land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several 
sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came 
from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by 
archbishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted 
flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose, 
&c, 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots 
from Vienna, 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 
1600. See Mowers; Fruits. 
GARTER, Order of the. This institution outvies all other similar institu- 
tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France 
and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, 
with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of bis 
mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and 
thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed 
a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to 
the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal 
letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour- 
naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor , it 
was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- 
meter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were 
entertained at the king's own expense of 1Q01. a week. In 1346, Edward 
gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned Avith suc- 
cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and 
having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner ; and Edward the Black Prince 



388 the world's PROGRESS. [ GEK 

his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so- 
vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, 
a. d. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the 
ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in- 
scription in old French — " Honi soit qui mat y pense " — evil to him who evil 
thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled 
Equites anrece, Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. 

GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. 
Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- 
nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first dis- 
play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, 
on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently 
used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights 
were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They 
were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London 
in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- 
nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex- 
tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) 
first lighted with gas, 1823-4. 

GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first 
printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because 
una gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. 
Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. — 
Trusler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 
1715.— AWi;. Diet. Hist. 

GAZETTE, the LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub- 
lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 
7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed 
to the London Gazette, Feb. 5. 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are 
used for the publication of extraordinary official news. One of these latter 
was forged with a view of affecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud 
succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The 
Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY op SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the 
church was held December 20, 1560. The General Assembly constitutes 
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- 
sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates 
from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. 
To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its 
decision is final. See Church of Scotland. 

GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote 
times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the 
title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203. — Henault. It is observed 
by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, 
upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 
1629. 

GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub- 
lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. 
Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in 
consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- 
land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish parliament voted 
5O ; 000Z. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them 
lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came to 



GEO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 389 

Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it : at this period many 
Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge- 
neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. 

GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- 
mans, 115 b. c, and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till 
a. d. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other 
magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 
1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated 
Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. 
Bombarded by the French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. 
Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of 
the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- 
querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without 
effect. Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The 
city sustained a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally 
starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren- 
dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The Tagurian 
Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly 
invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire, May 25, 
1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18, 
1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection 
against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849. 

GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, 
the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- 
plied to them the terms ecuyers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gen- 
tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended, 
about a. d. 1430. — Sidney. 

GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge 
is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing 
the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the 
countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The 
priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre of the 
world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, 
about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- 
cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of 
Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mari- 
ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern 
geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England 
by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a 
western continent, a. d. 1489. 

GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical 
speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been 
cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories 
and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as 
being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the 
astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by 
scientific investigation, see that there is no collision between the discoveries 
in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by 
Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that 
the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was 
framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, 
created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world 
into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible 
reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that 
man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand years 



390 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[ GEK 



upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe bear witness to the 
same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken 
of in the sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments 
drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- 
nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from 
each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teeming 
with life, ere man, and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been 
called into being. — Dr. Manlell and Bishop Blomfield. 

GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations 
of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the 
boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 
b. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of 
curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic 
sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b c, The conchoid 
curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The science of geometry was 
taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- 
metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected 
with magic, 7 Edward VL, 1552. — Stowe. 

GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general 
Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known 
by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- 
racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., 
Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were 
sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave 
France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. 
In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, which see. 

GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- 
thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- 
nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town 
and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted 
the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82,584 ; in 1840, 
691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, 
or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that 
instead thereof a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- 
rangement was adopted in 1815, by the allied sovereigns ; and Germany is 
now governed by a diet, consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any 
alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- 
sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, 
divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. 

GERMANY. From Germanni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman 
historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent 
states until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans 
to subdue them, although they conquered some parts; but by the repeated 
efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a. d. 290. In 432, 
the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive 
country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, 
became master of the whole, a. d. 802. 



Charlemagne crowned emperor of the 
West at Rome - - a. d. 

He adds a second head to the eagle, to 
denote that the empires of Rome and 
Germany are united in him - 

Louis (Debonnaire) separates Germany 
frani Fiance - 



Charles III. was the first sovereign who 
added " in the year of oui Lord" tf- 
his reign .... 8? t 

The German princes assert their inde- 
pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 

[The electoral character assumed about 
this time. See Electors.] - 912 



ttER J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



391 



GERMANY, continued. 

Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the 
Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, 
Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is 
crowned emperor by the pope 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia, wasting 
it with fire and sword 

Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders 
through Germany, where they mas- 
sacre the Jews .... 

Henry IV. excommunicated by pope 
Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about 

Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- 
vestitures, with the pope 

The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin 

Conrad 111. leads a large army to the 
holy wars, where it is destroyed by 
the treachery of the Greeks - 

Teutonic order of knighthood 

Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, 
chosen by the electors 

The famous edict, called the Golden 
Bull, by Charles IV. - 

Sigismorid, king of Bohemia, elected 
emperor. He betrays John Huss and 
Jerome of Prague, who are burned 
alive (see Bohemia) ■ 

Sigismond being driven from the throne, 
Albert II, duke of Austria, succeeds. 
(In his family the crown resides for 
three centuries) 

The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 

The empire divided into circles 

Era of the Reformation (Luther) 

Abdication of Charles V. 

War of the two parties, the Evangelic 
union under Frederick, elector pala- 
tine, and the Catholic league, under 
the duke of Bavaria 

Battle of Prague, which lost the elector 
palatine the crown 

Treaty of Westphalia 

John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats 
the Turks in many battles, and obliges 
them to raise the siege of Vienna 

The peace of Carlowitz 

The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 

The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 
pied with wars against the Turks, and 
in establishing the Pragmatic sanc- 
tion, in favor of the succession of his 
daughter, Maria Theresa, married to 
the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 

Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries 
the heiress of Austria, the celebrated 
Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; 
ana is elected emperor 

Joseph II. extends his dom.nisns by the 
dismemberment of Poland 

Again, by the final partition of that de- 
voted kingdom 

[In the ruinous wars between Germany 
ar.d France, the emperor loses the 
Netherlands, all his territories west 
of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 
1793, et seq.] 

Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 
ror of Austria - - Aug. 11, 

Dissolution of the German empire ; for- 
mation of the Confederation of the 
Rhine - - - July 12, 

General agitation among the people, 



919 
962 
1042 

1095 

1106 

1122 
1140 



1147 
1190 



1273 
1356 



143S 
143'J 
1512 
1517 
1556 



1618 



1620 
1648 



1683 
1699 
1722 



1742 

1745 
1772 
1795 



1S04 



and demands for reforin granted in 
various degrees by sovereigns of 
Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those 
of the smaller principalities of Ger- 
many - - Feb. and March, 1848 

A federal union of the German States 
demanded by Prussia March, 1848 

Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit- 
ter-Meyer, President March 31, 1843 

German Parliament meets at Frank- 
fort - - - May 18, 184? 

The archduke, John of Austria, elected 
by the parliament as lord-lieutenant 
of the Empire - - June 29, 1843 

He is installed at Frankfort, and names 
his ministers - - July 15, 1848 

Great excitement in Germany on ac- 
count of the execution at Vienna of 
Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, 
for aiding the insurrection Nov. C 1848 



A. D. 

800. 
814. 
840. 
855. 
875. 
878. 
879. 
887. 
899. 
912. 

912. 
919. 
936. 
973. 
983. 
1002. 

1024. 

1039. 
1055. 
1077. 
1080. 
1105. 
1125. 
1138. 
1152. 

1191. 
1198. 
1208. 
1211. 
1245. 
1246. 
1273. 

1291. 

12'.i8. 



1314. 

1347. 
1378 
1399 
MOO. 
1410. 
1437. 

1440. 



EMPERORS CP GERMANY. 

Charlemagne the Great. 

Louis the Debonnaire. 

Lothaire. 

Louis II. 

Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 

Louis III., the Stammerer. 

Charles III., the Gross. 

Amould. 

Louis IV. 

Otho, duke of Saxony ; he refused the 

dignity on account of his age. 
Conrad, duke of Franconia. 
Henry 1, the Fowler. 
Otho I., the Great. 
Otho II., the Bloody. 
Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. 
Henry II., duke of Bavaria ; the Holy 

and Lame. 
Conrad II., the Salique. 
Henry III., the Black. 
Henry IV. ; deposed. 
Rodolphus ; killed in battle. 
Henry IV. ; re-instated. 
Henry V. 
Lothaire II. 
Conrad 111. 

Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned in Bo- 
hemia. 
Henry VI., the Sharp. 
Philip ; killed at Bamberg. 
Otho IV; deposed. 
Frederic II. ; deposed. 
Henry VII ; killed. 
William ; killed in battle. 
Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, tho 

first of the Austrian family. 
Adolphus; deposed. 
Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. 
Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest, in 

the consecrated wafer. 
Louis IV. ■, cf Bavaria ; killed by a fell 

from his horse. 
Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 
Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. 
Frederick, Duke of Brunswick. 
Rupert, palatine of the Rhine. 
Sigismond, king of Hungary. 
Albert II., duke of Austria and king of 

Bohemia. 
Frederick III., archduke of Aumria. 



392 

GERMANY, continued. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[gib 



1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress 

of Burgundy. 
1519. Charles V., king: of Spain. 
1558. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 
1564. Maximilian II. 
1576. Rodolphus II. 
1612. Matthias I. 

1619. Ferdinand II., king of Hungary. 
J637. Ferdinand III., ditto. 
1658. Leopold I., ditto 
1705. Joseph II., ditto, and of Bohemia. 
1711. Charles VI. 
1742. Charles VII. 



1745. Francis I.; husband of Maria Theresa, 
queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 

1765. Joseph II. 

1790. Leopold II. 

1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em- 
peror of Austria only, in 1806. 

1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which see). 

1815. Germanic Confederation. 

1835. Ferdinand I., of Austria. 

(See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning 
p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavaria, 
Prussia, Wurtemburg, &c.) 



There are about 20 German principalities with territories equal to English 
counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine 
(one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the 
head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. 

GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- 
ward III. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. 
Pacification of Ghent. November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of 
Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- 
tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between' Great 
Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. 

GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height ; he wa3 
also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, 
and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius. 
: 'The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara. 
who in the days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. 
He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in 
Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, 
the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in 
height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of 
the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- 
es long ; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 
20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is 
now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- 
ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with 
Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of 
Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English 
feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik, Mountain of 
Tarik, whence its present name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of 
Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George 
Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, 
bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- 
ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since 
continued an appendage to the British crown. 



Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 
21st July, and taken on the 24th, a. d. 1704 

Besieged by the Spanish and French ; 
they lose 10.000 men, and the victori- 
ous English but 400 - Oct. 11-, 1704 

The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, 
and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 



20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the 
loss of the English is only 300 - 1727 

Memorable siege of the Spaniards and 
French, whose prodigious arma- 
ments* (the greatest ever brought 
against a fortress) were wholly over- 
tfirown. The siege continued from 
July 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 



* The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troopg 
Of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, there 



ffLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 393 

GJILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 b. c. The capitol was the first 
building on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole 
ounce. — Pliny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Tmsler. A 
single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf 
that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo- 
niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on 
wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. 

G1SORS, Battle op, in France, between the armies of France and England, in 
which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the 
day was " Dieuet mon droit" — "God and my right;" and from this time it 
was made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. 

GL A.DIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, 
or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral 
ceremonies of the Romans. 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom 
of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. 
Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When 
Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- 
tion of his triumph for 123 days, a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- 
tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- 
nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet. 

GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from 
James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest 
commerce was in salmon, about 1420. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass 
by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- 
houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for 
many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of 
Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were 
formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next 
France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses 
in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The manufacture 
was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. — 
Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the 
reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- 
ted, 1845. 

GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles 
in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England 
towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 
1530. 

GLENCOE, Massacre op. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending 
and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering 
in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain; 
and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked 



were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 
2.12 guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb- ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; 
while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 shells 
were daily thrown into the town , and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were ex- 
pended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, 
and their whole line of works annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general 
Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at 
upwards of 2,600,000^. sterling B it their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred 
Sept. 13, 1782. 

17* 



394 the world's PROGRESS. [ GOD 

in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black 
deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9. 1691. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principa. 
circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar 
eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 
640 b. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars 
by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an- 
tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and 
evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere ol 
the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, 
the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main- 
tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun ; 
which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- 
losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage 
round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- 
lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same 
enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See Circumnavigation, and Earth. 

GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, 
angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from 
the Cassars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. 
The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church of 
Rome, and was called doxology because it began with So|a. glory, a. d. 
382. 

GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving 
of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and 
two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, 
a d. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- 
corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 
1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. 

GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. 
The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the 
Priscillianists ; but the name, which was once glorious, at length became in- 
famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a 
complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to 
extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con- 
sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which 
they differed among themselves as much as they did from others. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the 
suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the 
chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to 
have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the 
scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the 
same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direc- 
tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for- which were drawn by 
the celebrated Le Brun, by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666.— Du Fres- 
noy. 

GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir- 
cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose 
in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. 
It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander; 
according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d. 



OOO I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395 

130. In Catholic countries they havo godfathers and godmothers in the 
baptism of their bells. 

GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, 
from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most 
valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with 
copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty-four carats ; that used in our 
coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no 
metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The 
smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to 
observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. 

GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most 
abundant in Africa, Tapan, and South America, in which l&et gold was dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported 
into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, ex- 
clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing 
ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, 
in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; 
in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- 
fornia, April 1848. 

GOLD and SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as 
stated in the Mining Journal : 

Gold. Silver. 

Mexico £6,436,453 = .£139,818,032 

Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1,822,924 

Buenos Ayres 4,024,895 = 27,182,673 

Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,981 

£17,003,579 = £170,326,610 
The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3£ 
times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- 
phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, 
discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4,377.500.. Those 
of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 
1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which 
was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. 
mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in 
the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North 
and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago, 
4|, Africa 14. See Coin. 
GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from 
Iolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- 
cover his treasures, which the perfidious iEetes, king of Colchis, had seized, 
after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to 
Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave 
occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re- 
covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c. 

GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows 
the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, 
about 432 b. c. — Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar 
cycle, add one to the date and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the 
number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number. 

GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been 
held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on 
Friday, April 3, a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to 
the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Fri- 



396 the world's PROGRESS. [ GOV 

day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- 
joined on this day. 

GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to 
the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia. 
Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the 
oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a 
military sense at least, this "conqueror of the world" interpreted the ora- 
cle, 330 b. c. 

GORDONS "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George 
Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's 
Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition 
to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences 
to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but 
proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down 
the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several 
other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- 
tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overcc tning the civil 
power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of 
the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, 
then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- 
menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private 
mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; 
among these were the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the 
rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in 
the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George 
was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. 
— Amiual Register. 

GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; 
St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found 
buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 
485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two years after he was 
thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, 
and banished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings 
of the actual coming of the Messiah, and hence the evangelical history of 
Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Bray was the author of the first plan for 
propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. 

GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who 
first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : 
it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of 
their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop 
Burnet. 

GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, 
Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 
251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After 
the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under 
Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
their dominion till a. d. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, 
Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- 
dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOVERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In an 
elaborate* article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz. j 



GJtiE J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



397 



in the United States : aggregate of 
national expenditure, for each in- 
habitant - - - - $0 97 

Aggregate of State expenditure, for 
each inhabitant - - - 50 

Aggregate of town or city expendi- 
ture, for each inhabitant - - 92 

Total cost of Government in the 

United States, per head, - - $2 39 

or $47,800,000 if the population is 
20 millions. 

In England, according to Maccul- 



loch, the average is equal, per 
head, to - 

In France, according to Chevalier, 
in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 
millions of francs, or 40 francs per 
head — say - 

Thus, France pays about three 
times, and Great Britain five times 
as much for Government as the 
United States. (See Administra- 
tions of the United States.) 



812 33 



87 W 



GRACE at MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the 
altar of friendship, and held sacred upon that Account. They would not 
partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, 
to their gods ; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat 
in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet. 

GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- 
ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed 
at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- 
cero, Messala, Julius Caesar, Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, 
Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenseus, and other distinguished men, were of 
this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- 
cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt r s 
said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- 
cover one error." 

GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure 
food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn 
from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- 
sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 
quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, 
thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- 
crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. 

GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the 
Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the 
Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 
horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600,000 foot, and 20.000 horse. 
— Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, 
and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 
b. c. — Bossuet. 

GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their 
halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large 
stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There 
were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were 
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200. 
See Chimneys. 

GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the 
Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, 
about a. d. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615 ; and Hook pub- 
lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at 
Florence, about 1633; and they were subsequently adopted by Newton, 
about 1687. 

GRvEOIA MAGNA That part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies 



398 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[GRB 



but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the 
southern parts of Italy ; aud others suppose that Magna Gratia compre- 
hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was 
likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lempi-iere. 

GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- 
cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece 
was so called from a very ancient king named Grascus ; and another king 
named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls 
the inhabitants, indifferently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For 
ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. 



Sicyon founded (Eusebius) - b. c. 20S9 
Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) - 2042 
Revolt of the Titans - - - * 

War of the Giants - - - " * 

Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius} - 1856 
Reign of Ogyges in Bceotia (idem) - 1796 
Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in 

Greece by Phoroneus - - - 1773 

According to some authors, Sicyon was 

now begun (Lenglet) - - - 1773 

Deluge of Ogyges (which see) - - 1764 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 

under OSnotrus : the country first 

called CEnortria, afterwards Magna ■ 

Gratia (Eusebius) ■ - - 1710 

Chronology of the Arundelian marbles 

commences (Eusebius) - - 1582 

Cecrops comes into Attica (idem) - 1556 
The Areopagus instituted - - 1506 

Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) - 1503 
Reign of Hellen (idem) - - - 1459 

Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters, 

settles in Boeotia ... 1493 

Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards 

called Sparta - - . . 1490 

Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship 

ever seen in Greece - - - 1485 

He gets possession of Argos. His fifty 

daughters - ... 1475 

First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, 

by the Idasi Dactyli (Eusebius) - 1453 
Iron discovered by the Idcei Dactyli - 1406 
Corinth rebuilt, and so named - • 1384 

Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches 

the art of making bread - - 1383 

The Isthmi..! games instituted - - 1326 

Mycenae created out of Argos - -1313 

Argonautic expedition (which see) - 1263 
The Pythian games by Adrastus - 1263 

War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 
The Amazonian war ; these martial fe- 
males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 
Rape of Helen by Theseus - - 1213 
Rape of Helen by Paris - -1198 
Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193 
Troy taken and destroyed on the night 

of the 7th of the month Thargelion 

(27th May, or 11th June) - - 1184 

.SSneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and 

arrives in Italy ... ngl 

Migration of the iEolian colonies, who 

build Smyrna, &c. - -1124 

Settlement of the Ionians from Greece 

in Asia Minor .... 1044 
The first laws of navigation originate 

with the Rhodians - - - 916 

Homer flourishes about this time 

(Arundelian Marbles) - - 907 

Olympic games revived at Elis • 884 



The first Messenian war - b. 0. 

The second Messenian war 

The capture of Ira 

The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and 

give their own name Messene to Zan- 

cle (now called Messina) 
Sea-fight, the first on record, between 

the Corinthians and the inhabitants 

of Corcyra - 
Byzantium built by the Argives 
Sybaris, in Magna Graacia, destroyed, 

100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 

300,000 Sybarians 
Sardis taken and burnt, which occa 

sions the Persian invasion 
Thrace and Macedonia conquered 
Battle of Marathon (which see) - 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 

at Thermopylae by Leonidas - 
Battle of Salamis (which see) - 
Mardonius defeased at Platasa - 
Battle of Eurymedon 
The third Messenian war 
Athens begins to tyrannize over the 

other states of Greece 
Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles 
The first sacred war 
Herodotus reads his history is '.he 

Council at Athens 
The sea-fight at Cnidus - 
Battle of Mantinea 
Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes 

all the cities of the Phoceans 
Battle of Chasronea 
Alexander, the son of Philip, enters 

Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and 

destroys the city of Thebes - 
Commencement of the Macedonian or 

Grecian Monarchy 
Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the 

throne of Darius ... 



743 
683 
670 



668 



664 
658 



508 

504 
496 
490 



480 
479 
476 
465 

459 
455 

448 

445 
394 
633 

348 
338 



335 
331 

330 
395 



Alaric invades Greece - - a. r. 

The empire under Nicephorus com- 
menced - - - - 811 
Greece mastered by the Latins - - 1204 
Re-conquered .... 1261 
Invaded by the Turks - - - 1350 
Its final overthrow. See Eastern Em- 
pire ..... 1353 
[This country, so long illustrious for the 
military exploits, the learning, and 
arts oi its people, became of late 
years the scene of desperate con- 
flicts with the Turks, in order to re- 
gain its independence, and the coun- 
cils of the great powers of Europe 
were friendly to the design.] 
Great struggle for indepondence - 1770 



GKE ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



399 



GREECE, continued. 

The first decided movement in these lat- 
ter times, by the Servians - a. d. 1800 

The Servians defeat the Turks at Nyssa 

April 2, 1807 

100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, 
overrun the country, committing the 
most dreadful excesses - • 1813 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- 
chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to 
shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 

The Greek patriarch put to death at 
Constantinople - April 23, 1821 

10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- 
though not engaged in the revolt - 1821 

Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- 
rest ; even the women and children 
not spared .... 1821 

Independence of Greece formally pro- 
claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822 

Siege of Corinth - - - Feb. 1822 

Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; 
most horrible massacre recorded in 
modern history" - April 23, 1822 

Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, 
Thermopylae, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 

National Congress at Argos - April 10, 18'J3 

Victories of Marco Botzans - June, 1823 

Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote 
himself to its cause - August. 1823 

Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- 
solonghi - - April 19, 1824 

Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at 
Samos - - August 16, 1824 

The Provisional Government of Greece 
instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 

The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- 
pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 

The Provisional Government of Greece 
invites the protection of England 

July 24, 1825 

Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging 
Turks are defeated in a formidable 
attack upon it - August 1, 1826 

The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet 

Jan. 28, 1826 



Ibrahim Pacha takes Misvolonghi by 
assault - - April 23, I82d 

The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle 
with Onaer Pacha - June 1, 1826 

Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the 
Mainotes - __ August 8 and 9, 1826 

Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, 1825 

Titaty of London, between Great Bri- 
tain, Russia, and France, on behalf 
of Greece, signed - July 6, 1827 

Battle of Navarino (which see); the 
Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827 

Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- 
dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, 1828 

The Panhellenion or Grand Council of 
State established - Feb. 2, 1828 

National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828 

Greece divided into departments, viz. 
Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Uppei Messe- 
nia, Lower Messenia, Laconia, and 
Arcadia, and the islands formed also 
into departments - April 26, .828 

Final evacuation of the Morea by the 
Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 

Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 

Greek National Assembly commences 
its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 

The Porte acknowledges the indeperja- 
ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830 

Prince Leopold finally declines the so- 
vereignty - - May 21, 1830 

Count Capo d'Istria, President of 
Greece, assassinated by the brother 
and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote 
chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 

The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 

Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 
Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 
A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- 
force ministerial responsibility and 
national representation, is consum- 
mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843 
The king accepts the new constitution 

March 16, 1844 
[See Athens. Macedon, Sparta, Thrace, and 
other states of Greece.] 



GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century between the 
eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a 
half terminated in a separation : this church is called Greek in contradis- 
tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior- 
ity as using the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and 
many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- 
lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli- 
gion of Russia. 

GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- 
nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, 



* The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire 
which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 
Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar- 
anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of them, 
butchered ! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and mora 
beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- 
der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured city, is too long 
aid too shocking for transcription here. 



400 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. {■ MVA 

in order tc destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected hy the general 
of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 30,000 men were killed. The property 
of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac- 
cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- 
gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of 
copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- 
vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; 
but it is now lost. 

GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe 
about a. d. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned 
English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- 
tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honor to teach Erasmus, 
1490. — Wood's Athen. Oxon. 

GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a, d. 980, 
and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter 
country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England 
to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 
James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind 
by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when 
the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing 
Company was incorporated in 1693. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore 
and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, 
so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- 
nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the 
meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory 
contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet 
by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector 
The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- 
flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera 
obscura. 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory XIII., 
from whom it derives its name, a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic 
states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710; and adopted 
by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- 
lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to 
eleven days. See Calendar, and New Style. 

GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos- 
sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; 
the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered 
by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the 
French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was 
ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in 
1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the 
French landed some troops, and caused an insurrection in this island, which 
was not finally quelled till June, 1796. 

GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant 
" ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The 
Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- 
don, incorporated in 1429. 

GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493. It was colonized by 
the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to allure 



GUY J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 401 

the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was. 
however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. 

GUELPHS and GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have 
been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- 
nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies 
during the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the 
Ghibelines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present royal 
family of England. — See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood 
was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV., in 1816. 

GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise 
obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be 
seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicce Questiones of Achilles 
Bocchius, 4to. 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there 
called the Mannaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; 
Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the 
regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, 
from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his 
name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- 
father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some 
hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a 
prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the 
Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, 
enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. 

GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first 
coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were 
then valued at 30s. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced 
in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were 
coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of 
an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- 
tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- 
wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was 
known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- 
nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, 
moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his 
treatise De Nullitate Magia, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by 
this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- 
troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there 
assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was 
projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were leagued in the 
enterprise. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, 
preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of 
the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, 
Winter. Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, 
as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in 
which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in tho 
late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin 
to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who. after having be- 
stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder 
of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the 
erection of the present building and lived to see it nearly completed. It 



402 the world's progress. [hag 

cost him 18,793i., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sum 
of 219,499^. A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000/!. was made to thia 
hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; 
his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. 
GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were 
performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also 
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- 
ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- 
sium — gumnos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their 
limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. 
The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in 
Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. 

GYPSIES, or EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- 
liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 
1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- 
cendants of a great body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke, 
and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their 
supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece^ tion in 'hat age 
of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and 
from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe, 
as well as in Asia and Africa, Having recovered their footing, they have con- 
trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against theii 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- 
ecuted at one assizes for haring associated with gypsies for about a month 
contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, 
was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were 
in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120.000 gypsies, and 
many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their 
intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, 
customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. 

H. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed for the security and 
liberty of individuals, May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to 
Magna Charta. for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- 
gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is 
shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- 
pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and 
when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a 
portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — ■ 
Blackstone. 

HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- 
horse (haquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly 
harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle 
called coche-a-haquenee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- 
gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They were first licensed in 
1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of 
London. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 
1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of 
Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on 
the outside of the vehicle. 

HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the 
States-General, and residence o e the former earls of Holland, the prints of 



HAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 403 

Holland, &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip 
II. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the re- 
monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague, 
entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed 
by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces 
here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- 
ary, 1795; favorea by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the 
inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, 
and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and 
escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly 
after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions 
and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between 
England and Holland, December 16, 1837. 

HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and 
hence the appellation Gallia comata ; and cutting off the hair was inflicted 
as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- 
ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear 
long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic 
institution. — Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear 
long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate 
of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion 
in 1795; and very short hair was the mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into 
use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England, 
which yielded 20.000Z. per annum. 

HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after 
the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the 
year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase 
was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or 
of brief tranquillity, the scptem placidi dies of human life. — Butler. 

HALLIDON HILL. Battle op, near Berwick, between the English and Scots, 
in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 slain, while a com- 
paratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III., July 
19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne oi 
Scotland. — Robertson. 

HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- 
nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kerseys, 
shalloons. &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the 
town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- 
inal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment ; but king 
James I. in the year 1620, took this power away: and the town is now under 
the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the 
Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. The 
meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were 
first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro- 
duction from the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, 
one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 

HAMBURGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. 
France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper 
Tandy, (see Napper Tandy.) October 1799. British property sequestrated, 
March 1801. Hamburgh' taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 
1806. Incorporated with France, Jan nary 1810. Evacuated by the French 
on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and "estored to its 



404 the world's progress. [ka? 

independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which 
destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued for three days, May 4, 1842. 
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it 
to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his 
mother, Jane Seymour, died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of 
our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and 
the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was 
held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and ths» 
members of the Established Church, which led to a new translation of the 
Bible. See Conference. 
HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- 
ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- 
man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of 
execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and 
their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. 
— Stovje. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- 
merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in 
chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. 
HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George 
I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen. Verden, and other duchies and 
principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was 
seized by Prussia, April 8, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; 
and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by .the 
crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, 
Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in 
November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke 
of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom 
of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. 
HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an 
act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise 
of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, 
of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the 
granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of 
Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the 
throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. 
HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was 
formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other 
against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 
1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns 
situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- 
creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be 
admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They 
grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, 
about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12.000 
regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who 
ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to~withdraw their 
effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. 
In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the 
name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
HAPSRURGH. House of. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. 
Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near 
Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, 



HAS ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 405 



whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the 13th century, 
when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany 
and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany. 

HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who 
so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance 
used to call him Harlcquino, little Harley. — Menage. Originally the name 
implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now means an expert dancer at 
a play-house. 

HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of 
harlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- 
ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious 
amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- 
saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 
350 b. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- 
rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a 
character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John- 
son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party "olors, 
and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III., 
1352. 

HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, 
in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- 
mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather 
by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- 
four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were 
first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The in- 
vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 

HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp 
before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the 
moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very 
few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- 
brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more 
ancient harps, with wire. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 
1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured 
him the reward of 20,000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- 
tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- 
fected in 1772. 

HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from 
the New England States opposed to the war and to the administration of 
Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814. 

H A STINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which 
more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- 
land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and 
kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned 
king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- 
quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. 

HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, 
tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but 
acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government 
which, it was thought, ought to have led to a different result. Among other 
charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 100.000Z. from tha 
nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular meani 
of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months, 



406 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [" HEQ 

1788--95. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- 
tings, attracted universal admiration. 
HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They 
are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- 
phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and 
surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the 
use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place 
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats 
were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time 
both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stotve. Very high 
crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns 
were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- 
land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the 
English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, 
in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, 
Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 
1804. 

HAYTI, or Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus ai 
1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de- 
stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including 
women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. 
Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- 
salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- 
ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of 
color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title 
of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. 
Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, 
and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed 
suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. 
Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected 
president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. 

HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- 
ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was not connected, but 
composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, 
ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the 
name they now bear. 

HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; 
but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when fchey 
possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- 
rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen ; and in the end, to lessen the 
expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. 

HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. Abont 
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. 
The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic 
mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. 

ETEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622 ; 
the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many 
chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July ; but Cantemir 
has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the 
first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Malwmetism 
and Medina. 



DOR. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 407 

HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on tha 
river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant 
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the 
famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- 
heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads, 
and was formerly kept fuD of the best Rhenish wine. The University oi 
Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, 
contained in 1840, 622 students. 

HELEN, Rape op, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the 
most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very 
lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, 
she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers'; and after her return to the 
court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, 
and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by 
the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character 
from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice ot 
Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his 
hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though 
not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam, 
received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the 
princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- 
tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife 
being CEnone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his 
d~ath by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- 
tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone, whom he 
had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, 
still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed 
it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. 

HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival 
of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it 
until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India 
company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by 
the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12. assigned ft 
to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's 
captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, aud it became the scene of his death, Mav 5. 
1821. ' 

HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it 
was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- 
chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England 
by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was 
ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of 
the British crown. 

HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- 
vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christo- 
pher Scheiner in 1625. 

HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among 
the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise 
above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks 
was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a 
plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English 
kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had 
a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was 
surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Gwillmi. 

HELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate 



408 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HEK 

resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied 
with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; 
and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the 
prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Hclotce, and further exposed 
them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward 
ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ana 
the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. 

HEMP and FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed 
to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its 
cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government 
and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- 
ported from Russia in British ships, 17 695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John 
Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 
100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage 
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 

HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England 
was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, 
and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, 
when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of 
England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. 

HERACLID^E, The, or the return of the Heraclida? into the Peloponnesus : a 
famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- 
tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This 
return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after 
the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. 

HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of 
the world. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the 
Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a 
horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which 
see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed 
in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800 ; and in the next, 
to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the 
feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie. It was at length methodized and 
perfected by the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 
1095. 

HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with 
Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was 
buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper 
under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711. from which 
year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- 
ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. 
were found in a chest, in 1754; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, 
where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the 
museum of Portici. 

HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here- 
tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- 
tholic church. — Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by 
torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simop 
Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretic? 
came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and wera 



Hit* J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 409 

branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in 
the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hun- 
ger and cold, 1160. — Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession 
of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re-' 
pealed, 25 Henry VIII., 1534-5. 

HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to 
avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and 
meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged ia 
dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- 
out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- 
gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the 
Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebai3, 
and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250. 

HERO and LEANDER: their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so 
great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leancler in the 
night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to 
have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 'ii- 
recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, 
Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from 
her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 b. c. — Livy, Herodctus. 

HERRING-FISHERY. It was largety encouraged by the Scotch so early as 
the ninth century. The herring statute Avas passed in 1357. The mode of 
preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to 
the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British 
Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. 

HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten. and twenty-feet re- 
flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus {which 
see), March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 
1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, 
which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- 
tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- 
copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new 
nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebuke, and clusters of stars which he 
had discovered. 

HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, 
daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was 
descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl 
of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry 
V., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. 
There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and 
it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six 
thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion 
being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000?. three per cent, stock, was 
transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the 
American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again 
hired by England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion 
there in 1798. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures 
and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodward. Hiero- 
glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Tha 
earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, 
and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- 
tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. 

HIGH CHURCH and LOV CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned bj 
18 



410 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HOI 

the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for 
two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions 
of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against 
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents 
Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa- 
cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
He died in 1724. 

HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating 
the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to 
British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1-552. By this statute two living 
witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal 
of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- 
set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. 
By the 40th George III. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial 
for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life 
of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the 
case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and 
sometimes Your Grave, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but 
about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- 
ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. 

HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- 
luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the 
sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, 
a. d. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. 

HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are 
vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian 
Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, 
are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- 
sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 
476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 
800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the 
English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor- 
ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of 
history founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, w"ho was 
succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. 

HOHENLINDEN, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, the 
latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated 
with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and 
their loss in prisoners to 10.000 more, November 3, 1800. 

HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who 
derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been 
obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and 
established themselves in a morass formed by the waters of the Rhine and 
the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of 
their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion 
cf Francs and Frisians. 

Burgundy and its dependencies become 

a circle of the empire - - - 1521 * 

They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and 
religious persecution cause a revolt 
in Batavia - - - - 156S 

The revolted states with William, 
prince of Orange, at their head, en- 



Sovereignty founded by Thierry, first 
count of Holland - - a. d. 868 

The county of Holland devolves to the 
counts of Hainan It - - - 1299 

It falls to the crown of" Philip the Good, 
duke of Burgundy - - - 1436 

100,000 persons are drowned by the sea 



breaking in at Dort - • 1446 I ter into a treaty at Utrecht - • 157$ 



HOL.] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



411 



HOLLAND, continued. 

They elect William as Stadtholder - 1579 

The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- 
nated - - - - 1584 

The Dutch East India company found- 
ed 1602 

After a struggle of thirty years, the king 
of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- 
tavians free - - - - 1609 

The republic wars against Spain in the 
East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- 
miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- 
nish galleons, value 20,000,000^. ster- 
ling 1635 

Cromwell declares war against Hol- 
land, and many naval battles are 
fought ; Blake signally defeats Van 
Tromp ----- 1653 

William, prince of Orange, having 
married Mary, daughter of James II., 
is called to the British throne - 1688 

The office of Stadtholder is made here- 
ditary in the Orange family - - 1747 

Era of the civil war - - - 1787 

The French Republican army march 
into Holland ; the people declare in 
their favor - - - - 1793 

The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 

He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- 
nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the 
line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- 
dered to the British admiral Duncan, 
without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 

A new constitution is given to the Ba- 
tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. 
J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title 
of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 



Holland erected into a Kingdom, and 
Louis Bonaparte declared king 

June 5, IS06 

Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810 

Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 

Restored to the house of Orange, and 
Belgium annexed to its dominions 

Nov. 18, 1313 

The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- 
vereign prince of the United Nether- 
lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 

He receives the oath of allegiance 
from his subjects - March 30, 1814 

And takes the title of king as William 
I. - - - March 16, 1815 

The revolution in Belgium {which see) 
commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 

The Belgians take the city of Antwerp 
(whicn. ,-ee) - - Oc- 27, 1830 

Belgium is separated from Holland, 
and Leopold of Cobourg is elected 
king - - - July 12, 1831 

Holland renews the war against Bel- 
gium - - - Aug 3, 1831 

Conference in London on the affairs of 
Holland and the Netherlands termi- 
nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831 

Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
signed in London - April 19, 1839 

Abdication of William I. in favor of 
his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 

Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 

The king promises his assent to all re- 
forms passed by the chambers 

March 14, 1848 

New constitution appears, April 17, 1348 

Death of William II. - March 17, lb49 



STADTHOLDERS, ETC. 



A.o 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 
sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- 
vinces owe their foundation and glo- 
ry : killed by an assassin, hired' by 
Philip of Spain. 

1584 Henry Philip William. 

1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 

1625 Frederick Henry. 

1647 William II. 

1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 
and king of England in 1689. 



1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass 
ing a ferry in Holland. 

1711 Charles Henry Frizo. 

1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- 
holder. 

1751 William V. 

KINGS. 

1813 William I. 
1840 William II 

1849 William III., present king, (1852.) 
See Belgium. 



HOLLAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first 
discovered. In 1605, et seq., various parts of the coast were traced by the 
Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the 
south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, 
called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's 
name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South, Wales, and 
Van Dicmen's Land. 

HOLY" ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and 
Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- 
selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all 
their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- 
ber 26, 1815. 

HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— 

Ashe. 



412 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ HOI 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish ice two 
most perfect Epic* poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that 
has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of 
Achilles; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after 
the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- 
stantinople, a. d. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written 
in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist. 
The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to 
mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to 
sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. 

HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c, 
He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another 
that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not 
deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, 
daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, 
assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly 
to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high 
priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, 
wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- 
tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees 
of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. 

HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such 
as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious 
drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a 
moon's age ; after a wedding- feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of 
Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- 
rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-day, that he 
died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed 
to another cause. See Attila. 

«' HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- 
bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward 
III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words : " Honi soit qui mat 
y pense," " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the 
inotto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- 
supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith. 

HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly 
among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that 
people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about 
b. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102 
b. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter 
that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius 
ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby 
to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. 

HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were 
used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- 
wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, 
and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there are 
between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the 



* The epic poems of Homer and Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tasso, the Paradise Lost ol 
Milton, and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and Milton's is considered 
to rank next to Homer's. " Paradise Lost is iol the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. Iu an 
■ok, " only because it is not the first." — Butler , 



hud] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 



culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Herefoi 1, Kent, and 
Worcestershire. 

HORATII and CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the 
Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on 
each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman 
knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective 
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the 
Horatii, united Alba to Rome. 

HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably 
were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broka 
them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- 
ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for 
his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the 
horse is equal to that of five men. — Sm.ea.ton. A horse can perform the 
work of six men. — Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering 
to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were 
only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced 
into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions 
of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thousand agricultural 
horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- 
tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses 
in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, 
amounts to about 350,000/. per year. See Race Horses. 

HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, 
who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the 
reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic 
order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. 

HOSPITALS op LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- 
stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- 
ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, 
a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and 
endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499Z. See Infirmaries. 

HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- 
tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who 
decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to 
the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. *A. Bees. 

HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when 
L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. 
Previously to the invention of water-clocks (which, see), 158 b. c, the time 
was called at Rome by publie criers. The Chinese divide the day into 
twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, 
instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the 
measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was 
by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning 
twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- 
glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. 

HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a 
North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part 
of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by 
Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further 
north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, 
with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. Ths 
Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The 
forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 



414 



HE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



1 HUR 



HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing- " with horn and 
with voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers 
and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all loss occa- 
sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; 
but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed 
by riotous assemblies. 

HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term 
of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the 
reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. Tka 
memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St, 
Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- 
siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- 
rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. 

HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was 
formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 
1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury 
and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- 
cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. 

HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 
b. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the 
Christian era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- 
wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted, settlements 
were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were 
expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila, 
whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of "The Scourge of 
God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed 
with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals; be- 
sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Svvabians 
Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- 
lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. 



Stephen receives the title of Apostolic 
king from the pope - - A. D. 997 

The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 

Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under 
the sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout 
Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. 

Victories of JL,ouis the Great in Bulga- 
ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1342 

Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 

He dies, and the history of Hungary 
now presents a frightful catalogue of 
crimes - - - - - 1378 

Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, 
queen of Louis, is drowned, and king-" 
Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- 
mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and 
causes the rivers of Hungary to flow 
with blood .... 1378 

The unhappy Hungarians call the 
Turks to their assistance - - 1380 

Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
in battle .... 1389 

Sigismond recovers from this blow, 
and makes Wallachia and Moldavia 
tributary to him - • - 1390 



He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 

is elected emperor of Germany - 141C 
Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne 
of Hungary, thus laying the founda- 
tion of the subsequent power and 
greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 
It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 

Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- 
vades Hungary, and takes Buda; 
battle of Mohatz (which see) ■ - 1526 

Buda sacked a second time by the 
Turks, and all the inhabitants put to 
the sword .... 1540 

Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 

Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 

Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 
The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 n.ea 
in a fruitless attempt to take Buda 
from the Turks - - 16S1 

He at length carries Buda by storm, 
and delivers up the Mahometans to 
the fury of the soldiers - - 1698 

Temeswar wrested from the Turks by 
prince Eugene .... 1718 



* The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and conse- 

fuentr/, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king. 
hus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charkis Duras, came to the crown, she was styleJ 
King Mary. 



EUN J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



415 



HUNGARY, continued. 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey 
at the peace of Belgrade - • 1739 

Temeswar incorporated with the king- 
dom of Hungary - - - 1778 

The struggle for independence com- 
menced in - - - - 1848 

Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- 
er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, 

The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the 
emperor of Austria ; martial law 
proclaimed; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- 
atia, appointed to the supreme gov- 
ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 

Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- 
dent of the defence committee and 
dictator - Oct. 1848 

[Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] 

Hungarian army advances within six 



miles of Vienna ; , T ellachich also ad- 
vances there, October 11; Kossuth 
retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, 

Hungary declares itself an independent 
republic - - - Dec. 1848 

Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered 
by Windisgratz - - .Ian. 5, 1S43 

Ukase of Russiar. emperor Nicholas, 
declaring his purpose of aiding Aus- 
tria against Hungary - April 26, 

Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- 
ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- 
trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 1S49 

The war ended by the complete subju- 
gation of Hungary, and the flight or 
execution of her leaders. 
See Germany. 



KINGS OP HUNGARY. 



A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 
1038 Peter I., deposed. 
1041 Otto, killed in battle. 
1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is 

again deposed, and has his eyes put 

out. 
1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother 

Bela. 
1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 

tower. 
1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 
1073 Geiga I. 
1076 St. Ladislaus. 
1095 Coloman. 

1114 Stephen It, surnamed Thunder; turn- 
ed monk. 
1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by 

his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 

ruled the kingdom. 
1141 Geiea II. 
1161 Stephen III. 
1173 Bela III. 
1191 Emeric. 

1200 Ladislaus II. 

1201 Andrew II. 
1235 Bela IV. 
1275 Stephen IV. 

1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 
1291 Andrew HI. 
1301 Wenceslaus. 
1304 Otho. 



1309 Charles Robert. 

1342 Louis I. the Great. 

1383 Mary. 

1389 Mary, and her husband SigismUd. 

1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 

1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the 
Turks. 

1444 Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant. 

1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- 
gent. 

1490 Ladislaus VI. 

1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the 
Turks. 

1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 

1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. 
1534 John Sepusius, again. 

1539 John II. 

1561 Maximilian, aftericards emperor of 

Germany. 
1573 Rodolphus. 
1609 Matthias II. 

1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany 
1625 Ferdinand III., ditto. 
1647 Ferdinand IV. 
1656 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 
1687 Joseph, ditto 
1711 Charles VI , ditto. 
1740 Maria Theresa. 

1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. 
See Germany. 



On the deatli of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had 
married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of heing deprived of her 
father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length 
overcoming all difficulties, her "husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, 
Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See 
Germany. 

HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 
years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d. 93, and 
the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the 
Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their 
arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by 
them, about a. d. 433. 100 ; 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- 
pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battlea 
during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear aa 



416 the world's progress. ("iam 

a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it the 
name of Hungary, which see ; see also Attila. 

HUSS, JOHN; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to 
issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a refor- 
mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give 
an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- 
rnund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the 
strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon 
thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- 
nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the saint 
fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome of Prague, the intimate com- 
panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- 
porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. 
See Cranmer, and Martyrs. 

HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as 
they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- 
posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their 
first onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were 
oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on 
their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," 
— Pardon. 

HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth 
century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is 
not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs 
of it are to be found. — Beckviann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., 
and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science 
in 1746. 

HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 
300 b. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 
b. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 
b. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The 
science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was 
scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- 
tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given 
to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. 

HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise 
of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and 
Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said 
to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, 
about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with 
trumpets, drums, and cymbals. 



TA MBIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of 
Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over 
Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, 
stories, and poetical effusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have 
been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 
700 b. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- 
bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, 
richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on lha 
old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. — Herodotus. 



1D0 ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 417 

ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than tht water which 
composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by 
means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 1782. 
Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a 
vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common 
salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the 
zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze 
mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, 
so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. 

ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, 
of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 
Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
capable of containing 141.332 tons. 

ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to 
leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had 
been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- 
canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and 
a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising 
to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that 
flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken 
breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally 
overwhelmed by fire or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. 

ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their 
library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 
26, 1847. 

ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by 
some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- 
tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter 
with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a 
chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his 
heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her aegis ; Venus, 
drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- 
logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; 
and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. 
The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the 
early part of the eighth century. See Idols. 

IPES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each 
month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was 
the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, 
and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on 
which Julius Cassar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other 
conspirators, 44 b. c. 

IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- 
sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national 
institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is 
one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in 
every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. 

IDOLS, and IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- 
nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- 
nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c.—Dufresnoy. 
Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- 
stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a. d. — Dufresnoy. In Britain, tha 
18* 



418 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I IMP 

religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- 
tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon 
overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the 
week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after 
the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. 

ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c. 
Troy {which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and 
Ilus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 296 
years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The 
Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, t 
whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus, 
king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged 
in this expedition; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns 
and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten 
years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the 
inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off' as slaves, 1184 b. c. — Apollo- 
dorus. 

ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- 
kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 
1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it 
was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- 
tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population 
in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has 
always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- 
exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. 

ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were 
called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, 
they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- 
chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and 
attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret 
society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 
1776. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, 
drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted. 
Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
their likenesses, about 70 b. c.—Plin. Hist. Nat. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- 
ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th 
and 13th of William and Maiy, it was enacted, that no pardon under the 
great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia- 
ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 
13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. 
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806. 
Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke of 
York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal 
Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- 
fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, 
Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV. 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of 
Great Britain became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admit- 
ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual 
peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, January 22, 1801. 



IMP J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



419 



The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since 
the passing of the Reform Bill (which see), in 1832, there are 471 English; 
29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members— in all 658. In the Lords, 
459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers 
of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, 
Parliament, and Reform. 

IMPORTS op MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c, 
Table, p. 317. 

VALUE OP IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OP THE WORLD. 

In 1710 - £4,753,777 I In 1800 - £30,570,605 I In 183J) - JB46,245,2II 
1750 - - 7,289,582 1810 - - 41,136,135 1840 - - 62,004,0013 

1775 - - 14,815,855 | 1820 - - 36,514,564 1 1845 - - 85,281,958 

IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- 
postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every 
country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from 
various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — 



Aldebcrt, who, in the eighth century, pre- 
tended he had a letter from the Redeem- 
er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
he seduced multitudes to follow him into 
woods and deserts, and to live in imitation 
of John the Baptist. 

Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to 
be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by 
the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, 
styled himself the nephew of God, sent 
into the world to adopt children worthy of 
heaven ; he denied the resurrection, 
preached against marriage, in favor of a 
community of women, and taught that 
the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
had many followere ; died at Basle, 1556. 

Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 
tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of 
Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; but he maintained that ano- 
ther child had been substituted in his 
place : he was supported by the arms of 
Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- 
sians, who invited him to the throne, and 
delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- 
ing czar, and all his family, whom he 
cruelly put to death : his imposition being 
discovered, he was assassinated in his 
palace, 1606. — D'Alembert's Revolutions 
of Russia. 

Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused 
the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- 
stantinople and other places, by person- 
ating our Saviour, 1666. 

IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH 
HISTORY. 

Two men crucified, both pretending to be 
the Messiah ; and two women executed for 
assuming the characters of the Virgin 
Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III., 
1221. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of 
Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- 
tion, by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven, fortelling that the king would have 
an early and violent death if "he divorced 
Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 



Boleyn. She and her confederates were 
hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— 
Rapin. 

In the first year of Mary's reign, after her 
marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth 
Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- 
creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made 
for the purpose, uttered many seditious 
speeches against the queen and the prince, 
and also against the mass and confession, 
for which she was sentenced to stand upon 
a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- 
mon-time, and make public confession of 
her imposture, 1553 : she was called the 
Spirit of the Wall. — Baker's Chron. 

William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our 
Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 
34 Eliz., 1591. 

James Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he 
was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, 
and his tongue bored through with a hot 
iron on the pillory, by sentence of the 
House of Commons, under Cromwell's 
administration, 1656. 

Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, 
who pretended to cure all diseases by 
stroking the patient ; his imposture de- 
ceived the credulous, and occasioned very 
warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in 
England, where it fell into disrepute, in 
1666, upon his examination before the 
Royal Society, after which we hear no 
more of him. Birch's Memoirs of ike 
Roy. Society. 

Dr. Titus Oates. See Conspiracies. 

Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending 
she bred rabbits within her, so imposed 
upon many persons (among others, Mr. 
St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost imposture by Williara 
Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. 

Johanna Southcote, Trho proclaimed hel 
conception of the Messiah, and hadamul' 
titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1814. 

IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to 

be the Messiah, New- York, 1830-31. 
Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. 



IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 



420 the world's progress. Ji*n> 

practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. 
Pressing, either for the sea or land service, declared to he illegal by the Bri- 
tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service 
above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at 
sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, 
and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- 
lic boards, and none except by an officer with a press-warrant. 

INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and 
Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to 
death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and 
it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII. , 1528. 

INCEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and 
Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- 
stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his 
brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his 
brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. 
In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own 
daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, 
queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and 
the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- 
ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of 
Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, 
in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was 
early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the 
Commonwealth, in 1650. 

INCOME TAX in ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost. 
In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, 
and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with 
France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 
1802 ; but was abandoned. In 1803. it was revived, at the rate of 5 per 
cent, on all incomes above 150£., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 
1805, it was increased to 6£ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, 
embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — 

In 1804, at Is. in the pound - .£4.650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - £11,500,000 
In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - - 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985 

The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c, 8,657,9372. ; from fund- 
ed and stock properties, 2.885,5052. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,0882. 
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456Z. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. 
Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax 
of 22. 18s. Ad. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 
1842 : it produced about 5,350,0002. a year. This tax was renewed for three 
years more, in March, 1845. 

INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They 
are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation 
may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- 
sion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm 
that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- 
communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was 
that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. 

INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of 
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent 



aro] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



421 



The index of heretical hooks, by which the reading of the Scriptures waa 
forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of 
pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works 
of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. 

— Ashe. 

ITS'DIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- 
rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by 
Alexander, 327 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and 
the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan ia 
reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — 
Renntl. 



Irruption of the Mahometans, under 
Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. 1000 

Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 

Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most 
bloody conquerors of the world ; 
14,000,000 of the human race perish 
by his sword, under the pretence of 
establishing the worship of one god ; 
he died 1237 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct 
of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- 
lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 

Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- 
feats the Indian army, makes a con- 
quest of Hindostan, and butchers 
100,000 of its people - - - 1399 

The passage to India discovered by 
Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 

Conquest of the country completed by 
the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- 
gul empire .... 1525 

Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the 
greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 

Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions 
extending from 10 to 35 degrees in 
latitude, and nearly as much in longi- 
tude, and his revenue amounting to 
32,000,000?. sterling - - - 1660 

Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or 
Kouli Khan .... 1738 

At Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 

He carries away treasure amounting 
to 125,000,000?. sterling - - 1739 

Defeat of the last imperial army by the 
Rohillas .... 1749 

[The MoguT empire now became mere- 
ly nominal, distinct and independent 
sovereignties being forme 1 by nu- 
merous petty princes. The empe- 
rors were of no political consequence 
from this period. 

BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the 

north-east and north-west passages - 1528 
Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 

Levant company make a land expedi- 
tion to India .... 1589 
First adventure from England - - 1591 

First charter to the London company 

of merchants .... 1600 
Second charter to the East India com- 
pany 1609 

Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 

Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. 

See Calcutta. .... 1756 
He imprisons 146 British subjects, of 



whom 123 perish in one night. See 
Blackhole. - - May 19, 1758 

Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards 
lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at 
Plassey - - June 20, 1757 

Warren Hastings becomus governor of 
Bengal - - - - April 13, 1772 

India Bill. See India Bill June 16, 1773 

Supreme court established - - 1773 

Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 

The strong fortress of Gualior taken by 
major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 

Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and 
defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 

He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
Madras - - - June 22, 1781 

Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre 
Coote .... July 1, 1781 

Death of Hyder, and accession of his 
son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 

Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- 
ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1788 

Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two 
sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 

Government of lord Mornington, after- 

• wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 

Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo 
Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 

Victories of the British ; the Carnatic 
conquered r 1800 

Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 

Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov- 
ernment - • July 30, 1805 

Act by which the trade to India was 
thrown open ; that to China remain- 
ing with the company July 31, 1813 

Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 

Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- 
vernor-general - - July 4, 1828 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea 
trade, <fcc. to China, forming a new 
era in British commerce - Aug. 28, i833 

Lord Auckland, governor-general ; he 
leaves England - - Sept. 1835 

Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John, 
now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny) 

July 23, 1839 

Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, 
and he and the British army enter 
Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839 

English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 184C 

Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at 
his funeral his successor is killed by 
accident, and Dost Mahom«-,r], next 
heir, surrenders to England - Nov. 5, I8ii 

General rising against the British at 



422 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[am 



Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Char- 
les Napier ; Scinde is afterwards an- 
nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843 

Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; 
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gib- 
raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, '813 

Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover- 
nor-general - ■ May 2, ISM 



SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. 

The citadel of Lahore is occupied by 
the British under Sir Hugh Gough ; 
and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 

Great battle between the British under 
Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under 
Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar. Nov. 22, 1848 

Moultan taken, after a long *iege, Jan. 3, 1849 

Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough 

Feb. 21, 1849 

The Punjaub formally annexed to the 
British crown - March 29, 1849 



INDIA, continued. 

Cabul; Sir Alexander Burnes and 
other officers murdered - Nov. 2, 1841 

Lord Ellenborough appointed governor- 
general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 

Sir William Macnaghten treacherously 
assassinated - ■ Dec. 25, 1841 

The British, under a convention, evacu- 
ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c, as 
hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; 
a dreadful massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 

THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE 

The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, 

and attack the British post at Feroze- 

pore, which was held by Sir John 

Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 

Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated 

Jan. 28, 1846 
Battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated 

with immense loss in killed and 

drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 

[The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British 

2,338 in killed and wounded.] 

INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En- 
glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted 
out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a voyage of three 
years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home in another 
ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to 
a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. 
Their stock then consisted of 72,O00Z., and they fitted out four ships, and 
meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold 
at 500Z. for a share of 100Z., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698; 
and both were imited in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- 
larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. 

INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the 
British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, 
passed June 16, 1773. See East India BUI. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill 
passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. 
Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. 

INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from 
South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several 
plants produce various kinds of elastic gum; but that in commerce is 
chiefly the juice of the Svphonia Elastica, or syringe tree. Incisions in the 
bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- 
stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly 
elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions 
made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it 
flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer. 

INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by tho 
French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made 
by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered 
much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into 
the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840, 
685,866. 

INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent 
continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They 
have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the 
white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers 



IND ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 423 

are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 
1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- 
tacked by Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver- 
hill, N. H., 1708; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715; again joined the 
French, 1754-9 ; CheroKees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. 
[During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both 
sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with 
the Creeks, 1790; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 
1790; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791; treaty 
with Six Nations, &c, 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804; Gov. Harrison de- 
feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, 
Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c, by Gen. Jack- 
son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with 
Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed 
May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 
27, 1832 ; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832 ; war against the 
Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, 
Tessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : 

Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for 

them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 

Number yet to be removed -.....--. 72,181 
Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the Mississippi and the Rocky 
Mountains - • ...... 150,341 



Total within the territory of the United States • - 352,879 

Treaty with the Sioux, they relinquishing 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- 
sippi for $1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837 ; Powell 
alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- 
rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, 
Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans 
tribe entirely destroyed— Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the 
Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June 
28, 1839 ; 150 Chippewas treacherously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- 
ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cay use Indians 
in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri- 
soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe 
engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. 

INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used 
in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage 
round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, 
partly through the Persian Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through 
Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so 
little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by 
letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality 
of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call 
indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first men- 
tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to 
Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, 
in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., 
and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. 

INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. IH., about a. d. 800; were 
much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- 
man pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement 
y. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, 
Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac- 
tice led to the Reformation in Germany,, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 



424 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ INC 

England, in 1534. — Bower s Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the 
pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- 
sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and 
signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- 
eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of iEsculapius for a cure, 
as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- 
working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- 
vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and 
the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- 
ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be 
visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the 
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- 
tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- 
maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals. 

INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they 
being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- 
formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to 
Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularly in London, 
numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- 
sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, 
subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and 
Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had likewise various 
colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- 
milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and 
must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, 
most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. 
It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- 
posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. 

INNS of COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different 
periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of 
which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the 
Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights 
Templars. 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made 
inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Outer not until the 
reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Slowe's Survey. 

INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in 
England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- 
ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the 
first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. 
The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy 
from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr, 
Jenner, January 21, 1799 ; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had 
been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was 
voted 10,OOOL as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- 

Eoleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- 
erated Dr. Wickham when a prisoner of war, at Jenners request, and 
subsequently the emperoi liberated whole families of English, making it a 

* Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair »y our grandfathers. The London Daily 
Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomas 
Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have ueen inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are 
both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr- 
Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox. 



INS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 

point to refuse him nothing- that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the 
United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800. See Small Pox and Vaccination. 

INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantine the Great, the bishops 
only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- 
tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as 
were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. 
This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power 
was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- 
vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth 
century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- 
sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was 
instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 , und Gregory IX. in a council held 
at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of 
it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the 
direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, 
by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms of Spain. It was 
established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated 
in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the 
work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exer- 
cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva- 
tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. 

fNSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than 
tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than 
it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in 
England is as follows: lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12 : 547; but 
allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14.000 — an ave- 
rage of one to every thousand, of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 — 
idiots 763 — total 896 ; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, 
they may be set down at 1000 — a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland 
has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- 
ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, 
were not completed. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons 
and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums 
capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of 
late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica, 
formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this 
cause. 

INSOLVENCY in the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis' 
was at its height. The ' heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone 
amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans 
to the amount of $27. 000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 
1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- 
ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately 
after. 

INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it 
was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The 
benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, 
by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a 
period, of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose 
debts are less than 300/., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose 
compositions and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- 
son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 1844. 

LXSURANCE on SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Su3tonius conjectures that 



426 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[ ETC 



Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use 
in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in 
Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. 
Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year 
following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for 
insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of 
the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular 
office set up in London was the Hand-in- Hand, in 1696. A duty was laid 
on insurances of Is. 6d. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was 
increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first in- 
surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. 

INSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- 
chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- 
rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts 
of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &>c. 

INTEREST of MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twtlfth cen- 
tury. Fixed at twelve per cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles 
V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- 
ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- 
fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in 
England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII. , 1546. This law was repealed by 
Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch 
could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest 
was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 
James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so 
confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne, 1714, at" 
which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 
George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, 
and punishable by the statute. — BlacJcstone. The law does not now apply to 
bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laws. 

INTEREST of MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- 
ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., 
N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., 
Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In 
N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and 
Floi\, eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the 
whole debt, in Me., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, 
and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void 
in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 

INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous 
catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most 
remarkable:— 



An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned 
more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. 

Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town 
and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, 
1108. The present city was built above a 
league from the channel where the old one 
Sies submerged. — Ilistoire de Flandre. 

At the Texel, which first raised the com- 
merce of Amsterdam, 1400. 

The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 
villages, and 100,000 people, and formed 
the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17, 1446. 

The Severn overflowed during ten days, and 
carried away men, women, and children, 
in their beds, ar.d covered the tops of many 
mountains ; the waters settled upon the 



lands, and were called The Great Waters 
for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.— 
Hottins'hed. 

A general inundation by the failure of th« 
dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number oj 
drowned said to have been 400,000. 

At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- 
ed, 1617. 

An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock 
opened, and poured out water to the height 
of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. 
Trans. 

Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants 
were drowned, and incredible damage was 
done at Hamburg. 1717. 

At Madrid, several of the Spanish nefciity 



IOW J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



427 



INUNDATIONS, continued. 

and other persons of distinction perished, 
1723:— Du Fresnoy. 

In Navarre, where '2000 persons lost their 
lives by the torrents from the mountains, 
Sept. 1737. 

At Pest, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their 
inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. 

By the overflow of the Da tube, a Turkish 
corps of 2000 men, on a s nail island near 
Widdin, were surprised, and met instant 
death, Sept. 14, 1813. 

Jn Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 
ruin of the French arm) under Macdonald 
was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- 
land 4000 lives were supposed to have 
been lost, same year. 

In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 
water, and great loss of life and property 
was sustained, in March 1816. 

Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned bj 
the Vistula breaking through some of its 
dikes, by which 10,000 head of cattle and 
4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous 



At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in- 
habitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 

10,000 houses swept away, aria &bout 1000 
persons perished, at Cantor.-, ir. China, in 
consequence of an ir.ui.dation, occasioned 
by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- 
lamity was produced by the same cause 
in other parts of China, Oct. 1833. 

Awful inundation in France ; the Saone 
poured its waters into the Rhone, broke 
through its banks, and covered 60,000 
acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 
100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses 
were carried away at La Guillodere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and 
Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such 
a height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 
1810. 

Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- 
leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- 
ed, May 12, 1849. 

The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi. 
&c, at different times, have caused great 
destruction of property, and (at times) of 
life. 



lives lost, April 9, 1829. 

INVOCATION of the VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish 
church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the 
prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 
about a. d. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by 
calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- 
vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- 
nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives 
gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, 
prayers and oblations for and to them. 

IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a 
manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with 
great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active; it is of a 
violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable 
blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- 
low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of 
iodine form iodic acid. 

IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty 
of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and 
Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, 
November 5. 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of 
England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands 
are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the 
seat of government. 

IONIC ORDER op ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement 
on the Doric, was founded by the Ionians, about 1350 b. c. — Vitruvius by 
Perrauli. 

IONIC SECT or PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. 
This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under 
the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- 
imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. 

IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- 
sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 
under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the 
Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- 
ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111 



428 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[IE* 



IPSUS, Battle op, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kirgdom by the de« 
feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- 
nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- 
sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 
10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in 
fantry, besides 10.500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. A nti 
gonus and his son were defeated, 301 e. c— Plutarch. 

IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wa« 
originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the 
first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 
2048 b. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was 
followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- 
cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
kings. 

Arrival of Heremon - -B.C. 1070 

A colony from Spain bring with them 

the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 

Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. d. 448 

The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is 

crowned at Tara - - • 1002 

Battle of Clontarf, which terminates 

the power of the Danes - -1039 

[In the twelfth century Ireland is divi 



ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, 
Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and 
Munster; besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
tinually war with each other.] 

Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in- 
vade Ireland, on condition that he 
compelled every Irish family to pay 
a carolus to the Holy See, and held 
it as a fief of the church - -1157 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- 
ceives the submissions of the kings 
and princes of the country, settles the 
government upon a footing similar to 
that of England, and makes his son 
John lord of Ireland - - - 1172 

Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 

English laws and customs introduced 
by king John - - - - 1210 

Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, 
instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 

The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to 
expel the English, and cruelly mas- 



sacre the Protestant settlers m Ulster, 
to the number of 40,000 persons, com- 
menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 

Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole 
island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 

Landing of king William III. at Car- 
rickfergus - - June 14, 1690 

Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of 
Schomberg killed . - July ] , 1690 

Memorable Irish rebellion commenced 
May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- 
pressed until the next year - - 1799 

Legislative Union of Great Britain and 
Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 

Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 

Roman Catholic emancipation. (See 
Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 

Great repeal movement ; meeting at 
Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 

O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 

O'Connell died at Genoa, set. 72, May 15, 1847 

Famine and great distress in Ireland 
throughout - ... 1847 

Relieved by England, and by voluntary 
gifts from the United States. 

Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland 
passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847 

Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 

Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 

Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- 
lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 



IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the 
mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. 
The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass 
to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. 
Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were 
placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. 
Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of 
Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex, 
in 1543. — Rymer's Fcedera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into 
bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first 
introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of 
iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamers, 
&c, see Steamers. 



* There is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare veeighing twenty 
four pounds. — Anon. 



ITA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 

IRON-MASK, the MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a 
mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar- 
guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and waa 
treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him 
if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his 
table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an 
Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died 
ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, 
son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp 
before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of 
Beaufcit, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia; 
while ftill more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- 
mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on 
Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been 
a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis X1IL, his ^ather being the duke 
of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- 
cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have 
caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. 

ISL AMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, 
where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two 
Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the 
other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his 
Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times 
from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he 
publicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of 
God, a. d. 604. See Koran, Mecca, fyc. 

ISLE of FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch 
were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at 
Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and 
many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- 
session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMauritius. 

I^MAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who 
lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 
22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- 
vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting 
of 30,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, 
not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of 
his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were 
murdered in cold blood. 

ISSUS, Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle 
with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- 
tured, 333 b. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and lO'OOO horse 
in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus 
Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot 
and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and' 10,000 of the latter, were 
left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received 
their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- 
tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted 
in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred 
and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c — 
Arundelian Marbles. 

fTALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- 
ceived its name from Italus, a king of the coim'.ry, or from Italos, a Greek 
word signifying an ox. The aborigines ol Italy v«jre the progeny of 



430 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[JA1 



Meshec^, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites or 
Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into 
Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- 
vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the 
Celts ; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna 
Grsecia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy 
may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely 
to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the 
kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Views 



- 553 



Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- 
goths under Alaric. See Rome A. D. 410 

The Huns ravage the Roman empire 
under Attila, " the Scourge of God" - 447 

The Western Roman empire is de- 
stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, 
Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 476 

The reign of Totila, who twice pillages 
Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to 
such distress, that the ladies and peo- 
ple of quality are obliged to beg for 
bread at the doors of the Goths - 511 to 552 

The power of the Goths destroyed, and 
their kingdom overthrown by the ge 
nerals of the Eastern empire 

Narses, governor of Italy, invites the 
Lombards from Germany into this 
country .... 568 

The Lombards overrun Italy - - 596 

Venice first governed by a doge • 697 

Charlemagne invades Italy - - - 774 

He repairs to Rome, and is crowned 
emperor of the West - - - 800 

[During the reign of Charlemagne, the 
pope of Rome, who had hitherto been 
merely a spiritual minister, finds 
means to assume a temporal power, 
not only independent of, but superior 
to all others.] 

Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- 
es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 

Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- 
brand, pretends to universal sove- 
reignty, in which he is assisted by the 
countess Matilda, mistress of the 
greater part of Italy, who makes a do- 
nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 

Disputes between the popes and empe- 
rors, relative to the appointment of 
bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate 
Italy and Germany during several 
centuries. 

The Venetians obtain many victories 
over the Eastern emperors - - 1125 

Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 

The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and 
Reggio are created - - - 1228 

Milan erected into a duchy • - 1277 



The papal seat removed for seventy 
years to Avignon, in France - - 13US 

The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- 
tion of a pope, they set fire to the con- 
clave, and separate, and the papal 
chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master 
of Mantua, with the title of imperial 
vicar .... 132S 

Lucca becomes an independent reput 
lie 1370 

Naples conquered by Diaries Vni. - 1492 

The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- 
lian provinces in a single campaign, 
assailed by the pope, the emperor, 
and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 

Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- 
ces, opens the sale of indulgences and 
absolutions, which soon replenishes 
his treasury .... 1517 

Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 

Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of 
Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 

Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- 
dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 

Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. 
See Jeddo - - - - 1619 

The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, 
and choose Theodore for their king. 
See Corsica .... 1736 

Milan vested in the house af Austria by 
the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 

Division of the Venetian states by 
France and Austria - - - 1797 

Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by 
Bonaparte - - ... 1793 

The Italian republic - - - 1802 

Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- 
leon crowned .... 1805 

Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of 
Italy 1805 

The kingdom ceases on the overthrow 
of Napoleon - - - - 1814 

[The various other events relating to 
Italy will be found under the respec- 
tive heads of Genoa. Lombardy. Mi- 
lan, Naples, Rome, Venice, fyc] 



The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts tc 23,677,000.-- 
Aim, de Gotha. 



J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du 
Fresnoy. 

JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- 
volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association 
of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate 



JAN J DICTIONARY 01 I.ATES. 431 

political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their 
meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nu- 
merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- 
cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, 
to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the 
national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They 
are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- 
cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand 
spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. Ttia 
religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules 
of St. Dominick. See Dominicans. 

JAOOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- 
radaeus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and 
seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. 
They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- 
sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed 
their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- 
tinction is now entirely lost. 

JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, 
and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, 
the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- 
parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in 
June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. 

JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from 
the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded bj T Venables 
in 1655 ; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. 
Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692 ; and the island was 
desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 
1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose 
against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous 
hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 
1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which 
numerous plantations were burned, and property of inmiense value destroy- 
ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared 
the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awful fire here. Aug. 26 
1843. The Cholera in 1850. 

JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly 
reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by 
Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to 
an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them 
were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman 
was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. 

JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres 5 
about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "August^ 
nus,' : a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, 
and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- 
versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- 
ban VHI. 

JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a 
divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to 
the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- 
stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside 
over the beginning of all business. This g< id was painted with two faces 



432 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEW 

because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked 
towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first 
day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other 
presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among 
us, was originally taken. 

JANUS, Temple of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in 
the time of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during 
above 700 years, viz : — tinder Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; 
and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed 
in war, 

JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after 
an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was 
driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About 
this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, 
and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, 
March 31, 1814. 

JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo; and 
was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as 
the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins 
with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 
660 b. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- 
ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- 
went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See 
Jeddo. 

JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, 
sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, 
and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon 
their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 
8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary 
prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland 
in 1814. 

JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1680,000 inhabitants, a num- 
nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the 
court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, 
which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- 
turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expeded in 1622, and the 
inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of 
indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars 
of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories 
high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- 
cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. 

JEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern 
times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in 
woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number 
of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, 
whish lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the 
number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,000, on that 
of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. 

JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the 
French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Na- 
poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with 
the loss of 30,000 slain and nearly as many thousands made prisoner* la 



JES | DICTIONARY OP DATES. 433 

this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced t« 
[Berlin, Oct. 14, 1806 

JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy 
of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- 
queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A 
body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and 
compelled him to sign a capitulation ; but major Pierson, the commander of 
the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked 
the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was 
killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. 

JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- 
ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 
30, 1004 b. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ; 
Usher; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one 
of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews 
perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by 
the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- 
doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614 ; by the Saracens 
in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 
1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from 
the Christians by Saladin, in 1187; and by the Turks, who drove away the 
Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in 
February 1799. See Jews. 

JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as " a witty and jocose 
person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other 
men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English 
kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court 
in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), 
a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. 
Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 
1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- 
litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- 
cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage 
to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order 
in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul HI. who 
made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of 
chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the 
holy see. the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by 
which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken 
off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and 
Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- 
erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries, 
the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable 
globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Fxris. The 
Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, 
as being ca Iculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. 
Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, 
have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- 
land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put 
down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 
1764; and were banished Spain 1707. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV, 
in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerat-1 in othe^ states 
19 



434 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



f JE - * 



and even where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- 
cret and extensive existence. 

JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year ofl 
Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- 
ment of the common era. Christ's baptism by John, and 
his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted 
the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- 
day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended 
to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and his 
Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, 
a.d. 33. 

JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- 
travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia 
Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322.916Z. sterling. Jewels 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- 
tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. 

JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucida? until 
the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. 
They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years 
and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish 
time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 

JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They 
derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- 
ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular 
Views, p. 6 to p. 42. 

JEWS, Modern History of. 

Titus takes Jerusalem; the city and 
temple are sacked and burnt, and 
1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- 
tudes destroying themselves a. d. 70 

100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 
dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects 
a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain 
by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 

[They are now banished from Judea by 
an edict of the emperor, and are for- 
bidden to return, or even to look back 
upon their once flourishing and be- 
loved city, on pain of death. From 
this period, the Jews have been scat- 
tered among all other nations.] 



GENERAL HISTORY. 

Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 

Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at 
a solemnization of the Passover, they 
sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich 
tradesman at Paris, for which the 
criminals are executed, and all Jews 
banished France - - - 1080 

The Jews massacred in London, on the 
coronation-day of Richard I., at the 
instigation of the priests - - 1089 

500 being besieged in York castle by 
the mob. they cut each other's throats 
to avoid their fury - - - 1190 

Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their 
eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- 
bers inhumanly butchered, by king 
John 1204 

They circumcise and attempt to cruci- 
fy a child at Norwich ; the offender* 



are condemned in a fine of 20,000 
marks 1235 

They crucify a child at Lincoln, for 
which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 

700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew 
having forced a Christian to pay him 
more than 2s. per week as interest 
upon a loan of 20s. — Slowe - • 1262 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- 
hold, passed .... 1269 

Every Jew lending money on interest 
compelled to wear a plate on his 
breast signifying that he was a usu- 
rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 

267 Jews hanged and quartered for 
clipping coin .... 1277 

They crucify a child at Northampton, 
for which fifty are drawn at horses' 
tails and hanged - - - 1282 

15,660 Jews are apprehended in one 
day, and are all banished England. — 
Rapin 1287 

Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the 
peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in 
a castle, where, for want of weapons, 
they throw their children at thei; en- 
emies, and then destroy one another 131 

A fatal distemper raging in Europe, 
they are suspected of having poison- 
ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- 
sacred. — Lenglet. - - - 1343 

500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and 
150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 

They are banished France - - 1494 

After having been banished England 
365 years, they are re-admitted bv 
Cromwell, in virtue of a tieaty with 
Manasseh Ben Israel - - - 1653 



jud] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



435 



land, lost on the second reading, by & 
majority in the Commons, 228 against 
165 - - • May 17, 1338 

Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff 
of London ; and knighted by the 
queen, being the first Jew on whom 
that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 1837 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- 
mitting the title of citizen of the first 
class to be held by any Jew who ren- 
ders himself worthy of it - - ISiS? 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek 
priest, a persecution of the Jews be- 
gan at Dan ascus.— See Damascus 

Feb. 1, IS40 



JEWS, continued. 

Statute to naturalize them in England, 

passed ----- 1753 
This act repealed on the petition of all 

the cities in England - - - 1754 

The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and 

Avignon are declared to be citizens 

of France .... 1790 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, 

convened by the emperor Napoleon 

Jan. 20, 1807 
London Society for promoting Christi- 
anity among the Jews - - 1808 
Alexander of Russia grants land on the 

sea of Azoph to converted Jews, 

Sept. 1, 1820 
Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- 

JOAN OF ARC, or MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine 
of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of 
Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles 
VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised 
the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- 
glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the 
enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession 
of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. 
In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. 
She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed 
any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a 
witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her 
age. — Voltaire's Pucelle d' Orleans. 

JOHN DOE and RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well 
known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and 
since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard 
Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. 

JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty 
years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by 
pope Boniface'VIIL, in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years 
by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban 
VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at 
which period it is now fixed. 

JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius 
Anglice: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's 
Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglia 
was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I. 
1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land ; and in 1351, Wil- 
liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- 
ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- 
potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of 
Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench, 
1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. 
Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench 
and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of 
them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the 
crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by 
the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died. 1689. The independence of the 
judges in England was established by making their appointments patents 
for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 



436 the world's PROGRESS. [ JUL 

one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as 
vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813. 
JUDGES in the UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in 
number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and 
Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have 
been John Jay, appointed, 1789 ; William Cushing, of Mass., 1796 ; Oliver 
Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Taney, 1836. U. S. Cir- 
cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States 
are thus appointed : — 

By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Louisana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. 

By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, 
Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. 

By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. 

By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York,* and Maryland. 

The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good 
behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia t 
North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. 

Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. 

Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. 

For periods varying from two to twelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan ; and for 
one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. 

They are removable — 
By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court 
of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As- 
sembly, in New York. 
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of 
Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire- 
land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the 
Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c, fixed by statute 3 and 4 William 
» IV. 1833. 

JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of the world." The first object of Hindoo venera- 
tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two 
rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil- 
lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god 
is stated at 1,200,000 annually : of these a great many never return, and 
to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones : the 
temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. 
JUGURTHA, the War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- 
duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Csecilius 
Metellus was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and 
afterwards Sylla and Marius ; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to 
Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been 
immortalized by the pen of Sallust. 
JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the 
lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 

* The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the new conaii 
tution of 1846. 



jur] dictionary of dates. 437 

years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- 
ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period 
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- 
dane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian 
period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 
4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. 

JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of 
C. Csesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month 
in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the 
year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Year. 

JUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. 
It had its name Junius, which some derive h Junone, and others a Juniori- 
bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is 
now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. 

JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political 
writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They 
were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- 
ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British 
literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, 
Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. 
Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- 
neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but the matter is still 
hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall 
perish with me." 1 — Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. 

JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- 
mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, 
made about 600 b. c, and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this 
chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter 
were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed 
some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- 
tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen 
appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, 
and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false 
verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed 
to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of 
the people's, liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. 
By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge 
peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries; but a lord of parliament, 
and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge 
any of his peers. 

JURIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used 
to feed the jury empanelled in their actio*, and hence arose the common 
law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A 
jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree 
upon a verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or candle, till 
they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their 
pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though 
they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to 
agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the 
court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791. — 
Phillips. 



438 the world's PROGRESS. [ KIE 

JUSTICES of the PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- 
tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- 
ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the 
peace in every county first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. 
— Stowe. In the United States the office is held by special appointment, 
and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. 

JUSTINIAN CCDE. Wherein was written what maybe termed the statute 
law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. 
To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and 
Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body 
of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. 

K. 

KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- 
duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr c 
Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument 
perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- 
tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in tha 
formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. 

KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was dis- 
covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of 
by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by 
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year 
being dreary winter. 

KENIL WORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected 
subsequently by John of Gaunt; and its remains now form one of the most 
picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred 
on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- 
tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment 
of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000Z. a vast 
expenditure in those times. 

KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, 
an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. 
Was a part of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad 
mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73.677 ; in 1810, 406,511 , 
in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. 

KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, 
about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of 
Troy, 1193 b. c-. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form 
was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient 
keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. 
The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- 
minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this 
description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again 
upon divorce or separation. 

KIEL, Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- 
uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously 
the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent 
a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission 
was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, 
and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, 
but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the 
diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. 



UN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 439 

KING. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Rcy, the French Rot, 
all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first 
founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in 
Egypt, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the 
earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states 
were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians 
understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- 
ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the 
sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject: there was 
a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public 
and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should 
devote each day to the services of religon, the administration of justice, 
the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was served, 
were all prescribed. 

KWG of ENGLAND. The style " kitg of England," was first used by Egbert 
a. d. 828; but the title Rex gentis Anglormn, king of the English nation, 
existed during the Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology of we, 
us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of " king of Ire- 
land," by Bntish sovereigns, was not assumed until -542, when Henry VIII. 
changed" lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted 
at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707 ; and of the "United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- 
uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus : — 
"Georgms Tertius, Dei Gratia Britanniarum Rex, Fidei Defensor" "George 
the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." 

KING of the FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title, of 
" king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of 
" king of the French," October 16. 1789. The royal title was abolished in 
1792; but restored in the Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. 
was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," 
August 9, 1830. See France. 

KING of HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term 
queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds 
to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals ot 
Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as king Mary, in 1383. See 
Hungary. 

RING of the ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest 
sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- 
tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- 
hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV., in 
1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to 
Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected 
next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in 
succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived 
by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; 
but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 
5, 1814. 

KING'S BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the king 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the 
judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- 
tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control 
as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The 
name of this court has been altered to that of Queen's Bench, since tk(? 



440 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ KNi 

accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in 
immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. 

KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. 
The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar 
ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- 
teen years, 92,107 persons were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the 
king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch 
publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- 
til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. 

KING'S SPEECH. The fiist royal speech from the throne was delivered by 
Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accus- 
tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become 
chief of a new administration, said—" Canning being now minister, of one 
thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- 
cal blunders in king's speeches ; these things will still be written in the 
same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in 
a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbett. 

KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to 
have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ; he was the founder of the Babylonian 
monarchy, 2245 b. c. — Usher. Menes. or MisraKm, makes his son Atholas, 
surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Toso- 
thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c— Blair. Ninus founds the As- 
syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. 

KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing 
was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas 
• approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- 
ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, 
and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. 
From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling 
to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709. 

KIT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and 
gentlemen of distinguished abilities* instituted in 1703, for the purpose of 
promoting the Protestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they 
effected by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, 
and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of 
the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook, 
who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and 
who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life <?/ Queen Anne. 

KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived 
from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in 
Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who. 
after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 
750 b. c. — Livy. 

KNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, 
particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and 
Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru- 
saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief 
amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, 
and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knights 
travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the 
cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Doe 
Quixote. 

KNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, aftei 



CNI ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



441 



confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy, 
The first knight made by the sovereign Avith the sword of state was Athei- 
stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignity, a. d. 900. — Spelman. The 
custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed 
in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Askmole's Institutes. All persona 
having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a fine, 
38 Henry III. 1254— Salmon: 

KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- 
valry, knighthood i? to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- 
cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state ol 
anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- 
sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. 
Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich 
fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and 
to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, 
and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of 
the highest rank and largest possessions, adtiisMon into the order was 
deemed a great honor. 



MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND 

Alcantara, instituted 
Alexander Nevskoi, Russia 
Amaranta, Sweden 
Angelic Knights, Greece 
Annunciada, Mantua 
• Annunciation, Savoy 
Argonauts, Naples 
Avis, Portugal 
Band, Spain 
Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed 

See Bannerets 
Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See 

Bath .... 
Bear, Switzerland - 
Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by 

Frederick I. - 
Blood of Christ, Mantua 
Brotherly Love, instituted 
Burgundian Cross - 
Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San 

cho in. - 
Carpet, England 
Catharine, Russia 
Chase, instituted by the duke of Wir- 

temberg ... 
Christ, Livonia - 
Christ, Portugal ... 
Christian Charity, France 
Cincinnatus, America - - 

Conception of the Virgin 
Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- 
tian Ernest, elector of Brandenburgh 
Crescent, Naples - - - - 

Crown Royal, France - 
Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by 

Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by 

Christian V. - - 

Death's Head, Female Order, by the 

widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe 

Mersburgh ... 
Dove of Castile 
Dragon, Hungary 
Ear of Corn, Brittany 
Elephanf. Denmark, by Christian I. 
£rmine, France - 
Gaiter, England 

iy* 



HONORARY ORDERS OP KNIGHTHOOD. 

1160 Generosity, Brandenburgh - - 16S5 

1700 Golden Fleece, instituteo' at Bruges by 
1645 Philip, surnamed the Good - - 1429 

456 Golden Lion, Hesse-Cassel - - 1785 

1618 Golden Shield and Thistle - - - 1370 

1355 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. - - 1559 

1382 Guelphic, Hanover - - - - 1816 

1147 Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived - 1559 
1232 Holy Ghost, Rome - - - 1198 

Holy Trinity - - - - - 1211 

14S5 Hospitallers (which see} • . - 1092 

Januarius, Naples - • - 1738 

1725 Jerusalem. See Malta - - - 1048 

1213 Jesus, France - - - - 1206 

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John 

1701 XXII.. 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 1610 
1608 Knot, Naples .... 1351 
1708 La Calza, Venice - - - - 1400 
1535 Legion of Honor, France, instituted by 

Napoleon Bonaparte - - - 1802 

1156 Lily of Arragon - - - -1403 

1553 Lily of Navarre .... 1048 
1698 Loretto, Lady of - - - 1587 

Malta. See Malta. ■ • - 1531 

Martyrs, Palestine - - - - 1319 



1719 
1203 
1319 
\rm 
1783 
1619 

1660 

144S 
802 



- 1671 



-1709 
-1379 
-1439 

- 1050 
-1478 

- 1450 

- 1350 



Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792 
Mauritians, Savoy - - - 1430 

Merit, instituted by the landgrave of 

Hesse Cassel - - - 1785 

Merit, Prussia .... 1740 
Noble Passion, Germany - - - 1704 

Oak of Navarre, Spain - • - 722 

Passion of Jesus Christ, France - 1382 

Pius, founded by Pius IV. - - - 1559 

Porcupine, Fran.-.e - • - 1393 

Red Eagle, Prussia - - - - 1792 

Redemption, instituted - - - 1212 

Rosary, Spain - - - - 1172 

Round Table. England — See Knights 

of the Round Table - - - 528 

St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes 
to this saint the introduction of Chris- 
tianity into Muscovy) - - - 1698 
St. Andrew, Scotland, 809 ; renewed 

1452 ; and again bv James VI. - 1605 

St; Anthony. Ethiopia • - 35? 



442 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[kit 



KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE, continued. 
St. Anthony, Hamault • • - 1382 



St. Blaze, Aeon 

St. Catharine, Palestine ■ 

St. Catharine, Russia 

St. Denis, France 

St. George, Austria - 

St. George, Carinthia 



1250 
1163 

1698 
1267 
1470 
1279 



St. George, Defender of the Immacu- 
late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 
St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- 
ward III. See Garter - - 1349 
St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by 

Frederick III. - - - - 1460 

St. George, Rome - - - 1496 

St. George, Russia - • - - 1782 

St. George, Spain - - - 1318 

St. George, Venice - - • - 1200 

St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of 

Juliers and Cleves - • - 1447 

St. James, Holland - - • • 1290 

St. James, Portugal - - - 1310 

St. James, Spain - - - - 1030 

St. Jerome, Germany • • -1154 

St. John of Aeon - - - -1370 

St. John of Jerusalem - • -1048 

St. John of Malta - - . -1522 

St. John of Rhodes - - - 1300 

St. Julien, of Alcantara - - - 1176 

St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- 
uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - -1572 
St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 
St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed - 1562 
St. Mary the Glorious - - - 1233 
St. Mary de Merced, Spain - - 1218 
St. Michael, France - - - - 1469 



St. Michael, Germany - • - 1618 

St. Patrick, Ireland - - - 1783 

St. Paul, Rome .... 1540 
St. Peter, Rome - - - - 1520 ■ 

St. Rupert, Germany, by thi archbish- 
op of Saltzburgh - - - 1701 
St. Sepulchre, Palestine - - - 109i 
St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, 

grand-duke of Tuscany - 1561 

Str Thomas of Aeon- - - -1370 

Saviour, Greece - - June 1, 1833 

Seraphims, Sweden - - - - 1334 

Ship and Crescent, France - - 1269 

Sincerity, instituted by the elector of 

Saxony - - - - - 169C 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany - - 1662 

Swan, Cleves - - - - 960 

Sword, Cyprus - . - - 1195 

Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived - -1772 
Templars. — See Templar* ■ - 1118 

Teste Mcrte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652 

Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia - 1522 
Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370 

Thist'e of Scotland, 812 ; revived - ]540 
Trinitarians, Spain - - - 1594 

Truxillo, Spain - - - - 1227 

United Ladies for the honor of Lie 
Cross, in Germany - - - 1666 

Virgin Mary 1233 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607 

Warfare of Christ, Poland - - -1705 

Warfare of Christ, Russia • - 1325 

Win? of St. Michael, Portugal - -1165 
Wladimir, Russia - - - 1682 



KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of superiot 
worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womer 
also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved tho 
city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their 
stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the 
Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were 
granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. 

KNIGHTS op the ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d. 
528. — Asser's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward 
III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the 
recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became 
anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon 
projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a 
solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. 
He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return 
of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those 
jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. 

KNIGHTS of the SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by 
Doomsday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, were 
greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the 
latter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence 
called knights of the shire, a. d-1307. 

KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118 
They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple 
in London ; and at other plac«^ in the reign of Henry II. All the knights 
were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and 
possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct.. 



LAB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 

1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Thei: order was 
abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Vienne, in 1312 ; 
and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given 
to the knights of Malta. See Malta. 

KNIVES. First made in England in 1563. They were the earliest branch of 
cutlery, and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- 
don, 5th Eliz., 1563. — Chamberlain's England, edit. 1683. See Forks. 

KORAN, or ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its genera] 
aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians in 
the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under 
certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- 
phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- 
tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho- 
met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty- 
three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, 
fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de- 
scribed, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- 
sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading article of 
faith which this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, aud 
a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
1143 ; and into English and other European languages about 1763, et seq. 
It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran; 
Islamism ; Mecca; Mahometism, fyc. 

L. 

LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by admiral 
Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a 
splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight 
more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon 
England, May 19, 1692. 

LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed 
from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- 
mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, 
in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search 
of Perouse, but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast 
away on two different islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by 
various articles of the wreck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought 
with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. 

LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were 
successful in a number of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- 
tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe 
reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, 
until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. 

LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by 
Dasdalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ; 
the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that 
place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the 
Hetrurife, about 520 b. c. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of 
Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with 
pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. 
The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of 



444 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ LAM 

Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton 
Court that is much visited. 
LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in Fraaace and 
Flanders in 1820 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for 
the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace 
was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- 
nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An 
ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds 
in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty 
pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. 

LACEDvEMON. See Sparta. Lelez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco- 
nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedae- 
mon, and makes hhn partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta 
was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is most 
known. The Lacedaemon republic became famous in history after 700 b. c. 
particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 
b. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucy elides ; Priestley. 

LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the 
poor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were 
therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the 
words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, 
that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of 
Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly 
belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom 
has made it a term of complaisance for the wives of knights, and all women 
of eminence or gentility. See Lord. 

LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in num. 
ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives 
having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, 
he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are 
called to this day. 

LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. 350, 
according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord- 
ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought 
to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called 
the Annunciation, and is celebrated in the Catholic church as one of its 
chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- 
nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In 
England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th 
of March. 

LA FAYETTE'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American 
independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen 
years old. ■ He raised a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- 
wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- 
inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal 
reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- 
ceived from C6ngress the sum of $200,000 and a township of land in reward 
for his services ; returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, September 
7, 1825. 

LAMPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they 
were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- 
tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 3000 
drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. 
Lamps were in general use through the streets of London up to the closa 



LAN] PICTIOlSrARY OF DATES. 445 

of the 18th century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. 
London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps 
in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture; of this kind 
is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. 
See Safety Lamp. 

LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutuaJ 
instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not 
much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general 
attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the founder, 
who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 
1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of 
them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in 
Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. 

LAND. "Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry VIII. 1544. 
The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000/. in 1600. It was 
about 14,000,OOOZ. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 
lO^er cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 
millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 
millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior 
class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has 
been recently estimated in parliament at 1 27 millions, but authorities vary 
much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. 

LANDGRAVE. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- 
minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it be- 
came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the 
rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse 
Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. 

LANGSIDE, Battle of; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the 
earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter 
suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal 
battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at "Workington, in 
Cumberland, on May 16 ; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- 
ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the 
- former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians, and the pro- 
foundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that 
Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that 
the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has 
for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring 
to know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two 
children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they 
were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and they 
both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He there- 
fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other 
nations, G47 B. c. — Herodotus, Polyozn., Strabo. 

LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The 
original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, 
spoken in the east : Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in 
the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Ulyrian, the Jazygian, remain- 
ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, 
in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin 
sprung the Italian, French and Spanish ; and from the Spanish the Portu- 
guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High 
Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 



446 THE world's progress. [lat 

&c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world. Of these, 
937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American language? 
and dialects. — Professor Adelung. 

LANTERNS. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn 
were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn 
was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, 
A. D. 872-901. — Stowe's Chron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, 
with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid lamina? of the ox horn have served 
for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are 
preferred. See article, Lamps. 

LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally 
allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- 
ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence 
as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is 
allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by 
human hands. 

LATERAN, COUNCILS OF the. They were held in the Basilica of the La- 
teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right 
of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry 
V., 1122; by the second council were secured the temporalities of ecclesias- 
tics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179; the fourth on 
church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 abbots; and the fifth was 
the famous council of Julius II., 1512. 

LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape 
them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude 
construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c. 
Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines 
frequently cost thousands of pounds. 

LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and 
from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the 
Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most 
beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be 
spoken in Italy, about A. D. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- 
mus, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. During six or seven hundred 
years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings from the Tweed 
to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more 
or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- 
tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is 
the extent of the earth or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to 
either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, 
and made it 69.493; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 
69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732; and 
Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 
69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot, 
68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68. G3 — less than at 
the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- 
late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, 
while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. 

LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, 
who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 901 B. c. 
Laureuturn was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium 
under ./Eneas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally 
known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had 
founded the city of Rome in their country. 



law] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 447 



LATTER-DAY SAINTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre- 
sented. By some we are told that their tenets do not vary much from those 
of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the 
foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of 
curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work 
ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generatioi 
of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire 
and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great 
numbers of these fanatics have lately emigrated to the United States. 

LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 180T 
B. C, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- 
nians, 623 b. c. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of 
Solon, 578 B. C. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 B. C. ; they 
remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- 
tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race 
of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman 
laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
codes were published in A. D. 290. The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- 
tinian code, in 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law. 

LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the 
Saxon, in A. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's 
code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was 
compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated 
his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136 ; Henry II.'s 
confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I, 1194. 
See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation 
by Henry III., 1216, el seq. See Magna Charta and Forests, Charier of the. 
Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, 
' That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield. 

LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- 
jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- 
general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- 
blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of 
which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his 
plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful 
enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in 
1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke 
of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of property of every 
rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed 
both in the bank and the companies. - In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal 
bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so 
that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the 
current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false 
credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, 
ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- 
perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, in the same 
fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet. 

LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been 
first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign 1291. Serjeants, the highest 
members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common 
Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis 
Bacon, in 1604. There are about 1200 barristers in England : and the num- 
ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- 
neys, solicitors, &c, is about 14,000. A list of 19,527 practising lawyers ill 
the United States, was published in New York, 1850. 



448 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. [LEA 

LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri- 
tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes- 
dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and 
Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, 
that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great 
quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use 
in 1236. 

LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, 
was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other 
princes against Louis XL of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was 
entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The 
League of Smalcald, 1529. The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so 
called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of th6 
Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- 
nence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France, who was then of the 
reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 
1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in 
Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal 
authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. 

LEAP-TEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- 
mers of Julius Cassar, 45 B. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, 
comprising, as they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another ; 
the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was 
called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- 
out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when 
the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference 
between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, 
and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in 
the course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 
be a leap-year; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Tear, Gregorian 
Calendar, &c. 

LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the 
Greeks during the fourth century B. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- 
mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined 
until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a.d. 
1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, 
that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from 
Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, el seq. After the dark ages, came Brunetto, Latini, 
and numerous enlightened men ; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- 
ragement to literature and the arts. 

The illustrious Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. 
— Fonlana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, 
Germany, and England. The reign of Anne has been called by some the 
"golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature. 

LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of 
manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c, by all ancient nations. 
The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B. c. The ancients un- 
derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, 
and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into 
many uses : a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced 
annually in England, 450,O0OZ., and in Ireland, about 5O,O00Z. It was abo- 
lished in both countries, May 29.1S30. 



LEPj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 449 

LEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. 
It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1796, 
but the immense amount of British property then there' had been previously 
removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken 
the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- 
ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. 
LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first 
formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, 
about 750 B. c. When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c, the legion consisted 
of 5000 soldiers; and under Marius, in 88 b. c, it was 6200 soldiers, besides 
700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept 
at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty-five legions, 
about 5 b. o.; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these 
formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions. 
A Legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with 
a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. 
LEGION of HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions 
in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such 
individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the 
state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- 
parte, when first consul, May 18, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbon 
family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. 
LEIPSIO. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, 
king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- 
sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In 
the same j'ear, the Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it 
two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars 
it has frequently fallen into adverse hands. See next article. 
LEIPSIO, Battle op. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of 
modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the 
one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the 
former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost 
by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, 
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in 
the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by 
the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. 
The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- 
peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- 
den, entered'Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. 
LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church from Ash- 
Wednesday (which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- 
tion. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
which is now called the first Sunday of Lent ; and the four days beginning 
were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of 
fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by 
command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. — Baker's Chron. 
LEPANTO, Battle of. The great naval engagement between the combined 
fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V, and the whole maritime force of the 
Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted 
of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys of which, 
after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed 
and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, 
Oct. 7, 1571. — Vohaire. 



4-50 THE world's progress. [lex 

LETTERS. Those of the alphahet were invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 
1822 B.C. — Usher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other 
nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languages, so 
vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the 
alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. 
LETTERS op MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in 
England by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels and for repri- 
sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer 's Foedera. They were 
first granted in 1295. — Baker's Chron. They are usually granted in time of. 
war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of 
belligerent nations. — Poioel. 
LETTERS pe CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in 
use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the 
earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree 
their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. — 
Hist, of the French Revol. 
LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at 
the village of Leuctra, between Plataea and Thespia, between the Thebans, 
under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 
the victory being with the former. In this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000 
Lacedemonians were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans ; July 8, 37 
B. c. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, 
which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the 
Thebans. — Plutarch. Xenophon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans. 
LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all 
things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of 
this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck 
were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the 
churches which Luther had left standing ; and then finding an army in their 
followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- 
tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head ot 
40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- 
gistrates of cities to resign their authority; and on his march to enforce 
these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- 
try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him; 7000 of the enthusi- 
asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be- 
headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French 
Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. 
LEWES, Battle of. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, 
earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this 
battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard 
king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., 
were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body of 
Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, who pursuing 
the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort 
used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- 
struction. See Evesham. 
LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese 
language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters as having been compiled 1100 
B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- 
teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- 
peared about a. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. 
See article, Dictionary. 
LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle claims distinction as being the first 
fought between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war 



Lib] DICTIONARY OF KATES. 451 

nf independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos- 
ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by iho 
Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. 

LEYDfiN, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, 
and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, A. D. 
1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- 
lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. 
The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel lades 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large 
part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. 

LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affectec 
the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteerr. 
of the world, is deemed a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the 
libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. 
Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gor- 
don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison- 
ment for five years and fined 500Z., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on 
the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., Peb. 1790. The Morning Post' s 
libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel 
on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Ambigu, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 
21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- 
fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England 1820. Act 
regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York 
and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was 
made with good motives and for justifiable ends. 

LIBERIA. Colony in "West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by 
American Colonization Society, 1822; Jehudi Ashmun was the first supei- 
intendent of the colony ; new Constitution — Roberts elected president — 
Oct. 5, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- 
gust 1, 1849. 

LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads 
were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever 
was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no 
sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple 
was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ■ 
that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick -, 
with many other monstrous opinions. • This sect arose in A. D. 1 525 ; and 
the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. 

LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account m 
history was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B. c. The second of any 
note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B. c. It was nearly de- 
stroyed when Julius Csssar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable 
books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The 
first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B. c. — Strabo. The 
first library at Rome was instituted 167 B. c. : it was brought from Ma- 
cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 
86 B. c. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's 
works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, 
. about A. d. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed 
from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- 
sisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, 
who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead 
of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nouv. 
Diet. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatma 



452 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[lib 



Apollo should be committed to the flames under the notion of confining the 
clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. From that time, all ancient learn- 
ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been 
emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early 
Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in tho 
destruction of the Alexandrian library; their emperor, Chee-wang-tee, 
ordered all writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew aa 
from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- 
ceeding emperors with great difficulty. 
LIBRARIES in EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain- 
ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- 
licly accessible are in this proportion, viz.: in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit- 
ants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany, 
261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria, 167; in France, 129; in Belgium, 95 ; in 
Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention 
of printing, is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of 
England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas 
Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- 
brary for the use of the public, a. d. 1436. It was enlarged by Cosmo de 
Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Vienna, 
(imperial,) 1440 ; Vatican, 1465 ; &c. See talk, below. 
In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,000 volumes 
each (of which there are, in France alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are 
not taken into the account : 



France has 170 Public Li- 
braries, containing 
Belgium has 14 do. 
Prussia " 44 do. 
Austria " 48 do. 



Saxony has 6 
Bavaria " IT 
Denmark " 5 
Tuscany " 9 
G. Britain " 83 



containing 554,000 vols. 



do. 

do. 
do. 
do. 



1,267,000 

645,000 " 

411,000 " 

1,711,493 " 



4,000,000 vols 

538,000 " 
2,400,000 " 
2,400,000 " 

Taking the capital cities we find the following results 

Paris has 9 Public Li- 
braries, containing 1,474,000 vols. 
Brussels has 2 do. 143,500 " 
Berlin " 2 do. 530,000 " 
Vienna " 3 do. 453,000 •' 
Milan " 2 do. 230,000 " 

Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as 

follows : — 



Dresden has 4 containing 340,500 vols. 

Munich " 2 " 800 000 " 

Copenhagen " 3 " 557,000 " 

Florence " 6 " 818.000 " 

London " 4 " 490,500 " 



Founded. Vols, 

Paris (1) National Lib., 1595 824,000 

Munich, Eoyal Lib., 1550 600,000 

Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000 

London, British Museum, 1753 435,000 

Copenhagen, Eoyal Lib., 1550 412,000 

Berlin, Royal Lib., 1650 410,000 

Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1440 813,000 

Dresden, Royal Lib., 1656 800,000 

Madrid National Lib., 1712 200,000 

Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 

Stuttsard, Royal Lib., 1765 187,000 

Paris~(2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000 



Milan, Brerea Lib., 

Paris (3), St. Genevieve, 1624 

Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, 1760 

Florence, Magliabecchian, 1714 

Naples, Eoyal Lib., 

Brussels, Eoyal Lib., 1839 

Eome (1), Casanate Lib., 1760 

Hague, Eoyal Lib., 

Paris (4), Mazarine Lib, 1661 

Eome (2), Vatican Lib., 1465 

Parma, Ducal Lib., 1760 



Founded. Vols. 
1797 170,000 



150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
150,000 
133,500 
120,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 



The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order :- 



Founded. Vols. 

Gottinge^TJniv'tyLib., 1736 360,000 

Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000 

Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 1597 220,000 

Tubingen, Univ'ty Lib., 1562 200,000 

Munich, University Lib., 200,000 

Heidelburg, Univ'ty Lib., 1708 200.000 

Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724 

Bologna,'University Lib., 1690 150,000 

Prague, University Lib., 1777 130,000 



Founded. Vols. 

Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115,000 

Leipsic, University Lib., 1544 112,000 

Copenhagen, Univ'rsity Lib., 1730 110,000 

Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000 

Louvaine, University Lib., 1639 105,000 

Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,239 

Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 

Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000 

Edinburgh, University Lib., 1582 90,854 



lib] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



453 



Tho largest Libraries in Great Britain are those of the 



Founded. 

1 British Museum, London, 1753 

2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 
8 University, Cambridge, 1484 

4 Advocates. Edinburgh, 16S2 

5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 



Founded. 
Eoyal Institution, London, 
London Institution, 
London Library, 
Sion College, &c. 



Vols. Founded. Vola. 

435,000 
220,000 
166,724 
148,000 
104,239 

LIBRARIES in the UNITED STATES. 

public and college libraries in the United States in 1849, was stated to be 
1,294,000. The number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 
10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000 ; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the 
precodence of the largest as to numbers stood thus ■ 



The number of volumes in the chief 



Vols. 



Vols. 



6 Mercantile Library, New York, 32,000 

7 Georgetown College, D. C, 25,000 

8 Brown University, 24,000 

9 New York State Library, 24,000 

10 Yale College, 21,000 

11 Astor Library, New York, 20,000 



1 Harvard College, including Divin- 

ity and Law Schools, 72,000 

2 Philadelphia and Loganian Lib., 60,000 

3 Boston Athenaeum, 50,000 

4 Library of Congress, 50,000 

5 New York Society Library, 82,000 

The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. 
The Smithsonian Institution at Washington has not yet commenced collecting 
its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the 
State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338,848. There are 10,621 school dis- 
tricts, and 1,785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, 
chiefly for merchants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent 
date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and 
contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes; 
in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12,200 volumes. There are similar 
ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. 

The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- 
ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : — 









Vols. 






Vols. 


1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 


6,000 


Brought up, 


34, 


453,609 


2 Columbia, Dist. 


of, has 


2, 


53,000 


12 New Jersey, 


has 3, 


28,500 


8 Connecticut, 


" 


6, 


81,449 


13 New York, 


" 12, 


157,411 


4 Georgia, 


" 


1, 


18,000 


14 North Carolina, 


" 1, 


10,000 


5 Kentucky, 


" 


1, 


7,000 


15 Ohio, 


" 1, 


30,497 


6 Louisiana, 


" 


1, 


5,500 


16 Pennsylvania, 


« 14, 


159,200 


7 Maine, 


" 


8, 


8S,SC0 


17 Ehode Island, 


" 3, 


87,185 


8 Maryland, 


si 


1, 


12,000 


18 South Carolina, 


" 2, 


30,000 


9 Massachusetts, 


" 


14, 


200,000 


19 Tennessee, 


" 2, 


16,000 


10 Missouri, 


" 


2, 


14,300 20 Yermont, 


" 2, 


16,254 


11 New Hampshire 


i " 


2, 


22,500 21 Virginia, 


" 4, 


41,000 



S4 453,6091 Total - - - 72, 979,656 

The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, 
parish, and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. 
The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large public libraries; l. e. 
half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Rep. Brit. 
Mus. ; Prof. Jewetts Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Livermore in K Amer. Rev,, 
July 1850, &c. 

I IEG-E. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con- 
vents, "the paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo< 
men." In the time of Louis XI. of France, a.d. 1461, Liege was a large 
and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign 
power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702 ; 
and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, in 
1814. 



454 the world's progress. [lib 

LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people, 
and called Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar; that of 
Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles ; the Pharos 
of Messina ; the Colossus of Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the 
coasts of England, fifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, 
and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish 
coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. 

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of 
Genoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa^ 
August 10, 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, it 
having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It mergei 
into the kingdom of Italy. 

LIMA. See America and Columbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru, 
was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a 
city, and gave it the name of Ciualad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. 
This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known aa 
Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by 
annual festivals, a.d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and October 28, 1746. In the last it 
was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see. 

LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- 
tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in 
England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253. 
Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen 
weavers established itself in London in 1368; and the art of staining linen 
became known in 1579. A colony of Scots, in the reign of James I., and 
other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc- 
ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- 
land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- 
raged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, 
and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. 
This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture 
there. The Irish Linen Board was established in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- 
lin, was opened 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in 
Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnesley in Yorkshire, are, in Great 
Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. 

LINN J3AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, 
or, as his name is Latinized, Linnaeus, was commenced about 1725-30 ; and 
his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, 
orders, and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- 
ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his vari- 
ous genera. The Linnsean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and 
was incorporated March 26, 1802. 

LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city 
when they conquered it,, a.d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 
1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court 
fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French 
army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle 
of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur 
"Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- 
sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 

LISLE, Siege op. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the 
allies ; and though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it 
was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty 
of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications 



uv] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455 



of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of the most famous of modern his- 
tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from 
the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 

LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about 
A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gre- 
gory I., in or about 595. — Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany 
was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII. in 
1543.— Collier's Ecc. Hist. 

LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright. The statute of queen 
Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable 
decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- 
right was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have 
an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, 
the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acta 
extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, 
then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right 
is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ; 
but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 
42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death ia 
to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July 
1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The 
International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection 
in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the same 
protection to English authors. 

LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, EUND, &c. The various societies connected 
with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through 
the volume. The celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, 
and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. 
The Literary Fund, in Lincoln's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve 
authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty ; 
this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was 
established Sept. 15, 1825. 

LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose 
first essays were executed about 1796; and shortly afterwards the art waa 
announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- 
tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be 
referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 
1841. 

LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy waa 
restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first 
composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The 
offices for morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same 
form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the 
solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to 
very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng- 
lish language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, iu 1637. 
Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil- 
kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith. 

LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their 
vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originaUy a 
single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- 
ment, and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe. 

LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive 



456 THE WORLD'S progress. [i oc 

increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first 
rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- 
day-book under the name Esmedune, or, Smedune. In other ancient records 
its various appellations are, Litherpul, and Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the 
ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced 
its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the " Liver," 
or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 
1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the 
notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation 
of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships 
which entered the port of Liverpool was as follows; British, 2,615, of the 
aggregate_ burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. 
The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the year ending 5 th Jan- 
uary, 1844, was £4,121.522.— Pari. Bet. 

LLOYD'S, London. The coffee-house in connection with the Eoyal Exchange, 
and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side 
of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of 
eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, &c. ; and here are 
effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books 
kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are 
remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. 

LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful productions of the earth. Its 
virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua- 
lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. — Siurmius. Aristotle 
assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it 
under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its 
attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, 
known in France before A. D. 1180 ; but this honor is accorded to Roger 
Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its 
virtues to steel or iron ; and Flavio Giojo of Amain, was the inventor of 
the mariner's compass. See Compass. 

LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor- 
rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen 
borrowed 200,0002. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own 
coin, and sir Thomas G-reshain and the city of London joined in the secu- 
rity. — Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo- 
rable periods, was, viz : 

Seven years war from 1755 to 1763 - - £52,000,000 

American war ...... from 1776 to 1784 - - 75,500,000 

French revolutionary war .... from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500,000 

War against Bonaparte ... - from 1 SOS to 1814 - - 200,300,000 

Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one 
millions and twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a 
subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- 
don in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil- 
lions, Dec. 5, 1796. 
LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake 
of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and 
bis queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the 
English in 1301, and again in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of 
St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl 
of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re- 
markable as the place of the unfortunate queen Mary's imprisonment, in 
1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary was 
compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which an 
interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abbot : and of which, 



lom] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



also, some new and affecting particulars are given by Mr. Tytler, in the 1th 
volume of his History of Scotland, published in August, 1840. 

LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con- 
trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange 
mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The French are ac< 
counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the English the best. Bra- 
mah's celebrated patent locks were registered in 1784. Locks have been 
made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite work- 
manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its 
own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys. 

LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently 
superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of 
these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt 
and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 B. c. The country of 
Palestine was infested with such swarms that they darkened the air, and 
after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable 
stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 406. A similar catastrophe occurred 
in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the 
streets, and were preserved by the curious; they resembled grasshoppers, 
but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 
1748. They infested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 
1816. 

LODI, Battle of the Bridge of. One of the great early achievements in 
Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed 
to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant 
and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands 
of the imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made 
prisoners, May 10, 1796. The conqueror pursued his advantage with won- 
derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and 
the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. 

LOG-LINE, used in navigation, A. D. 1570 ; and first mentioned by Bourne 
in 1577. The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which 
the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly 
the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used 
in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. 

LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of num- 
bers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent 
Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means 
of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence 
called Napier's bones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr. 
Briggs, at Oxford. 

LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic 
religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- 
liffe.— CViawcer. The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; 
he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples 
of Wickliffe were called Lollards. The first martyr in England on account 
of religious opinions was WiUiam Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith, 
London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The Lollards were proscribed 
by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or 
persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri ; Carte. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com- 
posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice. — Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 
20 



458 • the world's progress. [loo 

by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private 
persons, who were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry III, 1229. 
They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called 
after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the 
marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited 
into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the Goths. To reward their ser- 
vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, A. d. 548. They 
passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, 
in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and made considerable 
conquests till 172, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and 
annexed his territories to the German empire; — La Combe. See Milan, &c. 
LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that 
a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 
years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 
54 B. a and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a. d. 61, it wag 
known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta waa 
the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade 
and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. — Tacitus. It 
is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king 
who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood ; but its name is from 
Llyn-Din, the " town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. 
LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though 
rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to 
have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of 
Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic 
record for upwards of 3000 years. — Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of 
Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and 
considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 153d year, and in per- 
fect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, 
the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are 
some extraordinary instances of great age in Russia; and at Dantzic a man 
is said to have died at 184; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged 186 
years. In Holy "Writ, Methuselah is stated to have lived 969 years, the 
greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Elood ; 
but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is no 
fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. 
LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree 
in the Canaries, 162 B. c. Harrison made a time-keeper in a. d. 1759, which 
in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required 
by the act of parliament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the 
reward of 20,000Z. offered by that act, which he received. The celebrated 
Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the 
chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude almost 
to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but Newton 
has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. 
LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Venice in 1300. They were made in 
England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth, 
in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them in the 
last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection 
of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, the 
walls of large rooms. 



lot] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 459 



LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought 
into use in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the 
general principle of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- 
genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 
power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two 
yards each per day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. 

LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for 
the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap- 
plied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobility. — See Lords and 
Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally 
Hlaford, which, by dropping the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by 
contraction Lord. " The etymology of this word," a writer observes, " is 
worth observing, for it was composed of hlaf, a load of bread, and ford, to 
give or afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be- 
cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the 
poor ; for which reason they wei e called givers of bread." — See Ladies. The 
nickname of "My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, 
is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn. 

LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 
1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitzosborne, the first 
peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; 
Copsi, earl of Northumberland : Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and 
Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were 
made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests 
for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can- 
not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- 
son ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same 
reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns ; or, 
in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. See Baron; Earl; 
Marquess, &c. 

LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to 
consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. 
The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until 
some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs 
were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And 
writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain 
that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was 
held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well 
as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold cer- 
tain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : 
some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- 
made peers; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, 
and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- 
land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. 
The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 
earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English 
prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers. 

LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at 
the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued 
day and night until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the 
fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 
The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotte- 
ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large 
annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin 



460 the world's progress. [lut 

in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the national 
convention, Nov. 15, 1793. They were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act 
was passed imposing a penalty of 50Z. for advertising foreign or any lotteries 
in the British newspapers, 1836. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote 
of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They have long been abolished in New Eng- 
land ; in New York they were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the states 
there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures 

LOUISIANA, One of the United States. First explored by the French, and 
received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a 
settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful 
attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a 
colony. His efforts were followed up by one Crozat, a man of w ealth, whf» 
held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the ' 
year 17 IT, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, 
at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and 
Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the French nobility. In 
1731, the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded 
the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province 
to the French, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for 
$15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of 
the Mississippi. In 1812 the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu- 
tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,556 ; in 1820, 
153,407; in 1830, 215,575; in 1840, 352,411, including, 168,452 slaves. 

IiOUVBE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign 
of Dagobert, A. D. 628 ; but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now 
called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of 
paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief 
of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's arms, 
but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. 

LUCCA, The Duchy of, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard king- 
dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it was occupied 
by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of 
Spain. The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's 
demand for "eforms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled, 
Sept. 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of $215,- 
000, until he should succeed to the duchy of Parma, on the death of Maria 
Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847. 

LUCIA, St. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several 
times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French 
negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- 
nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was 
restored to France at the peace of 1 802 ; but was again seized on by Eng- 
land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
See Colonies. 

LUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the em- 
peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo 
Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form 
the boundary of France, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, 
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 

LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman 
people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 
B. c. Every five years were called a lustrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty 
years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. 

LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub- 
lished his indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was 



LYC 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 461 



deputed with others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such 
a height as to declare his commission unbounded; that no crime could be 
committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, 
not only past sins, but those which were intended, were to be forgiven. 
Against' these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and 
thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam, in Vita Lutheri. 

LUTZEN, Battle of, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on 
the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by 
general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened 
the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed trie- 
victory, it was manifestly on the side of France ; but in this engagement 
marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and "Wurt- 
zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when 
the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to.. 
and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did 
not produce peace. 

LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle op ; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, 
the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protestant 
religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was foully 
killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle 
of Lippstadt. 

LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken 
and pillaged by the French in 1543; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544; 
by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1691. It was again taken 
by the French in 1701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, 
and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief 
occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it 
surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795 
The garrison, on the capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- 
public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the 
Rhine immediately after. 

LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his- 
tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been 
enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, 
muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and 
black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was 
distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals; his halls were 
named from the different gods ; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to 
surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper which had been 
prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to 
serve it in the hall of Apollo ; this feast for three persons casually met, 
would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, 
luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- 
fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, 
except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a 
free estate of lOOi per annum, from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk ; 
and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all 
others it was prohibited, A. d. 1837. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of 
France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup 
and two dishes," 1340. 

LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem- 
ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico,' or gallery, built by Lyceus, son 
of Apollo. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the Ilis- 
bus in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught 



462 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[lyr 



his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatetics, and his phi- 
losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c. 
— Stanley. 

LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of 
whom was Crcesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by 
Cyrus, 548 B. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with 
many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as- 
cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hero- 
dotus. 

Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to 
the throne, and becomes celebrated 
for his victories and conquests, b.o. 562 

Ephesus falls into his hands ; the Ioni- 
ans, jEolians, and other parts of Asia 
Minor are subjected to his dominion 554 

All the nations west of the Halys are 
conquered, and that river becomes 
the boundary of the kingdom Blair 550 

Crcesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, 
whose conquests had reached to the 
borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys 
to attack the JMedes, with an army 
of 420,000 men and 60,000 horse 548 

He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- 
sieged in his capital, and taken 543 

The conqueror orders Croesus to be 
burned alive, and the pile is already 
on fire, when he calls on the name 
of Solon in agony of mind,andCyrus 
hearing him pronounce it, spares his 
life 543 

Lydia, the kingdom of the " richest of 
mankind," is made a province of the 
Persian empire . ... 548 



Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns 

in Lydia. — Herod. . . b. c. 1223 
The kingdom of Lydia, properly so 
called, begins under Ardysus I. — 

Blair. _ 797 

Alyattes' reigns 761 

Meles commences his rule . . 747 

Reign of Candaules .... 735 
Gyges, first of the race called Merm- 
nadaB, puts Candaules to death, mar- 
ries his queen, usuips the throne, 
and makes great conquests . . 718 
Ardysus II. reigns; the Cimbri be- 
siege Sardis, the capital of Lydia . 680 
The Milesian war commenced under 
Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, 

who reigns 631 

Reign of Alyattes II . . . .619 
Battle upon the river Halys between 
the Lydians and Medes, intercepted 
by an almost total eclipse of the sun, 
which superstitiously occasions a 
conclusion of the w&r.-Blair. May28, 585 
[This eclipse had been predicted many 
years before by Thales, of Miletus. — 



Blair.] 

JEsop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a 
style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Auacreoa of 
Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c, flourished in Lydia. The country remain- 
ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan- 
der, about 330 B. o. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, 
founded by Philseterus, the eunuch ; Attalus afterwards bequeathed it to the 
Eomans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Empire, A. d. 
1326.— Priestley. 

LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 B. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a 
single night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen- 
eral councils were held here in the 13th and 14th centuries. The silk man- 
ufacture commenced in the reign of Erancis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged 
in 1793 by the convention army of 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7, 
when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention 
decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the 
Austrians, March, 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, 
which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21,1831. 
Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons, 
Nov. 4. 1840. See Inundations. 

LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and 
accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three 
strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several 
strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. c. Phryni3, a musician 
of Mi'ylene, added two more, making nine, 438 b. o. 



mac] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



463 



M. 

MACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Caranus. about 814 b. c. II 
was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, 
sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the 
father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and ex- 
ploits as a. general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to hia 
son's greatness. Macedon had twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexan- 
der inclusive : after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divided 
among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new king- 
dom. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 37. 



Eeign of Caranus - - b. c. 

Eeign of Perdiceas 1. - - 

Eeign of Argseus I.- 
Eeign of Philip I. - - 

Eeign of _<Eropas; he conquers the 

Illyrians . - - - 

Eeign of Amyntas - - 

Eeign of Alexander I. - - - 

Eeign of Perdiceas II. 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiceas, 

murders the legitimate heirs of his 

father, and seizes the throne 
He is surnamed the "Patron of 

Learning" 
He is murdered by a favorite to 

whom he promised his daughter in 

marriage, yet gave her to another - 
Eeign of Amyntas II. - - - 

He is driven from the throne 
Eecovers his throne, and puts Pau 

sanias to death 
The Illyrians enter Macedonia, ex 

pel Amyntas, and put Argaeus, 

brother of Pausanias, on the throne 
Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 
Eeign of Alexander II. 
He is assassinated - 
Eeign of Perdiceas III. 
He is killed in battle 
Eeign of Philip II. and institution of 

the Macedonian phalanx 
Philip gains the battle of Methon 

over the Athenians 
He defeats the Illyrians in a despe- 
rate engagement - - - 
He takes Amphipolis, and receives an 

arrow in his right eye. See Archery 
He conquers Thrace and Illyria 
Birth of Alexander the Great 
Philip adds to his conquests 
Close of the first sacred war 
Illy ricumoverrunbythearmyof Philip 
Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 
Aristotle appointed tutor to the 

young prince Alexander 
War against the Athenians 
Philip besieges Byzantium 
Battle of Chaeronea; Philip conquers. 

See Chmronea - - 

Philip is assassinated byPausanias, at 

Egsea,duringthecelebrationofgames 

in honor of his daughter's nuptials 
Alexander III., surnamed the Great, 

succeeds his father - - - 

He enters Greece 
The Greeks appoint him general of 

their armies against the Persians 
The Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes 



SI 4 
7211 
678 
640 

602 

547 

497 
454 



- 411 



309 
899 
398 

- 397 



392 

S'.Kt 
371 
370 
3(1(1 
360 

360 



85s 
85(5 
35(3 
34S 
318 
344 
343 

343 

341 
341 

338 



335 

335 



to the ground ; the house of Pindar 

is alone left standing - - 335 

The Almighty favors Alexander with 
a vision, in which the high-priest of 
the Jews appears to him, exhorting 
him to enter Asia. See Jews - 334 

He passes into Asia, and gains his 
first battle over Darius. See Gra- 
?vieus, Battle of - - 334 

Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; 
Halicarnassus is taken, and nume- 
rous cities in Asia Minor - 384 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Da- 
rius takes the field with 460,000 in- 
fantry and 100,000 cavalry »- 388 

Battle of Issus (which see) - - 333 

Alexander, in his way to Egypt, lays 
siege to Tyre, which is destroyed 
after seven months - - 332 

Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- 
sures of Darius come into the pos- 
session of the victor - - 332 

Gaza surrenders - - - 332 

Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and 
Egypt conquered - - 332 

Alexandria founded - - - 332 

Great battle of Arbela, the third and 
last between Alexander and Da- 
rius ; the Persian army totally de- 
feated. See Arbela - - 381 

Alexander proclaimed master of Asia; 
he enters Babylon in triumph - 331 

GRECIAN OK MACEDONIAN EMPIKE. 

Alexander sits on the throne of Da- 
rius at Susa 
Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by 

Alexander - - - - 

Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, 

visits him, attended by a retinue of 

300 women. See Amazons 
He puts his friend Parmenio to 

death, on a charge of conspiracy, 

supposed to be false 
Alexander makes more conquests - 
His expedition to India ; Porus, king 

of India, is defeated and taken ; 

and the country as far as the 

Ganges is overrun 
Calisthenes is put to the torture for 

refusing to render divine homage 

to Alexander 
Subjection of the Cosseans 
Death of Alexander - 
His conquests are divided among his 

generals 
His remains are transported to Alex- 

andria, and buried by Ptolemy 



- 330 



829 

323 



327 



326 
326 
323 

- 823 



464 THE world's progress. [mad 



MACEDON, continued. 

The Greeks defeated by sea and land 

near Cranon (which see) - b. o. 822 

Thebes rebuilt by Cassander - - 315 

Seleucus recovers Babylon - 812 

Cassander puts Eoxaoa and her son 

to death, and usurps the throne - 811 

Battle of Ipsus {which see) - - 801 

New division of the empire - - 801 



Eeign of Antigonus Gonatns b. c. 2T7 
PyrrhusinvadesMacedon,defeatsAn- 

tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored - 272 

Antigonus takes Athens - - 268 

The Gauls again invade Macedon - 268 

Revolt of the Parthians - - 250 

Eeign of Demetiius II. - - 242 

Reign of Philip, his son - - 282 

His war against the Ehodians - 202 

Philip is defeated by the Eomans - 198 

He is totally subdued - - 196 

The reign of Perseus - - - 179 

Perseus defeated by the Eomans - 171 



MACEDON II. 

Death of Cassander - 29S 

Eeign of Alexander and Antipater - 293 
Demetrius murders Alexander, and 

seizes the crown of Macedon - 294 

Irruption of the Gauls - - 279 

The consul ^Emilius Paulus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman 
province. Perseus and his sons are made prisoners, 168 B. c, and next year 
walk in chains before the chariot of iEmilius in his triumph for the conquest 
of Macedon. The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath 
II. in A. d. 1429. Priestley. 

MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho- 
las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By 
some they are stigmatized as " the most pernicious maxims of government, 
founded on the vilest policy;" and by others as "sound doctrines, notwith- 
standing the prejudice erroneously raised against them." The work appeared 
in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.* 

MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lo- 
renzo Almeida a. d. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race 
of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsup- 
ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of . a preserved 
pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the 
pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in ] 809. 

MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, by 
Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England for 
an illicit amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French 
lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to Pedro, 
king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered 
by a Portuguese, a d. 1345. But it is maintained that the Portuguese did 
not visit this island until 1419, nor did tney colonize it until 1431. It was 
taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admiral 
Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in 
trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the 
Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. 

MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of 
the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French 
in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was 
sacked a. d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The 
Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. 
The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family 
had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to 

* The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) "the 
doing of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, 
whereby ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extravagant desires 
prompt them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety." — Ferqv&on, 



mag] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 465 



expel them, when a dreadful conflict and carnage took place. Joseph Bona- 
parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. 
Retaken by the French Dec. 2, same year; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, 
when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored 
May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the 
late civil war, for which see Spain. 

MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1 570, and was taken by the 
prince of Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a 
memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Louis XIY. 
took it in 1673; William prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but, 
in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1 748, it was besieged by the French, 
who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being 
restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes- 
tricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters 
of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to 
the allied forces. 

MAGDALENS and MAGDALENETTES. Communities of nuns and women, 
the latter class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of 
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, a. d. 1324. That at Metz was insti- 
tuted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Eome was endowed by 
pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and 
further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without 
will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have 
their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their 
effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally 
under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New-Vork, a similar institution called 
" A Home for the Friendless " was founded, 1846. 

MAGELLAN, Straits of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer- 
nando de Magellhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by 
the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was 
undertaken by this illustrious navigator; and his vessel performed the enter- 
prise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want of 
food. 

MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of 
the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know- 
ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular 
homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars 
nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent 
God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and 
their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so 
that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were 
finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the 
reformer of the sect of the Magi: he flourished 1080 B. c. — Du Fresnoy. 

MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon, 
England's great philosopher, about A. D. 1260. Bacon first invented the con- 
vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, 
applied them to this use. 

MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have 

been derived from Edward the ConfessoF, continued by Henry I. and his 

successors, Stephen, Henry II., and John. But the Charter more particularly 

meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John 

20* 



4:66 the world's progress. [ma J 

and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took 
arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed, 
and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand chartei 
was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward 
I. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it he swore on the word 
and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant 
a fifteenth of all moveable goods were given to the king, whether they were 
temporals or spirituals ; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
had been confirmed above thirty times. 

MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Epislola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the 
attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im- 
memorial ; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester, in 
Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro- 
perty of pointing to the north pole. The Italians discovered that it could 
communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the 
same was taken notice of by Helvelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of 
Naples, invented or improved the mariners compass, in 1302. The impor- 
tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made 
about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's 
experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather 
improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an- 
nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. 

MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro- 
mulgated a. d. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned 
general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. 
Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel 
during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Ara- 
bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered 
as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 
500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written in 
various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is 
said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, 
by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and 
immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideaux. 

MAIL-COACHES in ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and 
were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be- 
came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the 
invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed by 
carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. 

MAINE, one of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bristol. 
The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a 
governor and council. It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by 
the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; annexed to Massachusetts, under 
charter from William & Mary, in 1691 : became a separate State in 1820. 
Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793. 

MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were ad- 
dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of 
state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany 
took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves. 
It was first given to Louis XL of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles 
V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your 
Majesty, 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this title 
with the term "Sacred," and "Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles. 



man] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 467 



MAJORCA and MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see 
Minorca. 

MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Villars. 
The armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the 
victory was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh- 
ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid 
by the capture of Mons; fought Sept. 11, 1709. 

MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of 
St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some 
merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of 
Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
whom they received with zeal and charity, A. D. 1048. They afterwards 
founded a hospital for the sick, from whence they were called Hospitallers. 
This foundation was laid in a. d. 1104, in the reign of Baldwin, and they 
now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality 
entered, and changed their names into knights. After the Christians had 
lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired 
to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then 
they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi- 
nions, where they stayed till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, 
under the grand master Foulques de,Vallaret, and next year defended it 
undar the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, his 
successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus 
Rhodum tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called 
knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they 
retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
city of Viterbo for their retreat ; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave 
them the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself 
grand-master of the order in June, 1199. 

MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon 
the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by 
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. 
He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, 
a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 muskets; besides an immense treasure 
collected by superstition; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at 
liberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and 
was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800; but at the peace of 
Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The 
British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between 
the two nations: but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua- 
ranteed to Great Britain. 

MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in 
Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were 
established by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a.d. 1246. They 
advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so urjtil 
Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into 
pay, and rilled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On the 
conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. As- 
sisted by the Arnauts, who were introduced into the country in tlie war, the 
Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government In 1811 
they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain. 
MANNHEIM. First built in a.d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in 
1719; but the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 caused the re* 



468 the world's pbogeess. [mar 

inoval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannheim, between the armies of 
the allies and the French, fought May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered to 
the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the 
25th of the same month, the Austrians under general "Wurmser, defeated the 
French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in 
the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, 
was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sandt, 
April 2, 1819. 
MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest 
the East, about a.d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and 
particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, left 
him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy 
of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter that 
Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good, 
and the other bad ; thj9 first he called light, which did nothing but good, 
and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. Several 
other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death by Sapor, 
king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, his having 
dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one of the 
royal family by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms. — 
Nouv. Bid. Hist. 
MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish com- 
merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was 
taken by the English in 1757; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The cap- 
tors humanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster- 
ling ; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establishment 
of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, the usual 
Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; and 
the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private bottoms 
by free companies of merchants. — Butler. 
MANTINEA-, Battle of, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans, 
and the combined forces of Lacedsemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. 
The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time 
Thebes lost its power and consequence among the Grecian states, 363 B.C. — 
Strabo. 
1ANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near the city. Mantua surrendered to 
the French, Jan. 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months ; and it was attacked 
by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it surrendered 
after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again 
obtained possession of it ; but they delivered it up to the Austrians in 
1814. 
MAPS and CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian 
philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer 
on record, 570 B.C. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A 
celestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century. — 
Freret. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew 
Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
a.d. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. 
Mercator's chart, in which the world was taken as a plane, was invented in 
1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 1647. See 
Charts. 
MARATHON, Battle of. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history , 
The Greeks were only 10,000 strong, the number of the Persians not known. 
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, who 
defeated the Persians. Persian loss 6,400 — Athenian 192. Among the 



mar] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469 



number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remainder 
of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 b. c. 

MARBLE. Lipsenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their 
time being of wood, 568 B. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for 
statues, and the columns and ornaments of fine buildings and the edifices 
and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine 
marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which 
were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than 
those of even Rome itself. These latter were discovered by some English 
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra. 

MARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January 
and February, 713 B. c. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave 
to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes, 
that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu- 
lus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year for- 
merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Tear. 

MARENGO, Battle of. In this ever-memorable engagement the French army 
was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies 
of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix 
(who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes 
of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost 
6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon ; and though the 
French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, 
it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. By a treaty be- 
tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on 
the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos- 
session of the latter : and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. 

MARESCHAL, or MARSHAL. In France marshals were the ancient esquires 
of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van- 
guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp- 
ment. Till the time of Francis I., in A. d. 1515, there were but two French 
marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of 
peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, 
the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em- 
pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world with their renown. 
See Marshal, Field. 

M A.RIGNAN, Battle op, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage- 
ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, . which happened be- 
tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First upwards of 
twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest 
troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 1515. 

M A-RINER'S COMPASS The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to 
their emperor Hong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah; and some of 
their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 B. c. See Com- 
pa-is. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given 
to Flavio de Gioja, or Giovia, a native of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city 
of Naples, a. d. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by 
Columbus in his voyage of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London 
in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass- 
maker of Ratcliffe, in that year. 

MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to 
make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another 
prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used 



470 THE world's peogeess. [mae 

by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted in Eng- 
land were in the reign of Edward I., against the Portuguese, A. d. 1295. — 
Eyiner's Fcedera. 

MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the 
Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the 
language of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was 
to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next piace of 
honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been 
established in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great 
favorite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, who was created 
marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and 
earls, A. D. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, 
was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. 

MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for 
life, with certain ceremonies^ of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to 
Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B. c. — Eusebius Pref. to Chron. The prevail- 
ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride, 
after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more 
sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil 
magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar- 
riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about A. D. 1199. 
Marriage was forbidden in Lent, A. D. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 
692 and to priests in 1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the vow 
of Celibacy in 1013. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace 
under an act of the Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1653. A 
tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50£, of a com- 
mon person 2s. 6d., the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were again 
taxed in 1784. 

MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a certain time every year, 
the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid- 
der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased 
them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off 
those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms. 
When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lots, 
beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing 
a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below 
the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid; and 
he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female 
was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa^ daughter of Belo- 
chus, about 1433 B. c. 

MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 
600 B. c. — Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken 
by Julius Cassar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the 
Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected 
to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of 
France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles, 
and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. 

MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date, and 
was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commander-in- 
chief. The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil- 
itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George II. 
first conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork- 
ney in 1736. See MareschdL . 

MARSTON MOOR, Battle of. This battle was the beginning of the misfor- 
tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots and 



ma.rJ dictionary of dates. 471 

parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Ru- 
pert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. 
Both sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and 
the victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command- 
ed the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who 
now first came into notice, at the head of a body of troops whom he had 
taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious, he pushed his 
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en- 
gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artilery was 
taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow ; fought July 
3, 1644. 

MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. YiDcent, ani 
the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February 
1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. 
They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of 
Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809. A revolution 
took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed 
by the British, June 1, 1815 ; and Martinique reverted to its French masters 
at the late general peace, 1815. 

MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in 
martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to 
their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient 
date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr- 
dom a.d. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs; and the accounts of 
those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill 
volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer, 
Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a 
" Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cran- 
mer, Latimer, and Ridley,'' 1 kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : — 

1st. octobee, 1554. — dinner. | Item, a post 

Bread and ale - - -£002' Item, 2 chains 

Oysters - - - - 1 

Butter - - - - 2 

Eggs 2 

Lyng - - - - 8 

A piece of fresh Salmon • - 10 

Wine - - - - 8 

Cheese and pears - - - 2 



The three dinners- -£026 

TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. 

For three load of wood faggots to 

burn Latimer and Ridley - 12 
Item, 1 load of furze faggots - 3 4 
Item, for the carriage of these 4 
loads - - - - 2 6 



-£0 


1 


4 


- 


3 


4 


- 





fi 


- 


2 


8 



Item, 2 staples 
Item, 4 laborers 

£15 8 
[They were burnt on Oct the 16th, 1555.] 

CHARGE FOE THE BURNING OP THE BOD'S 
OP CRANMER. 

For 100 of wood faggots for the 

fire - - - - 6 

For 100 and % of furze - - 3 4 

For the carriage of them - 8 

For two laborers - - 2 8 



£0 12 8 
[He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.] 

MARTYRS, Era of. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used 
by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced 
in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, 
particularly the Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon 
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a.d. 284; and ihe 
persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. 

MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa- 
tent of Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ; 
named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were 
Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634; free toleration 
of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled 



472 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[mas 



in 1650, and again in 1776; the State bore an active part in the revolution, 
adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population 
in 1790 was 319,728; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485 
slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March, 
1847. 

MASKS. Poppaso, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard 
her complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the 
Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to iEschylus ; yet Aristotle 
says the real inventor and time of their introduction were unknown. Modern 
masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were devised by the 
harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. — Stowe's Chron_ 

MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340 ; 
^and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the 
citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa- 
tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George I. 1723. [No less than six 
masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re- 
vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, 
and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque- 
rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty -five 
guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. 

MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the cele- 
bration of the eucharist. and is in general believed to be a representation of 
the passion of our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to 
allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge- 
neral division of masses consists in high and low : the first is that sung by 
the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- 
deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed 
without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin about a.d. 394. Its 
celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Pros- 
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. 

MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by ^ 
colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This 
was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and 
Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692 
The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this 
State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, 
Bunker Hill, Lexington, &c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; 
revised and altered in 1820 ; slavery abolished in 1783 ; Shay's rebellion in 
this State in 1786; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 
against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472,040 ; 
in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699. 

MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class 
under this head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities 
of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon 
another, in vindication of the Christian religion I The following are among 
the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors . — 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, which 
took place S97 B.C. 

2000 Tynans crucified, and 8000 put to the 
sword for not surrendering Tyre to 
Alexander, 331 B.C. 

The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- 
habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them, 
for refusing to surrender their arms to 
Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 
164 b.o. 



A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and 
Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Ro- 
man general, 200,000 being left dead on 
the spot, 102 B.C. 

The Romans, throughout Asia, women and 
children not excepted, cruell3 r massacred 
in one day, by order of Mithridates, 
king of Pontus, 88 b.o. 

A great number of Roman senators mas 
sacred by Cinna, Marius, and Sertoriua 



mas] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



473 



MASSACRES, continued. 

Many patricians dispatch themselves to 
avoid their horrid butcheries, S6 b. c. 
Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minis- 
ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c. 
At Praeneste, Octavianus Caasar ordered 
300 Roman senators and other personB 
of distinction, to be sacrificed to the 
manes, of Julius Caesar, 41 b. o. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 
« of Jews were put to the sword, a. d. 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to 
death 100,000 Greeks and Konians, in 
and near Cyrene, a. d. 115. 

Cassius, a Roman general under the empe- 
ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of 
the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167. 

At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens 
are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, 
a. d. 213. 

The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 
of the inhabitants upon his reduction of 
Gaul, a. d. 277. 

Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the 
emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia; they 
were put into a ship which was set on 
fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 370. 

Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invit- 
ed into the circus, were put to the sword, 
by order of Theodosius, A. d. 390. 

Belisarius put to death about 30,000 citi- 
zens of Constantinople for a revolt, to 
which they were impelled by the tyran- 
ny and exactions of two rapacious minis- 
ters set over them, a. d. 552. . 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, 
by order of Andronicus, a. d. 1184. 

Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, com- 
menced at "Toulouse, a. d. 1209. Tens 
of thousands perished by means of the 
sword and gibbet. 

The Sicilians massacre the French through- 
out the whole island of Sicily, without 
distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, 
the first bell for vespers being the signal. 
This horrid affair is known in history by 
the name of Sicilian Vespers, a. d. 1282. 
— Du Fresnoy. 

A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, 
by the peasants, who, from a pretended 
prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was 
to be recovered from the infidels by them. 
500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, 
and defended themselves to the last 
extremity, when, for want of weapons, 
they threw their children at the enemy, 
and then killed each other, a. d. 1317. 

At Paris, of several thousand persons, at 
the instance of John, duke of Burgun- 
dy, a. d. 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by or- 
der of Christian II., a. d. 1520. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants 
throughout the kingdom of France, at- 
tended with circumstances of the most 
horrid treachery and cruelty. It began 
at Paris, in the night of the festival of 
St. Bartholomew," Aug. 24, 1572, by se- 
cret orders from Charles IX., king of 
France, at the instigation of the queen 
dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mo- 



ther. It is styled in history, the Massa- 
cre of St. Bartholomew. 

Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, 
when 65,000 were slain, a. d. 1592. 

Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death un- 
der a pretended legal sentence of the 
chancellor of Poland, for being concerned 
in a tumult occasioned by a Roman 
Catholic procession, a. d. 1724. All the 
Protestant powers in Europe interceded 
to have this unjust sentence revoked, 
but unavailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred 
by the natives, October 1740, under the 
pretext of an intended insurrection. 

At the taking of Ismael by the Russians, 
30,000 old and young were slain, Decem- 
ber, 1790.— See Ixmael. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made 
proclamation for the massacre of all the 
whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou- 
sands perished. 

Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of 
the French, May 2, 180S. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel 
of Cairo, March 1, 1811. 

Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
Catholics, May 1815. 

Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabi- 
tants of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whoso 
ferocious disorders continue for sone 
days, March 6, 1820. 

MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, 
May 1, a. d. 474. 

Of the monks of Bansor, to the number of 
1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumber- 
land, a. d. 580. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of 
England, in the night of November 13, 
1002, and the 23d Ethelred II. At Lon- 
don it was most bloody, the churches 
being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest 
was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of 
Denmark, left in hostage for the per- 
formance of a treaty but newly conclud- 
ed. — Baker's Chronicle. 

Of the Jews in England. Some few press- 
ing into Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s 
coronation, were put to death by the peo- 
ple ; and a false alarm being given that 
the king had ordered a general massacre 
of them, the people in many parts of 
England, from an aversion to them, slew 
all they met. In York, 500, who had 
taken shelter in the castle, killed them- 
selves, rather than fall into the hands of 
the multitude, a. d. 1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, 
Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), a. d. 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, in 
order to dispossess its members of the 
Spice Islands, a. d. 1623. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland in 
O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Up- 
wards of 80,000 British were killed in the 
commencement of this rebellion. — Sir 
William- Petti/. In the firsc two or fni ee 
days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the 
Protestants were destroyed.-- Zorrt Clar- 
endon. Before the rebellion was entirely 



474 THE world's progress. [.MAT 



death by pikes, perpetrated by ilie iiif.ui--. 
gent Irish, at the barn of Sculiabogue, 
Ireland, in 1798.— Sir Rich. Musgrwve. 
Massacre of 64 American prisoners at 
Dartmoor, England, (disowned by Brit- 
ish Government,) April 6, 1S15. 



.*£ ASS ACRES, continued. 

suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were 

massacred. — Sir W. Temple. 
Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, 

May 9, 1691.— SeeGlencoe. 
Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly 

Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to 

MASTER of the CEREMONIES. An officer in several of the principaJ 
courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of 
the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception 
of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James L 1603. — 
Baker. 

MASTER in CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher 
Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made 
to a master, A. D. 1588 ; and the masters have since been chosen from among 
the most learned equity members of the bar. 

MASTER of the ROLLS in ENGLAND. An equity judge, so called from 
his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and 
recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for 
that name. 

MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and disci- 
pline; but even then,, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics 
were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and 
quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians, 
so early as 1950 B. c. — Josephus de Antiq. Jud. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning 
of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins imply 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow, 
the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, at six 
o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. 

MAURITIUS. The isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, A. d. 
1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after 
prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of 
Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French 
landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France. This 
island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty 
of Paris in 1814. 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- 
ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that 
at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
and erected to his memory a monument, which for its grandeur and magnifi- 
cence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument 
she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of 
unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed 
rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. 
The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B. c. 

MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, 
received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in 
respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores; 
though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, 
to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompilius by 
adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, which 
before was the third, 713 B. c. 

MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of 
Egeria on May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in 



MEC] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



475 



England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in 
many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the day. 
The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-day, an 
entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class the 
chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English 
fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their 
departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of 
the feast. 

MAY2TO0TH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- 
dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of students 
who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 
35 Geo. III., 1795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of 
this college, at the instance of the government, to which 30,000Z. for the en- 
largement of the buildings, and 26,O0OZ. annually, were granted by parliament, 
June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy 
in England. 

MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities 
by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor 
of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel 
ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 135, et seq., under the last kings of the Mero- 
vingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it mads 
hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, 
before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by port- 
reeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign of 
Richard I. 

MEASURES and "WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 
B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- 
wards ; they were very early known in England. Standards of weights and 
measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London. 
8 Richard I., a. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. 
They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. 

MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. D. 571. 
The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one 
of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually 
retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran 
was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from 
the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 
1871 B. c. 

MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- 
troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been 
ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for 
instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c, are said to be the invention of 
Dasdalus. "We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses 
of stone which are found in some of the ancient edifices were moved and 
elevated. 



The first writing on mechanics, was by 
Aristotle, about . . . b. c. 820 

The Statera Eomana invented . . ** 

The fundamental property of the lever 
and other instruments was demon- 
strated by Archimedes . . . 205 

The hand-mill, or quern,was very early 
in use; the Romans found one in 
Yorkshire ** 

Cattle mills, molce jumentaritB, were 
also in use by the Romans, and in 
parts of Europe . . . . ** 



The water-mill was probably invented 
in Asia; the first that was described 
was near one of the dwellings of 
Mithridates . . . . b. c. 70 

A water-mill is said to have been erect- 
ed on the river Tiber, at Rome . 50 

Floating mills on the Tiber . a. d. 536 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use 
in Venice about .... 1078 

"Wind-mills were in very general use 
in the twelfth century . . . ** 



476 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[men 



Amplication of mechanics to astrono- 
my, parallelogism of forces, laws of 
motion, &c, Newton . a. d. 1679 

Problem of the catenary with the 
analysis, by Dr. Gregory , . 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inven- 
tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to 1702 

The Mechanics' Institute in London 
was formed in .... 1823 

Mechanics' Institute in New York 
formed 1SS8 



Cyrus made king of Persia . b. c. 559 
Astyages deposed by Cyrus . . 550 
Ctobsus king of Lydia defeated, and his 

throne seized by Cyrus . . . 548 
Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar 
to death ; and makes Astyages (or 
Darius, the Mede) viceroy . . 538 
By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be- 
comes master of all Persia ; and this 
era is properly the commencement 
of the Persian empire. — Lenglet. . 357 



MECHANICS, continued. 

Saw-mills are said to have been in use 
at Augsburg . . . .a.d. 1832 

Theory of the inclined plane inves- 
tigated by Cardan, about . . 1540 

Work on statics, by Stevinus . . 1586 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . 1638 

Theory of oscillation, Huygens . 1647 

Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . 1662 

Epicycloidal form of the teeth of 
wheels, Roemer .... 1675 

Percussion and animal mechanics, 
Borelli; he died . . . .1679 

Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in 
England. 
MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It 
revolted from Arbaces 820 b. c, and afterwards became an independent 
kingdom, and conquered Persia; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the 
Mede, 536 b. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and 
shared its fate. — Blair ; Priestley. 

Revolt of the Medes — Blair. b. o. 820 

The country was subjected to the As- 
syrians. — Idem. .... 766 

Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, 
Armenia, and other countries . . 647 

Battle of Rages ; the Assyrians defeat 
the Medes.— .Stair 625 

War with the Lydians; the hostile ar- 
mies meet; hut an eclipse of the sun 
so alarms them, they conclude peace 
without striking a blow . . . 585 

The reign of Astyages. — Blair. . . 585 

The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated and introduced lux- 
ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous 
who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast 
of at least five husbands. — Aspin. 

MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Reposi- 
tory, commenced at New York, 1197, was the first work of the kind. It was 
conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. 

MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the 
East, about a. d. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation 
was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close 
of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of 
medicine i3 now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the 
hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes have 
been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. 

MEDINA, in Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in 
a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of 
rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Maho- 
met was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, A. D. 622. This flight 
gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, a word 
that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or quit one's country or friends. 

MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- 
sented to us as if they were present. — Car don. Simonides, grandson of 
Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia 
for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 B. c. — 
Arundelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger- 
many in 1807. See Mnemonics. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious 



MES] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 477 



who commenced their alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the ponti- 
ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by 
Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominicans, 
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders 
subsequently branched from them. 

MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is 
of very early date. The various properties of con'ic sections were dis- 
covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration 
may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c, 
about 218 B. c. 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have 
been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- 
tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how- 
ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these 
charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- 
gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of 
latitude as they recede from the equator. 

MERCHANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who 
trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted 
the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by 
queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants from sitting in the House of 
Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurers' society (see 
Adventurers Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it 
extended to England in Edward IIL's reign ; and was formed into an 
English corporation in 1564. — Haydn. 

MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found 
in vast quantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany 
are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 
tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues 
of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Italian surgeon, 'A. d. 1512. — 
Nouv. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Croi- 
lius early in the seventeenth century ; the first directions for its preparation 
were given by Beguin, 1608. It was given to patients under inoculation 
for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 
1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Oberlin, of Vienna, 1785. 

MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- 
sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry 
VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and 
good-humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, 
and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. The 
name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — LEstrange. 
Johnson. 

MESSALIANS. A sect whose religious error consisted in adhering to the lette? 
of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- 
pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting 
this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about A. d. 310 — 
Baronius, Annal. 

MESSENIA, now Maura-3fatra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom 
was commenced by Policaon, 1499 B. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- 
guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred 
cicies, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the 
Achsean league 216 B. c. 

MESSENIAN WARS The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia 
The first began 743 B. c, and was occasioned by violence having been offered 



478 THE world's progress. [met 

to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion common 
to both nations; the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend tli8 
females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made 
so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- 
married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the 
end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. 
The second war was commenced 685 B. c. to throw off the galling Spartan 
yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenians who 
fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 b. c, it endured ten years, when 
the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. 

MESSINA, in Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then 
called Zancle, 671 B. c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, 
but fell to the Saracens A. d. 829. — Priestley. — In the eleventh century Roger 
the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- 
pression. G-reat Messiniau conspiracy, 1282. The memorable revolt took 
place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated 
by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and 
in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since 
which it has been handsomely rebuilt. 

METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned 
as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals 
are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel 
in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- 
tals. 

METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated 
with Aristotle. What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be 
traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor- 
dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly 
called the revival of learning. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from 
one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which 
the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so 
long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- 
migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- 
balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 B. c. 

METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- 
cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. 
" Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, "is not to form a sect, or to 
bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or 
form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians 
in heart and life, in temper, word, and work — such as lived in the early days 
of Christianity, and such as we may conceive may still live." The -methodists 
may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford A. D. 
1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- 
thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their 
career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward 
in the days of Puritanism, being suggested by the Latin appellative Meiho- 
distce, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence of 
the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The metbodist 
missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke 
in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these 
missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organiz- 
ed for their support, until 1817. 



mid] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 479 



MEXICO. Discovered in a. d. 1518. It was conquered by the Spaniards under 
Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, 
A. D. 1521. The mint of Mexico, the richest in the world, was begun in 
1535. This country, like other states in the new world, has recovered its in- 
dependence. Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822. Mexican constitution 
proclaimed by the president Vitloria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 
1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles 
suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 
1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. 
Mexican revolution ; the president Guerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. 
The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European 
powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June, 1830. Civil war 
between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, 
March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of 
San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, 
March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa 
Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- 
redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and 
Herrera made president, Dec. 1844. Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. 
War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, 
May 8, 1846 ; and subsequently, at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, 
and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- 
ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the 
mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
Feb. 22, 1847. Yera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. 
Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in 
disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 
1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American 
general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States rati- 
fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, 
June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be- 
comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz 

... surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and 
Mexico. Signor de la Rosa, first Mexican minister to the United States after 
the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. 

MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving, representing figures on cop- 
per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it 
is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648 ; but baron Heinikin stated 
that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- 
beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving. 

MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit 
in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted 
tc the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the 
peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States in 1805 ; 
admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the 
territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen- 
eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528; in 1820, 9,048; in 1830 
31,639 ; in 1840, 212,267. 

MICROSCOPES. Invented Dearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d. 
1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- 
fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded 
to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 
England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, 
F.R.S., who wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — Biog. Diet. 

MIDWIFERY. "Women were the only practitioners of this art among the H& 



480 THE woeld's peogeess. [mil 

brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 
B. c, is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad- 
vanced under Celsus, who nourished A. d. 31, and under Galen, who lived AD. 
131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- 
tution of the College of Physicians, 10 Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated 
Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603; and after 
his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc 
affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther 
back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted 
with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the 
subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives 
after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 

MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- 
puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B. c. It submitted to the 
Romans 222 B.C.; was formed into a republic A. D. 1221; and lastly was 
governed by dukes from A. D. 1395 until 1505, when it was conquered by 
Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, 
about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan by Charles V. of Ger- 
many, about 1525; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan 
was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. 
Seized by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; 
but regained by the French May 31, the next year. This city was made the 
capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned 
with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree 
of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring 
England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. 
Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept 8, 1847. 
Collision of the Milanese with the- Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848; followed 
by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Feb. 1848 ; the gov- 
ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- 
ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered 
Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on 
. proposed union with Piedmont. — 561,002 in favor of it; 681 for postponing 
it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- 
ans under Radetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians 
at Rivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. 

MILITARY or MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, 
but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather 
than allowed, as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times 
proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- 
out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- 
try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the 
insurrection of June, 1848. 

MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most 
historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- 
jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved 
in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England 
was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the ' 

* Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She -was taught by 
Hieropholus. her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered herses 
to her patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who 
were now out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed 
her sex to the judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery, 
—Hyg.fa, 274, 



minJ 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 481 



appointment of officers are different in the different Stateg See Encyclc* 
pedia Americana. The aggregate militia force of the United States, as re- 
ported in 1848, was 1,888,538, but as the returns in some instances were 
for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000. 
As the regular army has alwa} r s been small (in time of peace about 8000) 
the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. 
MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the 
road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- 
cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, 
who, while she slept, was laid by her side ; but perceiving who lie was, she 
threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. 
Democritus was the first who taught that the via lactea was occasioned by a 
confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. c. 

MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex- 
piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation; and that during 
the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It 
was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was 
propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennium 
was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our 
blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- 
tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet. 

MTLLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and 
dresses for woman, a very ancient occupation; the term is supposed to be 
derived from Milan. There are men-milliners in England, and the adoption 
of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 
1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very 
strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at 
all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- 
posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while 
the perfumed coxcomb ["He was perfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare.'] 
measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady 
phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. 

MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. 
Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be 
like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the 
Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced 
the water-mill. See article Mechanics. 

MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. 
Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- 
land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, 
occurs 47 Henry III., 1262. — Ruding. It related to mines containing gold, 
together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, 
and salt exist in great abundance, in various States: lead mines in Mis- 
souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North 
Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Goal, Copper, 
Tin, Gold, &c. 

MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40» 30' nort'- 
lat., and between 91° 10' and 102° west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux 
Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants 
from the United States about 1845-6. 

* I look upon a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, bat 
as one of the most injurious. When I hear one of these persons haranguing upon the merits 
of muslin or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of con- 
tempt; for the employment that degrades this man might have preserved a woman from pros 
titution. — Dr. Southey. 

21 



482 THE world's progress. [mis 

MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. 
Minorca was captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in 
August 1708, and was confirmed to the British by the treat}*- of Utrecht in 
1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral 
Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety 
of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the 
enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. 
Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured 
by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up 
at the peace of 1802. 

MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of mancrs to 
divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- 
men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about A. D. 1560. John of 
Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign 
of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at 
the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk 
into neglect. 

MINT of the UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at 
New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C, 1837 ; at Dahlonega, 1838. See Coining. 

MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage 
in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women 
were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 
B. c. See Looking Glasses. 

MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was 
considered a term of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in 
Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a bottle, about 1782, was the first 
actress announced as Miss. — QaWs Lives of the Players. 

MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St- 
Francis, St. Augustin, &c, had missions to the Levant and to America. 
The Jesuits had missions to China {which see), and to most other parts of 
the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was 
a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian 
Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, 
about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 
4,1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions, 
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; 
first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ceylon. 1816; to Choctaws; 1817; Che- 
rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- 
tions of about $200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts 
of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this 
Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical 
science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. 
The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c, are also nu- 
merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of 
Missions of General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- 
ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevc- 
lent Societies. 

MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- 
chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the 
Indians. The country ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part 
of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, 
together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817, 
when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929 
in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. 



mog] dictionary of dates. 483 

MISSOURI, one of the United States. "Was included with Louisiana in the 
purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the Frencb 
in 1764, but was little more than a trading post until 1804, when the terri- 
torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State 
in 1821, altera long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise. 
which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis- 
souri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, in- 
cluding 58,240 slaves. 

MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- 
brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced 
about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital is 
said to have amounted to 100,000,000?. See Law's Bubble. 

MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed 
to be the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented 
by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 B. c. It was formerly 
thought to be a great antidote against poison; but though it is now out 
of date for that purpose, it is still used as an opiate, and is one of the 
capital medicines of our shops. 

MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 b. c, 
and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human 
life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having 
taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of 
Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He 
ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his 
throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 B. c. — Lenglet. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by 
the high-priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young 
women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, 
wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according 
to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less 
magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of 
Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. 

MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. 
The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- 
ides the younger, 477 B. c. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics 
have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey is an 
esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have 
it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no 
ticed in the London monthly periodicals. 

MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the 
French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions 
were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- 
cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The 
archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and 
restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, 
March 20, 1848. The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provi- 
sional government appointed, April 9, 1848. 

MOGUIiS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, 
Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards 
known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul 
empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died A. D. 1236. Timour 
Beg became great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous 
eophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried 
away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the 
nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 



484 THE world's peogeess. [mon 

MONARCHY'. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon 
after the Deluge. See Assyria.' Historians reckon four grand, or almost 
universal monarchies, — the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. See 
them respectively. 
MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in 
a. d. 270 ; and according to others, in A. D. 305. The suppression of monastic 
houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religious 
communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- 
ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantine IV., among 
other persec itors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear 
at Ephesus . he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, 
and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the 
vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that theuf 
eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their 
various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. 
Austin arrived in England A. D. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol 
temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and hia 
successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic 
houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 
1515. But the gener^ dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII. 
1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, 
whose descendants enjoy them to this day. 

MONET. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23d chapter of Ge- 
nesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year 
of the world 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to 
the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it 
having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 E. c. Money was 
made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- 
cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so 
late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since 
the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity 
that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- 
dity. See articles, Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, &c. 

MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- 
serts to avoid the Decian persecution about A. D. 250. St. Anthony is sup- 
posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular 
monastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate. 
St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son 
of Charles II., was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded 
England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on 
the 20th of the same month. Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and 
was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, 
from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIIL 
about 1535. 

MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, 
that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence 
mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were 
farther suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were 
totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, 
as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles I., 1640. — Ander 
son's History of Commerce. 

MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra* 



moeJ dictionary of dates. 4S5 

ordinary enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of 
prophecy, and proclaimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- 
demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- 
riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three 
lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- 
fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 

MONTREAL. . Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was 
taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, November 
12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je- 
suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great 
military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the "Rebellion Losses" Act; 
the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849. 

MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar- 
tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of 
conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. 
Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by 
Thales, 640 B. 0. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon, 79 B. c. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- 
zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at full moon is 90,000 times 
less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times less. — 
Bouguer. 

MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a. d. 173.— Univ. Hist. The Saracens in 
Spain, beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who 
seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, A. D. 
1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. 
The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the 
power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leou and Castile, slew 
200,000 Moors in one battle ; three leagues round the country was covered 
with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- 
nand V., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the 
number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Priestley. 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science 
of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- 
garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. c. And Grotius is 
esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, 
about A. D. 1623. — Bate, &c. 

MORAVIANS. United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, 
it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say 
that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They 
appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died 
at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order 
to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed 
settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and "West Indies, and 
other climes. The Moravians led the way fe» the Scriptural missions now 
so general. 

MORGARTEN, Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and 
glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, 
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They 
seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through 
which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved 
their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. 
MOR,MONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe 
Smith" is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. 
Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Joe 



486 the world's peogeess. [urns 

Smith, Rigdon, &c, to the Missouri militia, under Gen. Atchinson, Oct. 28, 
1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail by a mob, June 27, 1844. 
The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, 
and the Mormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9. 
MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. Prom its early possession by the Romans 
it underwent various revolutions. About A. D. 1116, Abdallah, a leader 
of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last 
sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces 
shook off their dependence: but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, 
subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France 
provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, 
commenced May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, 
and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abd-el-Kader taken 
prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. 
MORTARS. A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, 
used for throwing bombs, first made in England in 1543. The celebrated 
mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. 
MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was 
taken by Tamerlane, 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the 
Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This 
city was entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, 
Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at 
once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the 
ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- 
ters, evacuated Moscow Oct. 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 
22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. 
MOSKWA, Battle op, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. 
MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting 
themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and 
perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- 
ted A. D. 1609. 
MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XL by pope Paul II., 
1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of 
Christian given to a prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. 
MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu et man Droit was first used by Richard I., a. d. 1193. 
The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich alien, " I 
serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 
the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y 
pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendrai, "I will 
maintain," was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper eadem was or- 
dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. 
MOURNING for the DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to 
wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition 
of grief for a friend lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasions 
it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for 
the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary eolor for mourning in 
Eui'ope is black ; in China it is white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; 
and it was white in Spain, until A. d. 1498. — Herrera. 
MUNSTER, Treaty op, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; Spain 
continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle 
of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster, 
Oct. 24, 1648. 



MUSj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



487 



MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Epheta? 
was established by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B. c. The Per- 
sians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the 
Heptarchy, murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s 
lime, the crime was compounded for in "Wales. Murderers were allowed 
benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or petit treason, may happen 
in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and 
an ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. The 
enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- 
mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance. 
The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one 
after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IT., July 1836. — Haydn. 

MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexander, like the Pryta- 
neuru of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained 
by the public, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. 
The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
who here placed his library, about 284 B.C. See British Museum, &c. 

MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in 
hollow reeds. Eranckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers 
of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And 
Zarlino to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first 
reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B c. The flute and harmony or concord in 
music was iuvented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of 
men are first mentioned 556 B. c. — Du Fresnoy. Pythagoras maintained that 
the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible 
to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a 
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel 
was enticed from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her 
melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author- 
ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third 
century. 

MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin, 
a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, A. D. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present 
used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by 
Palestrina about 1515. Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical compos*- 
tion in the sixteenth century, and they effected great improvement in the 
science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries 
about 1616. 

MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- 
stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- 
tlemen to promote the study of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was 
established in 1741. and other musical societies followed. The Royal Society 
of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the 
performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- 
sic established 1822. 

MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish 
historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier 
with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- 
troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 
12 Henry VIII. 1521.— Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the 
musket into use in the Low Countries, 1569. — Branstone. 

MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so 
called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling 
moss, which the French call mousse. According to others it was first broughi 



488 the world's progress. [am 

from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eng- 
land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in 
England in 1778. 

MUTES. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or 
felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- 
ciently, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, 
on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon 
his body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one 
day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately 
until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in A. D. 
1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III judgment is 
awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or 
confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778 Another on a charge of burglary, 
at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, 
Aug. 21, 1801. — Phillips. 

MUTINY on board U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie ; mid- 
shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. 

MUTINY of the BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty. 

MYCALE, Battle op, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and 
Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and 
slain at Platea. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just 
returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were 
completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, 
and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- 
mos with an immense booty. 

MYCENiE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty 
stadia from Argos, and nourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse Perseus 
renjoves from Argos to Mycenae, and reigns, 1313 B. 0. Mycenae destroyed 
by the Argives, 568 B. c. 

MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an in- 
stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- 
ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt 
up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis 
and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks. The 
Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B. c. 
The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits 
of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civil- 
ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries 
They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. p. 389. 

MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the 
authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated : 
and persons who had rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in 
this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding 
of men living in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal, 
and therefore after death the multitude were easily taught to reverence them 
with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- 
visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and 
then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions 
of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, 
and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to 
have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B. c. ; and Cadmus 
the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1493 
B. O. 



NAPj 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



489 



N. 

NABONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince 
of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 747 B. c. To find the Julian year on which 
the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; 
if after Christ, add to it 748. 

NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it 
to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans 
taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their 
names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation 
to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till 
then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 
956 : and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and 
Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to 
change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of 
Henry II. of Prance. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but 
at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It 
is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new 
names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the 
world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. 

NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was 
garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. 
Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, 
the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again 
taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; 
but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered 
it up to the Allies, in 1814. 

NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. ^ 

NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples 
was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- 
tury it became a prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and 
the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this 
country. 



The Goths having become masters of 
Naples and of Sicily, are expelled 
by Belisarius, general of the Eastern 
empire - - - a. d. 537 

The Lombards next get possession of 
Naples, and are dispossessed by 
Charlemagne ... 800 

Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, 
king of France, obtains the crown 
from the pope, to the exclusion of 
the rightful heir, Conradin, who is 
beheaded, aged sixteen years - 1266 

The French becoming hated by theSi- 
cilians, a general massacre of the in- 
vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers 

March 30, 1282 

Peter of Arragon reigns - - 1282 

The two crowns disjoined - 1303 

Charles Durazzo, becoming king of 
Hungary ,is murdered there by order 
of the queen regent, in her presence 1386 

For this murder she is taken out of her 
carriage, and drowned in the river 
Boseth .--- 1386 

Sicily again united to Naples, and the 
kings ever since called king of the 
Two Sicilies - - - 1448 

21* 



Taken from the French and annexed 
to Spain .... 1504 

The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to 
an insurrection, excited by Massa- 
niello, a fisherman, who in fifteen 
days raises an army of 200,000 men 1647 

This insurrection subsides, and Massa- 
niello is murdered - - 1647 

Attempt of the duke of Guise to pos- 
sess the crown - - 1647 

The kingdom completely conquered 
by prince Eugene - - 1707 

Discovery of the ruins of Hercula- 
neum. See Herculaneum, - 1711 

Naples ceded to the emperor by the 
treaty of Eadstadt, 1714 ; Sicily 1720 

Both kingdoms are recovered by the 
crown of Spain ... J734 

And Charles, the son of Philip of 
Spain, reigns ... 1735 

Reign oi Ferdinand IV. - - 1759 

His flight on the approach of the 
French republicans - Jan. 14, 1799 

Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and. 
the king restored - July 13, 1799 

It is again taken by the French, Ap'17,lS01 

Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 



490 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[nat 



NAPLES, continued. 

the kingdom, and thousands perish 

July 26, 1805 

Treaty offensive and defensive be- 
tween France and Naples Oct. 8, 1S05 

Ferdinand is again driven from Na- 
ples, and Joseph Bonaparte is 
crowned king - Feb. 6. 1806 

Joseph abdicates for the crown of 
Spain - - - June 1. 1808 

The orown is transferred to Joachim 
Murat - - -July 1,1808 

Naples is surrendered to aBritishfieet, 
and Ferdinand re-enters June 17, 1815 

Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15, 1815 

Revolutionary movement, headed by 
general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 

Suppression of the Carbonari Sept.16, 1S20 

Reign of Francis I. - - - 1S26 

And of Ferdinand II. - Nov. 8, 1830 

Commencement of the dispute rela- 
tive to the sulphur monopoly,(which 
is afterwards amicably adjusted) 

March 15, 1840 

NARVA, Battle of, in which Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated 
by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The 
army of Peteris said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish 
army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. 

NASEBT, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Pair- 
fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by 
lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale 
the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory 
was with the parliamentary forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfor- 
tunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing 
aft his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 
14, 1645. 

NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- 
rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
national debt commenced in the reign of "William III. It had amounted in 
the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought 
to be of alarming magnitude. 



Demonstration in favor of Fius IX. 
and reform, fired upon at Naples, 
and arrests made - Dec. 15, 1847 

Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jan.4,lS43 

Rebellion at Palermo, &c. Jan. 12, 1848 

Palermo bombarded Jan. 13-19, 1818 

The king signed a constitution Jan.23, 1848 

Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar- 
rison - - - Feb. 22, 184S 

The parliament of Sicily declares that 
island independent ; Messina bom- 
barded by theNeapolitan fleet Ap.3, 1343 

The national guard raises barricades at 
Naples - - May 14, 1S48 

The people put down by the king's 
troops ; 1440 killed - May 15, 1848 

TheSicilian parliament elects the duke 
of Genoa as king of Sicily July 10, 1848 

Messina bombarded and taken by the 
Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1848 

New constitution conceded to Sicily 

March 6, 1S49 

Catania bombarded and reducedAp. 5.1849 



In 1802, Close of the French Re- 
volutionary war, it a- 
mounted to - £571.000,000 

In 1814, Close of the 'war against 

Bonaparte - - 865,000,000 

In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- 
lish exchequers were 
consolidated - 848,282,477 

In 1830, Total amount of the 
funded and unfunded 
debt - - - 840,184,022 

In 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578,000 



In 1702, On the accession of queen 

Anne, the debt amounted 

to- - - - £14,900,000 
In 1714, On the accession of Geo. I. 

it amounted to . 54,000,000 
In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- 
nish war,it amounted to 78,000,000 
In 1763, George III.: end of the 7 

years 1 war, it amounted 

to ... 139,000,000 

In 1786,Threeyears aftertheAme- 

ricanwar,itamount'd to 268,000,000 
In 1798, The civil and foreign war, 

it amounted to - 462,000,009 

NATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times. 

In 1791 the debt was - $75,463,476 In 1830 the debt was 

In 1S00 " " S'2,970,294 In 1835 

In 1810 " " - - - 53.173,217 

In 1815 " " - - - 99,833,660 

In 1816 " " -' - ■ 127,334,934 

In 1820 " " - • - 91,015,566 

NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien 
a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it wers^ 



In 1845, Funded debt 



In 1839 
In 1845 
In 1848 



76S,789,241 



$4S,565,406 

37,733 

11,983,738 

16,S01,647 

65,804,450 



NAvJ 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 491 



both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did mt 
belong to." The first act of naturalization in England passed in 1437 ; and 
various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, 
several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- 
ization of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following year, 
on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States. 

NATIONAL. ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abba 
Sieyes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- 
bly, June 16, 1789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by 
order of the king ; upon which the deputies of the Tiers Mat repaired to 
the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had 
digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. 
Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the 
Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that 
that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, " That the 
citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being 
met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that 
the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a 
new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed 
at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution 
was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the 
Angerstein collection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. 
They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the 
first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. Sir G. Beau- 
mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British 
Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been 
augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- 
fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed 
and opened in 1837. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the 
first upon record, 1263 B. c. — Du Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is 
that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 B. c. — Blair. The fol- 
lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the 
page of history. 

at Cnidos : Pisander, the Athenian 
admiral, is killed; and the mari- 
time power of the Lacedemonians 
destroyed. — Thucydides - - 304 

The Roman fleet employed in the 
siege of Lilybasum, burned by the 
Carthaginians - - - 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by 
the consul Lutatius ... 242 

The Roman fleets vanquished by 
Hannibal, the Carthaginian gene- 
ral ; 800 galleys taken, and 16,000 
prisoners; second Punic war - 209 

At Actium,between tho fleets of Octa- 
vianusCassarandMarcAntony. This 
battle decides the fate of the latter, 
300 of his galleys going over to Cafi- 
sar, by which he is totally defeated 81 



BEFORE OHBIST. 

First sea-fight on record, in which the 
Corinthians conquer theCorcyreans 664 

The Athenian fleet under Themistoc- 
les, with 380 sail, defeat the Per- 
sian, consisting of 2000, at the 
straits of Salamis - 480 

Again, at the mouth of the river Eu- 
rymedon ; Cymon, theAthenian ad- 
miral, vanquishes the Persian fleet 
and army, in one day. — Herodotus 4T0 

The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Al- 
cibiades, the Athenian - - - 410 

The Spartan general, Lysander, total- 
ly defeats the Athenian fleet under 
Conon; bythis victoryhe puts an end 
to the maritime power of Athens - 407 

The Persians engage Conon to com- 
mand their fleet, with which he en- 
tirelyvanquishes theLacedemonian 
fleet, and takes 50 sail out of 90 - 400 

The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan 



ANNO DOMINI. 

The emperor, Claudius II. defeats 
the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their 
ships.— Du Fresnoy - 269 



492 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[.STAY 



NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, 
and Pius V. defeat the Turkish 
fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. The 
Christian fleet consisted of 206 gal- 
leys, and 30,000 men. The Turks, 
out of 250 galleys, saved only 100; 
and lost 30,000 men in killed and 
prisoners. — Voltaire ... 1571 

Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spani- 
ards. This was a bloody conflict and 
decisivevictoryandsettledfor a time 
the superiorityof theDutch,Apr. 25, 1607 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTOKT. 

Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 
sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset 
and Hampshire coast— Assess Life 
of Alfred 897 

Near Sluys; Edward III. defeated 
the French fleet of 400 sail, which 
were all sunk. 30,000 French were 
killed in this engagement - - 1340 

The English and Flemings; the latter 
signally defeated - 1371 

English and French, in which the 
latter power loses 80 ships - - 1389 

Near Milford Haven; the English take 
14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 

Off Barfleur ; the Duke of Bedford 
takes 500 French ships - - 1416 

In the Downs: the French fleet cap- 
tured by the earl of Warwick - 1459 

Bay of Biscay; English and French, 
the latter defeated ... 1512 

Sir Edward Howard defeats the 
French under Prejeant - - 1513 

In the Channel; the British defeat 
the French fleet with great loss - 1545 

TheSpanishArmadadTiveii from the 
EnglishChannel tothe roadof Calais, 
bya running fight the Spaniards los- 
ing 15 ships and 5000 men; they are 
aeain defeated, and obliged to bear 
awayior Scotland and Ireland, when 
theirfleet isdispersed in a storm,and 
they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 
more men. See Armada, July 19, 1588 

Dover Straits ; between the Dutch 
admiral, Van Tromp, and admiral 
Blake. TheDutch surprise the Eng- 
lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 
40 English, six of which are taken 
or destroyed ; and the Dutch admi- 
ral sails in triumph through the 
channel, with a broom at his mast- 
head, to denote that he had swept 
the English from the seas. June 29, 1652 

In the Downs ; same admirals, and 
nearly same loss 

Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 

The English gain a victory over the 
Dutch fleet off Portsmouth, taking 
and destroying 11 men-of-war and 
80 merchantmen. Van Tromp was 
the Dutch, and Blake the English 
admiral .... Feb. 10, 1653 

Again, near Portland, between the 
English and Dutch ; the latter de- 
feated --.. Feb. 18, 1653 

Again, off the North Foreland The 
Dutch and English fleets consisted 
of near 100 men-of-war each. Van 



Tromp commar.ied the Dutch; 
Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- 
lish. Six Dutch ships were taken ; 
11 were sunk, and the rest ran into 
Calais road . . . June 2, 1653 

Again, on the coast of Holland ; the 
Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and ad- 
miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1653 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 
2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken 
by the English - - - Sept. 1656 

The Spanish fleet vanquished, and 
then burnt in the harbor of Santa 
Cruz, by Blake - - - April, 1657 

English and French ; 130 of the Bor- 
deaux fleet destroyed by the duke 
of York -.-- Dec. 4, 1664 

The duke of York (afterwards James 
II.), defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up 
with all his crew ; 18 capital thips 
taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 

The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of 
war and 2 India ships - Sept. 4, 1 665 

A contest between the Dutch and 
English fleets for victory maintain- 
ed for four days. The English lose 
9,and theDutch 15 ships, June 1 — 4, 1666 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of 
the Thames, when the English 
gain a glorious victory, the Dutch 
lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals kill- 
ed, and 4,000 officers and seamen. 
Fought .... July 26, 1666 

The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the 
French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 

Coast of Holland; by Prince Rupert, 
May28,June4,and Aug. ll.D'Etrees 
and Kuyter defeated ... 1678 

Several actions to the disadvantage of 
the Dutch. They agree to strike to 
the English colors in the British 
seas, 25 Charles II. ... 1673 

Off Tangiers, battle between the En- 
glish and Moors, which lasted 11 
days 1679 

Off Beachy-head; the English and 
Dutch are defeated by the French, 

June 30, 1690 

The English and Dutch combined 
fleets gain a signal victory over the 
French fleet,near CapeLallogue ; 21 
of their largest men-of-warwere de- 
stroyed. — See La ffogue, May 19, 1692 

Off St. Vincent; theEnglishandDutch 
squadrons,under admiral Rooke,de- 
feated by the French - June 16, 1698 

Off Carthagenajbetween admiral Ben- 
bow and theFrench fleet,command- 
ed by admiral Du Casse, fought 

Aug. 19, 270& 

The English and Dutch fleets, under 
sir George Kooke,defeat the French 
fleet (having theSpanish galleons in 
convoy) in the port of Vigo. They 
take 9 out of 13 galleons,laden chief- 
ly with silver, and six men-of-war; 
the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of- 
war, destroyed, fought - Oct. 12, 1702 

Off the Lizard, when the English fleet 
was defeated - - - Oct. 9, 1707 



NAV ] 



D OTIONARY OF DATES. 



493 



KTAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake 
took sixty French vessels laden with 
provisions - - May 22, 1708 

The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- 
feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro 
of Messina - - Aug. 11, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews 
and Lestock against the fleets of 
France and Spain. Here the brave 
captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- 
tory was lost by a misunderstanding 
between the English admirals. — Na- 
val Hist. .... 1744 

Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet 
taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 

In the East Indies ; the French retired 
to Pondicherry - - - 1747 

Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took 
seven men-of-war of the French 

Oct. 14, 1747 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French 
fleet commanded by Conflans, in 
Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a 
projected invasion of England, fought 

Nov. 20, 1759 

Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a 
fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 

Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- 
ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- 
gara, the latter defeated and taken 
prisoner, losing 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 

At St. Jago ; Mons. Suflrein defeated by 
commodore Johnston April lb, 1781 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French 
going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships 
of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) 
and sent the French admiral, count 
de Grasse, prisoner to England 

April 12, 1782 

The British totally defeated the fleets 
of France and Spain, in the bay of 
Gibraltar.— See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 

Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- 
feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of 
battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; 
admiral Nelson loses his right arm; 

July 24, 1797 

Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- 
feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 
ships of war, with the admiral (De 
Winter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797 

Nile j Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 
ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of 



the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped, 

Aug. 1. 1798 

Gibraltar bay ; engagement between 
the French and British fleets ; the 
Hannibal of 74 guns lost July 6, 1801 

Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains 
a victory over the French and Span- 
ish fleets ; 1 ship captured, foush*. 

July 12, 1801 

Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2 
ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of 
the French and Spanish combined 
fleets, off Ferrol - July 22, 1805 

Off" Trafalgar; memorable battle, in 
which lord Nelson defeated the fleet* 
of France and Spain, and in which 
he received his mortal wound. — (See 
Trafalgar) ■ ■ Oct. 21, 1806 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, 
captures 4 French ships of the line, 
oft' Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805 

In the West Indies; the French defeat- 
ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of 
the line taken, 2 driven on shore 

Feb. 6, 1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures the 
French fleet under command of ad- 
miral Linois - - March 13. 1806 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage 
of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles, 

Feb. 19, 1807 

Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 
15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- 
renders to lord Cathcart and admiral 
Gambier. (See Cope7ihagen)Sepl 7, 1807 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the 
Tagus, surrenders to the British, 

Sept. 3, 1803 

Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. 
See Algiers ■ - Aug. 27, 1816 

Navarino ; the British, French, and 
Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- 
hilate the Turkish navy. See Nava- 
rino - - - Oct. 20, 1827 

Action between the British ships Vol- 
age and Hyacinth, and 29 Chinese 
war junks, which were defeated 

Nov. 3, 1839 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The 
British squadron under admiral Stop- 
ford achieved this triumph with tri- 
fling loss, while the Egyptians lost 
2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 
prisoners. See Syria - Nov. 3, 1840 



NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. 



Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- 
teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 1776 

His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 

He captures the British frigate Serapis 

Sept. 23, 1779 

Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- 
politans - - - - 1803 

— recaptured by Decatur - - Feb. 1, 1804 

Tripoli bombarded by '.ommodore Pre- 
ble - • - - Aug. 1804 

Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the 
British ship Leopard, for refusing to 
be searched .... 1807 

Frigate President, vs. British sloop 
Little Belt - - May ]fi. 1811 



Constitution captures British frigate 
Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 1812 

Captain Elliott captures two British 
frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812 

Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro 
lie, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by 
British 74, Poictiers - Oct 20, 1812 

Frigate United States, captain Decatur, 
captures British frigate Macedonian 1S12 

Constitution, captain Bainbriage, cap- 
tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 

Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures 
British ship Peacock, captain Peake, 

Feb. 23, 18U 



494 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ NA"V 



NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. 

[Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- 
aded by British.] 

Frigate Chesapeake surrendered to the 
British frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 

Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop 
Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813 

E :i^ Enterprise captures the British 
brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1513 

Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, 
captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 

FIrtilla, commodore Chauncey, cap- 
tures British flotilla on lake Ontario, 

Oct. 5, 1813 

Frigate Essex, commodore Pinter, cap- 
tured by frigate Phoebe and sloop 
Cherub - - - March 28, 1814 

Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, 
surrendered to British frigate Or- 
pheus - - - April 21, 1814 



Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, 
captures British brig Epervier 

April 29, 1814 

Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- 
tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 

Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- 
torious over the British on lake Cham- 
plain - - - Sept. 11, 1814 

Frigate President, surrendered to the 
British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1816 

Frigate Constitution captures British 
brigs Cyane and Levant, off Maderia 

Feb. 1815 

Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- 
tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, 

Feb. 23, IS E 

U. S. naval force under commodore 
Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly 
with the land force under general 
Scott) 1847 

NAVARINO, Battle of, between the combined fleets of England, France, and 
Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, in 
which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, 
many of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks 
themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 
1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that 
of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an 
"untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. 

NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The 
first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first 
account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing 
round Africa, 604 b. c— Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander 
the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently 
the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively 
from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- 
iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch. 



Plane charts and mariner's compass 

used about - - - a. d. 1420 

Variation of the compass discovered 

by Columbus - - - - 1492 

That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- 
rals, discovered by Nonius - - 1537 
First treatise on navigation - - - 1545 
The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 
Mercator's chart - - - - 1599 
Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for 
measuring angles, about - - 1600 



Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- 
tion by Gunter - - a. d. 1620 
Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 
Mensuration of a degree, Norwood - 1631 
Hadley's quadrant - - - 1731 
Harrison's time-keeper used - - 1764 
Nautical almanac first published - 1767 
Barlow's theory of the deviation of the 
compass - - - - - 1820 
See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, fyc. 



NAVIGATION, INLAND, op the United States. An official report of U. S. 
Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- 
ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16.674 miles ; entire length of lake coast, 
of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboat 
tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of 
commerce on the western rivers, $183,609,725. Estimated amount of lake 
tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different periods, 
see Shipping.] 

NAVIGATION, INLAND, of Great Britain. Mr. Nimmo, in his evidence be- 
fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more 
inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." 
The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well the 



hat] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



495 



navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- 
ment scarcely agrees with the preceding. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed. 6 Richard I., 1194. 
See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more 
extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies 
passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act 
regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- 
tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- 
liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849. 

NAVY of the UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States 
was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at 
Portsmouth, N. H., 1781; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of 
Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The 
Constitution launched at Boston, Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See 
Naval Battles.] 

NAVIES of EUROPE and AMERICA. 



COMPARATIVE 


VIEW OP THE NAVAL FORCES OF THE POWERS OF EUROPE 








AND 


AMERICA, 1846. 










Relative naval 
power of each nation. 


In commission. 


Buildin 

ry, 


I, ordina- 
te. 


Total. 


a 

£ 

a 
6 


"RE 














6 S 




Vessels. 


Guns. 


Vessels. 


Guns. 


Vessels. 


Guns. 


£ 


z, a 


Great Britain, 


332 


4,583 


304 


13,098 


§636 


17,681 


40,000 


141 


France, ... 


215 


4,293 


131 


4,635 


346 


8,928 


27,554 


68 


Russia, ... 


179 


5.896 






179 


5,896 


59,000 


32 


Turkey, - 


62 


2,636 


4 


24 


66 


2,660 


26,820 


9 


United States, 


47 


1,155 


30 


1,190 


77 


2,345 


8,724 


5 


Egypt, 


35 


1,148 


3 


312 


38 


1,760 




1 


Holland, 


48 


302 


86 


1,344 


134 


1,646 




4 


Sweden, ... 


330 


660 


50 


1,196 


380 


1,856 




2 


Denmark, 


96 


344 


12 


732 


108 


1,076 






Austria, - 


74 


686 






74 


686 






Brazil, - 


31 


450 


11 


325 


42 


775 




8 • 


Sardinia, - 


11 


226 


4 


220 


15 


446 




9. 


'Spain, - 


21 


348 






21 


348 




4 


Two Sicilies, 


17 


338 






17 


338 






Portugal, 


59 
















Mexico 


23 


42 


-- 




23 


42 


-- 





COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 



Nations, in the order of their commercial 
importance. 



United Kingdom of Great Britain, 
United States .... 

France, 

Norway and Sweden • 

Holland, 

Russia, 

Two Sicilies, .... 
Austria, ..... 

Turkey, 

Sardinia. ..... 

Denmark, .... 

Portugal, 

Spain, 

Brazil, - - - - 

Mexico. ..... 



No. of vessels 
in commerce 
and fisheries. 



23.898 

19,666 

13,782 

5,450 

1,528 

Not known. 

9,174 

6,199 

2.220 

3,502 

3.036 

798 

2,700 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 



Tonnage. 



No. of guns 3 
each 100,000 
tons of com- 
merce. 



3,007,581 

2416,999 

839,608 

471,772 

241,676 

239,000 

213,193 

208,551 

182,000 

167.360 

153,408 

80,525 

80,000 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 



97 

1.063 
'224 
683 

2,466 
158 
321 

1461 
'265 
709 



496 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



N2M 



NAVY OF ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of \he Danes, 
was built by Alfred, a. d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under 
Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the pub- 
lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II., 1007, 
et seq. y when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. 
From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, 
and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- 
miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais in 
1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- 
lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may 
therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was ap- 
pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stou? 
ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson's 
Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 
tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the 
Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, 
consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 
ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever bun*-. — Gibson'' s 
Continuation of Camden. 

ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF THE ROYAL NAVY OF ENGLAND, FROM HENRY 
VIII'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WAR, 1814. 



Yr. 


Ships. 


To?is. 


Men voted 


Navy estim. 


Yr. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men voted 


Navy estim. 


1521 


16 


7,260 





no account. 


1760 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


£3,227,143 


1578 


24 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1793 


498 


433,226 


45.000 


5,525,331 


1603 


42 


17,055 


8,346 


no account. 


1S00 


767 


663,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1633 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40.000 


£1,056,915 













In 1814, Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 
1830. she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- 
sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home 
service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- 
sion was 183. 

NAVY of FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that 
of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the 
French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under 
Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French 
navy was in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became gr?>atly 
educed in the late wars against England. 

NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- 
cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and 
White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th 
parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. 
First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- 
plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. 

NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home 
trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- 
dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, 
London, in ths time of the sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spaing but, 
as he would not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered 
again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, 
taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest 
degree of perfection. — Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of 
lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this 
time. — Anderson. 

NEMEAN GAMES. So called from Nernsea, where they were celebrated. 



NEW ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 497 



They were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorua 
who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed 
them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were 
observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- 
onse, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhibited 
foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every 
kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a 
crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure 
of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They 
were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or 
more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c- 
Hcrodotus. 

NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galte 
of Berlin, Sept. 23, 1846. 

NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time 
bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, 
is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary wan 
the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for 
that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not 
herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as 
distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; 
that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was 
subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c, as 
other men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly 
applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant 
go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, 
and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma- 
tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. n. 439. — Du Pin. 

NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name 
of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- 
try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was 
governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of 
Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were 
united into one state, in 1549. . For the late history of the Netherlands see 
Holland and Belgium. 

NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island 
was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to the English at 
the general peace in the next y^ear. The capital of this island (one of the 
Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. 

NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America 
under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- 
vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New 
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. See 
these respectively. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- 
nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It 
came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was 
made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several 
times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it 
has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 
1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328 : 
in 1840, 284574. 

SEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a 
continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the 
oeginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 



498 THE WORLDS I ROURESIs. | /(JEW 

by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was 
discovered by Tasman, iu 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east 
and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New 
Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discove- 
ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, 
which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, 
in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty 
leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Different parts of 
the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- 
ern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in the name of 
George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of tbe Bri- 
tish dominions. See New South Wales. 

NEW JERSEY. One of the United States; first settled by the Dutch from 
New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finns, on the De- 
laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by 
Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lord Berkley 
and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued 
by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a 
company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at 
Salem, 1674 ; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi- 
culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under 
royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered 
much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal 
Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Population in 1732, 47-000; in 
1790, 184,189 ; in 1830, 320,779 ; in 1840, 373,306. 

NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from 
about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- 
ington — an area of about 200.000 square miles. The country taken posses- 
sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of 
Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or 
fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa F6, and 
founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards 
after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between 
the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with 
Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed by Texas, and the boundary is 
yet (July 1850) undecided. 

NEW SOUTH WALES. See New Holland. The eastern coast of New Hob 
land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, 
in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that 
the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the 
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts. January 20, 1788 : 
but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the 
head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. 

NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next ear 
eleven days were left out of the calendar — the third of September, 1752, 
being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego- 
rian Calendar, which see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, 
there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- 
ven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much be- 
forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates 
the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From this 
variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ- 
ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. 

fy'SW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is th<i 
oldest on authentic record transmitted down to our times, and still observed. 



BJEW j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 499 

The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who pre- 
sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans 
sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; 
and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of 
letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho- 
sen befcre, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After the 
government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on 
New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a ciowd, all in new clothes, when 
two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great 
deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the fiamens, 
together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity offered their vows 
for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an 
oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding 
year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, 
and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word. 
The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is 
in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, 
this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from 
the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed 
in Paris. 

NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts 
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. who having consi- 
dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of 
the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the 
name of Strenre, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, 
and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, 
they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to 
the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came 
into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- 
thers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo- 
ralities committed under that cover and protection ; but since the govern- 
ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is 
still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed 
in the United States. 

NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of 
Manhattan, Where New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry 
Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently 
settled on Manhattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- 
glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to 
England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 
1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; first legisla- 
tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta- 
blished by law, 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active part in 
French war, 1756, and the war of Independence ; city captured by English, 
1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25. 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution 
bv 30 to 35, 1788 ; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in 
1732. 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 ; in 1810, 959,049 ; in 1820, 1.372.812 ; in 1840, 
2,428,921. 

NEW YORK. City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614; fort built by them at 
S. poini of the island, 1623 ; surrendered to the English, 1664 ; assessed 
value of all the property in the town in 1668, was £78.231 ; city taken by 
the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States 
Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United 
States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- 
vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849, Great fire ia 



500 the world's progress. [new 

the business part of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property 
valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 
1845 ; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration 
of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790, 
33,131 ; in 1810, 96,373 ; in 1830, 202,589 ; in 1840, 312,710. 

NEW ORLEANS, City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to 
the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the French, 1800; purchased by the 
United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between 
the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in 
which the latter were defeated with loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, the 
Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population 
in 1810, was 17,242 ; 'in 1830, 46,310 ; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448 
slaves. 

NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines 
were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted 
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. in 1239 ; but in 1306, 
the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, 
chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which 
were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- 
nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
place for more than 500 years. 

NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista. 
June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 
1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the 
English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from 
Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 
1577. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in- 
creased so much that the ports of Devonshire aloae employed 150 ships, and 
sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- 
milies reside here all the year ; and in the fishing season, beginning in May 
and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, 
which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New- 
foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A 
bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great 
portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at £1,000,000 sterling, 
June 9, 1846. 
"^"vEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh 
account of any thing. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — L 'Es- 
trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times. — Addi- 
son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived from the adjective 
new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent 
practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters 
of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; — 



importing that these paperb contained intelligence from the four quartern 
of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. 
NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi- 
dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger 
L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued 
nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of "the Gazette. A 
publication, with few claims however to the character of a newspaper, had 



HBWj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 501 

previously appeared; it was called the English Mercury* and came out un- 
der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of tha 
Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. 
In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Cow ant. and 
in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- 
lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which 
the following were the titles : — 



The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or 
Certain Information. 

The Mercurius Civicus, or London's In- 
telligencer. 

The Country's Complaint, 6fc. 

The Weekly Account. 

Mercurius Britannicus. 



England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par- 
liament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 
The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scout. 

A paper called the London Gazette was published xlugust 22, 1642. The 
London Gazette of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the 
court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at 
London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and 
pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — Salmon's Chron. Newspa- 
pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : — 

In 1810 - - - 20,172,837 In 1S35 ■ ■ - 32,874,652 

In 1820- - -24.862,186 In 1840 - ■ -49,033,384 

In 1825 - - - 26,950,693 In 1843 ■ ■ - 56,443,977 

In 1830 - - - 30,158,741 " 



In 1849 - • - 76,569,235 



In 1758 - - - 7,411,757 

In 1760 - - - 9,404,790 

In 1774 - - - 12,300,000 

In 1790 - - - 14,035,639 

In 1800 - - - 16,084,905 

The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 
was 603, viz : 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland, 
and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London 
newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of £66,458 2s. ; in the 
English provincial newspapers, 834.729, yielding to the crown a revenue of 
£62,604 13s. <6d. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying £11,026 4s., and in the 
Scotch papers, 2,409,11, paying in duty £18,075 16s. 6d. 

NEWSPAPERS, &c. in the United States. The first was the " Boston News 
Letter," in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston 
Gazette, 1719 ; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia, 
started one day after the last. First New York Gazette, in 1725 ; first 
newspaper in the Carolinas at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga- 
zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at Williamsburgh, in 1736. 
In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers ; in 1810, in the United 

. States, 356 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS in France. The first was the Gazette de France, established 
by Benaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827-. when 
it ceased and another paper assumed its name: The Moniteur, commenced 
1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Con~ 
stitutwnelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula- 
tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri- 
odical Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pue's Occurrences, pub- 
lished in 1700: Faulkner's Journal was established by George Faulkner, "a 
man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 
1728. — Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers, 

* The full title is, "No. 50, The English Mercuric, published by authoritie, for the prevention 
of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describee 
the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this 
month, between her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirallw 
the Lordes of council." 

[It. is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this paper was a forgery, and thai 
Sie first English paper was the Weekley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.] 



502 the .corld's progress [ an 

is the Freeman's Journal, founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about the year 
1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest 
of the provincial prints, was established in ll&S.—Idem. 

NEY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince 
of the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of 
France. After the abdication of Napoleon. 5th April, 1814, he took the oath 
of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France 
from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded 
the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris. 
March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he 
fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five 
horses having been shot under him, untd night and defeat obliged him to 
fly. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guar- 
anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken 
in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to 
trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of 
Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced 
to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly 
fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. 

NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by 
the first general council held there in the palace of Constantine the Great. 
In this celebrated council, which assembled a. d. 325, the Arians were con- 
demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set- 
tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter. 

NILE, Battle of the. One of the greatest in British naval history, between 
the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora- 
tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the 
celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, 
two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called 
the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of 
baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
" Victory or Westminster-abbey !" 

NILE. SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, 
in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives 
no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the 
source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of 
Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 
1773. This river overflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to 
the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to 
the land ; and it must rise' 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the 
inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were 
drowned, and immense property lost. 

NIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between 
France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his- 
tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the 
British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 : but were 
defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov, 8, following. 

NITRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by- 
Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav- 
endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. 
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid, 
nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gaa 
was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gas was discov- 
ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 



NOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 503 

NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they 
had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to 
distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to 
have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first 
granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of 
Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de- 
graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his utter want ol 
property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained ia 
June 1773. See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also 
Peerage 

MOBILITY of FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and 
continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period 
of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered- 
itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
marquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; 
that all citizens take their family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings, 
shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol- 
umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV.. June 25, 1792. A 
new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary 
peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1881. See France 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conform- 
ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen 
and dissenters. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship 
and form of church-government which are established and supported by the 
state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their 
own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, ^as established 
at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con- 
. formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity had passed, 
August 24, a. d. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re- 
signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. 

NON-JURORS, in ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James II. was un- 
justly deposed, and who. upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to 
the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several 
of the bishops, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a 
double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates, May 1723. 

NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by 
the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed 
a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in 
1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. 
The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was 
amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to 
England in 1790. 

NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, 
by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle- 
ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay, 
on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest 
penal colony of Great Britain. 

tfORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen- 
tury this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called 
Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles 
the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, a. d. 905 to 912, 
and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo was the first 
duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his suc- 
cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, conquered England, w 



)04 



xxiE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[NOP 



1066, from which time it became a province of England, till it was lost in 
the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. The 
English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which 
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 

NORTH-WEST PA.SSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage was 
made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted 
by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen 
Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and 
was called the "Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." 
The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British 
navigators, in the years respectively stated : — 



Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to 
find a north-west passage to China, 
sailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553 
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find 

a north-west passage to China - 1576 

Captain Davis's expedition to find a 

north-west passage - • - 1585 

Barentz's expedition - - ■ 1594 

Weymouth and Knight's - - 1602 

Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken 

(See Hudson's Bay.) ■ - - 1610 

Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 

Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay - - 1616 

Foxe's expedition - - - - 1631 

[A number of enterprises undertaken 

by various countries, followed.] 
Middleton's expedition - - • 1742 

Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746 

Hearne's land expedition - - 1769 

Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- 

grave, his expedition - - - 1773 

Captain Cook in the Resolution and 

Discovery - • ■ July 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition - - - 1789 

Captain Duncan's voyage - - 1790 

The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- 
turned from a voyage of survey and 
discovery on the north-west coast of 
America - - Sept. 24, 1795 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 
Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's 

expedition in the Dorothea and Trent 1818 
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the 

Isabella and Alexander • ■ 1818 

Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla 

and Griper ■ - May 4, 1819 

They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820 

Capts. Parry and Lyon, in the Fury 

and Hecla - ■ - May 8, 1821 

Capt. Parry's third expedition with the 

Hetla - - - May 8, 1824 

Capts. Fianklin and Lyon, after having 
attempted a land expedition, again 
sail from Liverpool • Feb. 16, 1825 



Captain Parry, again in the Hecla. 
sails from Deptlbrd - March 25, 1827 

And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 

Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re- 
turn from his arctic expedit. >n, after 
an absence of 'bur years, and when 
all hope of hi? return had been near- 
ly abandoned '- - Oct. 18, 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived 
at Liverpool from their perilous Arc- 
tic Land Expedition, after having 
visited the Great Fish River, and ex- 
amined its course to the Polar Seas 

Sept. 8, 1835 

Captain Back sailed from Chatham in 
command of His Majesty's ship Ter- 
ror, on an exploring adventure to 
Wager River. [Captain Back, in 
the month of Dec. 1S35, was award- 
ed, by the Geographical Society, the 
king's annual premium for his polar 
discoveries and enterprise June 21, 1836 

Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- 
vening space between the discover- 
ies of^Ross and Parry, and establish 
that there is a north-west passage 

Oct. 1&39 

Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier in 
the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- 
land - - - May 24, 1845 

Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- 
lul expedition 1 in search of Franklin 1849 

Another expedition (one sent out by 
lady Franklin) in search of sir John 
Franklin, consisting of two vessels, 
sailed from England, April-May 185C 

Still another, consisting of two vessels, 
the Advance and Rescue, liberally 
purchased for the purpose by Henry 
Grinnell, a New York merchant, and 
manned at Government cost from the 
U. S. navy, under command of lieut. 
de Haven, sailed from New York 

May 1850 



NORTH CAROLINA, one op the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- 
ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- 



* The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from RadclifTe, on his fatal voyage for 
discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where tha 
court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The- council and courtiers appeared 
st the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost tha 
noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parada 
was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice. and frozen t» 
death, on the coast of Lapland. — Hackluut 



KUL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 

secution, about 16(30. The district granted to lord Clarendon, who induced 
the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chiei 
magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. 
This constitution abolished, as defective, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- 
ed by the crown for £17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. 

NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- 
ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- 
cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The 
city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark 
in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden were 
united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- 
change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was 
proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two 
countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- 
navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of 
Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. 

NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notables of France was con- 
vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI., in 1788. The deranged state 
of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled 
Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any 
good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having 
lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. 
de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General 
were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, which 
see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish 
notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, 
in the first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a 
commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their 
authenticity in any other country. 

NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- 
ander, in the reign. of James I. of England, from whom it received the name 
of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed 
rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of 
Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745. and 1758 ; but was again confirmed 
to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces, in 1784 ; 
and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. 

NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its 
name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 
B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators 
(for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished 
to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
Csesar, and Augustus; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, 
" What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Csesars 1 " 

NOVI. Battle op, in which the French army commanded by Joubert was de- 
feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. 
Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several 
other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- 
trian and French armies, when the latter were signally defeated. January 8, 
1800. 

SALIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right 
22 



506 the world's PROGRESS, [ OJ.1 

claimed by South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature 
of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against tho 
Mullifiers, Dec. 10. A "State Rights" convention at Columbia, S, C, 
same day. Calhoun resigned the office of vice-president of the United 
States, Dec. 28, 1832. Nullification nullified by South Carolina convention in 
consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834. 

NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the 
Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge 
to the Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 
141 b. c. — Livy. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia 
was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The 
inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- 
ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu- 
mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely 
opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear 
arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the 
Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- 
gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on 
that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill 
and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all 
destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn the 
triumph of the conqueror. 

NUNCIO. A spiritual envoj r from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In 
early times they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of 
Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission 
to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- 
tion. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of 
St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in 
France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Du 
Fresnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald, 
king of Kent, 630. — Dugdalc's Monasticon Anglicanuin. See articles Abbeys 
and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, 
in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 
1790. 

O. 

DATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Gates was a wicked man, at one time chap- 
lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the seiwice for his immoral conduct, 
he became a lecturer in London ; and. in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- 
vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, 
Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, 
a. d. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James 
II.) and being found guilty, he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- 
ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685; 
but was pardoned, and a pension granted him, 1689. 

OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced 
by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rwpin. That administered to a 
judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first 
framed and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stowe's Chron. Of abjuration, 
being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- 
mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and 



OGT ~\ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 507 

abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William ill. 1701, 
Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528; and the words "So 
help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. 

OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of 
an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths 
to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a 
decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, 
the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths 
less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has 
left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients 
swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, 
for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those per- 
sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far abov<- 
any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair. — 
Ovid, fyc. 

OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of 
Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and 
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to 
their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; 
one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the 
pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 
14 b. c. 

OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the 
temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was 
another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at 
Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was 
at Alexandria, about 800 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel, 
1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. a. d. 
1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers mak« 
their calculations. 



First modern meridional instrument, 

by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540 
First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561 
Tyc.ho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - - 1576 
Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1657 
Royal (French) .... 1667 
Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 
Observatory at Nuremberg - • 1678 
At Utrecht 1690 



Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc- 
tion 171'. 

At Bologna - - - - - 1714 

At Petersburg .... 1725 
Oxford, Dr. Radcliffe - - • 1772 

Dublin, Dr. Andrews - - • 1783 

Cambridge, England - - - 1824 

Cambridge, Mass. 

New Haven • • - - - 

Cincinnati .... 



OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, 
and the tenth in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has 
still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which 
the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered 
it to be called Faustinus, in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus the 
emperor ; Commodus would have had it called Invicius ; and Doniitiau 
Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 

ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions 
accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps 
the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are 
those of the royal prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 
757 b. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; 
and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes 
were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species of writing 
is that of our court poets at this day. 

OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 
200 years, occurred 1764 b. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no othei 



508 THE world's PROGRESS. [ OMM 

than the universal deluge ; but according to some writers, if it at all oc- 
curred, it arose in the overflowing of one of the great rivers of the country. 
See Deluge. 
OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, 
April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- 
nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New 
Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature 
met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- 
necticut, was sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 
1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 
1802. Population in 1790, was 3,000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 
1830, 937,637; in 1840, 1,519,467. 

OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, 
about 1921 b. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and ajar full was 
the prize at the Panathena^an games. It was the custom of the Jews to 
anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid 
seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress, 
Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be 
resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the 
process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- 
tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. 

OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 

OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- 
piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus 
was successful c. the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in 
being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- 
riod of four 3 r ears was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year 
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 
772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 
740, &c. 

OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- 
tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every 
fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, 
now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those 
who were conquerors in these games were highly honored by their coun- 
trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of 
wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 
1307 b. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules ; and were revived 
by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufres?wy. 
)MENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having 
drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said 
to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- 
brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- 
four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were 
seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed 
that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pa:t of 
the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- 
dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature 
to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. 

OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the London 
circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named 
Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- 
bably originated in Paris, where they are now also very numerous. In New 



OFT J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



509 



York, Boston. &c., they Avere common as early as 1830. There were 4G5 
licensed in New York in 1849. 

OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of 
the custom of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and othei 
dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with 
. him, a. d. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the 
chief glory, of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- 
tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672. 
was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in 
London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build- 
ings, in 1692. The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel 
were performed in 1785, and they became general in several of the theatres 
a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gay's 
Beggar's Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive 
nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain 
refused to license for performance a second part of it, entitled " Polly." 
This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication 
with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200Z., 
whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400^. — Life of Gay. 

OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great 
mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the 
regulation of the Port-wine trade was established here in a. d. 1756. See 
article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by 
lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- 
guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- 
rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Portugal. 

OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of 
Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- 
tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley. and is now one of 
our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. 

[Jansen and Galileo have also been 

staled to be the inventors.] 
Cassegrainian reflector - - - 1621 

300 
280 



424 



Burning lenses known at Athens at 
least - - - -B.C. 

Two of the leading principles known 
to the Platonists - - - - 

First treatise on, by Euclid, about 

The magnifying power of convex glass- 
es and concave mirrors, and the pris- 
matic colors produced by angular 
glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 

Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy - - 120 

Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108 

Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- 
en by Roger Bacon, about - - 1280 

Spectacles (said to have been) invented 
by Salvinus Armanis, of Pisa, before 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been in- 
vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 

Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, 
about - - - - - 1571 

Telescope made by Jans-*: (who is said 
also to have invented the .-..icro- 
scope), about - K09 

[The same instrument constructed by 
Galileo, without using the produc- 
tion of Jansen] 

Astronomical telescope suggested by 
Kepler - - - - - 1611 

Microscope, according to Huygens, in- 
vented bv Drebbel, about - - 1621 



Law of refraction discovered by Snell- 

ius, about - - - a. d. 1624 

Reflecting telescope, James Gregory - 1663 

Newton - - 1666 

Motion and velocity of light discovered 

by Roemer, and after him by Cassini 1667 
[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 

millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained by Bartho- 

linus - - - - - 1669 

Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 

Telescopes with a single lens, by 

Tschimhausen, about - - - 1690 

Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 
Structure of the eye explained by Petit, 

about ----- 1700 
Achromatic telescope constructed by 

Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 
Constructed by Dollond, most likely 

without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope, 

erected at Slough - - - - 17S9 

Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) - 1807 

Ramage's reflecting telesccpe erected 

at Greenwich - • - - 1820 



OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been 
N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. n. 1538.— Nouv 
Diet. 



510 the world's progress. |_orb 

ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- 
mous was the oracle of Delphi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracle? 
were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what 
would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to 
mean the event that came to pass. Among the Jews there were several 
sorts of oracles ; as first, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God 
spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, 
visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep not 
awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when they were accompanied 
with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued 
with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; 
fifthly, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- 
ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but 
it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere ; Pardon. 

ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, 
and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- 
sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, 
and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of 
Nassau Dilembourg, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories 
in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey 
count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter 
and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other 
domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau 
family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau 
in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, 
landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his 
queen, the princess Mary, daughter of James II., April 11, 1689. 

ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio 
in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 
1732. 

ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear 
to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- 
viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. 

ORDEAL. ■ The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term 
signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences 
by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions 
taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the 
upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence 
the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women 
accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- 
nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would 
put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this 
day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- 
suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- 
footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry 
burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were 
judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used 
from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- 



' The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected 
were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course oi 
lature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or less into scalding water, which it" '>-n? 
brought out without hurt," they were taken to be innocent of the crime. 



ORR J DICTiONARY OF DATES. 511 

ished by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III., 1261. — Lmo Did. Ri/mer's 
F&dcra. 

ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and 
absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was 
to be clerk or priest. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and 
ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; 
and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- 
tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- 
culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. 

OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. 
First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca. 1592 ; by sir Francis 
Drake, 1578; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- 
tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, 
May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 
1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis. 1808 ; Pacific Fur 
Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth ol 
the Columbia, by Astor's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813 : 
occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of 
the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- 
ded at the 49th parrallel of lat., leaving all north of that line, with the whole 
of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. 
McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 
1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta- 
blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. 

ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 
220 b. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also at- 
tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The 
organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied 
to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellannine. Organs were 
used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. It 
is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, 
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an 
organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile 
off'; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount 
of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 
stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 pipes. 
The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human 
voices. 

ORGANS in England. That at York-minster is the largest ; and the organ in the 
Music-hall, Birmingham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. 

ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark 
to Scotland in a. d. 839. and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of 
money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of 
Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm 
by St. Cohn. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 
1689. 

ORLEANS, Siege of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, 
Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so aa 
its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it 
was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan 
of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege 
of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 

ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain 



512 the world's progress. [ova 

the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the 
construction of the clepsydrae and other horological automata. Ptolemy 
devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130, 
The planetary clock of Finde, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of 
De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called, was invented by 
Charles, earl of Orrery ; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. 
Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery bar 
been greatly improved of late years. 

'OSTEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spa- 
niards, from July 1601 to September 1604. when it surrendered by an honor- 
able capitulation. On the death of Charles II." of Spain the French seized 
Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the 
allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 
the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen 
Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend. which they 
evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. 

OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- 
tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' 
banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for 
fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without 
any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been 
first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed to Clys- 
thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they 
most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and 
presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
written was sentenced by the council to "he banished, ab aris etfocis. But 
this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- 
wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, 
Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing 
Hyperbolus, a mean person. 

OTAHEITE, or Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the 
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of 
Venus; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it 
was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, 
a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the 
district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- 
pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She 
retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by 
admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- 
zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. 

OTTERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl 
of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- 
glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- 
tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle 
the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — Walsingham. 

OITOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman I. 
on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. 

OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of 
their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re-. 
warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being 
consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the 
honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to be 
allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called 
ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the cap itoH, 



PAl j 



DICTIONARY OF DA1ES. 



513 



whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiua 
Tubertus \i as the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. 

OWHYHEE or HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered bj 
captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden 
resentment of the natives. A boat having- been stolen by one of the island- 
ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage 
till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- 
mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook 
and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to have been 
a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- 
vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though 
the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving 
the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. 

colleges. bishop of Winchester ; first called St. 

All Souls' College, founded by Henry Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 

Chichely, abp. of Canterbury a. d. 1437 Oriel Collc-ge. King Edward II. 



Baliol. John Baliol, knt., and Deborah 
his wife ; he was father to Baliol king 
of the Scots - - - -1263 

Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop 
of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 

Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525; 
and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 

Corpus Chrisii. Richard Fox, bishop 
or Winchester - - - - 1516 

Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- 
eter 1314 

Hertford College- - - -1312 

Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen 
Elizabeth - - - - - 1571 

Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 
1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop 
of Lincoln .... 1475 

Magdalen. Waynflete. bishop of Win- 
chester - - - - 1458 

Merton College. Walter de Merton, 
bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 

New College. William of Wykeham, 



Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 

Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. 
Whitwick, clerk - - - 162Q 

Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, 
clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, 
consort of Edward III. - - - 1340 

St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 

Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 155? 

University. Said to have been founded 
by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- 
liam of Durham - - -117V 

Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and 
Dorothy his wife - - - - 1612 

Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- 
ley in Worcestershire ; it was orig- 
inally called Gloucester College - 1714 

HALLS. 

St. Albans .... 1547 

St. Edmund's - - - - 1269 

St. Mary's .... 1616 

St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 

New Inn Hall .... 1392 



OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical 
phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
Aug. 1774. 

P. 



This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in 



PADLOCKS. 

a. d. 1540. 

PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- 
tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- 
lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure 
us they concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- 
lief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in tha 
reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tillemont. 

PAINTTNG. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. 
Osymandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting. 
2100 b. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a 
method of burning the colors into wood or ivory, 335 b. c. The ancients 
considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said 
io have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — PUnv. The art was 
22* 



514 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [PAl 

introduced at Rome from Etruria, by Quintus Fabius, who on that account 
was styled Pictor, 291 b. c. — Livy* The first excellent pictures were 
brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Augustus, 
not a single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint 
ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bcde, tha 
Saxon historian, who died in 735. knew something of the art. It revived 
about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is 
awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- 
erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother 
Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in' 
oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- 
tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which 
time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. 

PAINTING in the UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity 
was John Watson (born in Scotland. 1685), who commenced painting por- 
traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in 
Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist ; born in 
Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708: painted his first portrait in Lancaster, 
Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in 
1760.- he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. 
Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode 
Island, 1754). John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (New 
Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists 
in succession in the United States. See Dunlap' s Arts of Design, &c. 

PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, 
Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. 
Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy 
of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. 

PALATINES and SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from 
the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived 
in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a 
brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under the 
protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, 
Where parliament granted them 24 0001. for their support. 3000 were sent 
to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the 
inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged 
by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss 
Protectants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 
Anne, 1709. — Anderson. 

PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- 
gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus. as he was build- 
ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the 
oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium 
was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, 
they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. p., though 
some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that 
the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^Eneas, 1183 B.C., 

* Parrhasius a f Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary painters. These artists once contended 
for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds 
came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and 
Zeuxis said, "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the 
painting, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, " Zeuxis has deceived' 
the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis !" Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, W.d wore 
n crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 b. c. — Plutarch. 



TAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 515 

and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of 
Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. 
PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, 
multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took 
branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations 
and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish 
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm 
Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in theit 
hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga 
palmata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. 

PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English 
travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly 
of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than 
even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- 
ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman 
power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the 
place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the 
city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 
1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, 
on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent 
sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were 
so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed 
to touch one another. 

PALO- ALTO, Battle of. See Battles: 

PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 
504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amain, a. d. 1137 ; 
they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library 
of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectce Florentine. 

PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention 
of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper 
round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. 
In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the 
first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- 
don, having adopted the name of ' Panorama' to attract notice, and was 
ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for 
that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, 
a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent 
in dimensions, completed about 1846 ; since which numerous similar works 
have been achieved. 

PANTHEON at ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by 
Agrippa. his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in 
the wall, where the particular image or representation of a particular god 
was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and 
the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the 
Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de, la Rotunda. 

PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among 
the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
Bathyllus, 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of 
stage performances. — Usher. Pantomime dances were introduced about the 
same time. — Idem. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- 
poraneous with our stage. 

PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170 
b.c. It was first made of cotton, about a. e. 1000; and of rags in 1319. 
White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford. 



'516 the world's PROGRESS. [ f Aft 

in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were erected.— 
Stuwe. Paper for writing and printing, manufactured in England, and an 
act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690; before this time we paid 
for these articles to France and Holland 100.000Z. annually. The French 
refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- 
clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 
1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis 
Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. 
The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, 
he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- 
turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made 
tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 13,800 feet long, and 
four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. 

PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain 
and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- 
ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved 
in this country from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been 
brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil- 
lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen yards for one shilling. 

PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and 
India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c. 
Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- 
gamus should make a library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript 
of the Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among 
the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library 
at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. 

PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), 
of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on 
the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this 
time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the 
world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the 
Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long 
before Eumenes's time. 

TARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward 
III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege 
sua. dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, 
stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; 
hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- 
tages of a monarchy above any other form of government. But the king 
cannot pardon a nuRance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- 
vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- 
ment of the House of Commons. — Haydn. In the United States, the par- 
doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice 
which upsets Blackstone's theory. 

PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 
264 b. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Paros, a. d. 
1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university 
of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
Arundelian Marbles, which see. 

PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- 
ship. It began to be called the city of the Parish, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed 
upon it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- 
vaged by the Normans ; and in 1420 was taken by the English, who held it 
fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, 
when the hungry wolves entered the city and committed, we are told, great 



par] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 517 



The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594 

Hospital of Invalids - - -1595 

The Hotel Dieu founded - - • 1603 

The Palais-Royal built - . - 1610 

The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1645 

Arch of St. Denis erected - - 1673 

The Palace of the Deputies • • 1723 

The Military School - - • 1751 

The Pantheon ; St. GenevieTa - - 1764 



devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found 
under their respective heads. 

St. Denis founded - - A. d. 613 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 

The Louvre built (see Louvre) - - 1522 

Hotel de Ville .... 1533 

The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents - - 1551 

' The Tuileries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 

The Pont Neuf begun - - -1578 

Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, 
and detached forts, with an enceinte of 15^ leagues, were commenced in Dec. 
1840. and completed March. 1846, at an expense exceeding £5,000,000 ster- 
ling. See France. 

PARK. MUNGO, h.'s Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first 
voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the 
source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after 
having encountered great clangers, without his journey through intertropi- 
cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- 
pointed to a new expedition by government; but never returned. The ac- 
counts of his murder on the Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily 
however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. 
It-appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, 
and all killed, with the exception of one slave. 

PARKS. The Remans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus. Pom- 
pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first 
great park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, 
formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen- 
tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained 
by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare 
for public, use 1668. The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River 
although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, 
by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired 
of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would 
cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, 
your majesty.' 1 She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- 
tained. 

PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, op GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin 
from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu- 
tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken 
from parler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's 
mind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name 
was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, 
about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared 
in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I., a. d. 
1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, 
when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of 
Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- 
rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account wo 
have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was 
in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, 
that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three 
parliaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's 
Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 



518 THii WuKLffS TKuGKESb. j_JP&» 

place 49 Henry III., 1265. — DugdaWs Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. 
The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, 
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. 
It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing 
laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done 
in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the 
religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VHL, Edward 
VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke. 
PARMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- 
centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth 
Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, 
with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801, Parma was afterwards uni- 
ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon 
was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- 
bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma: the confederates, England, France, 
and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, 
June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon- 
ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 men, and four 
generals, July 12, 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of 
Lucca succeeds by previous compact. The new duke refuses petitions for 
reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people 
revolt ; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency ; 
flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, 
March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and 
is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. 

PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not 
being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius 
having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed 
him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and 
an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp 
reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus 
wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In 
France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. 

PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being 
exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. 
Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over 
all Asia, 250 b. c; and at one time the Parthians disputed the empire of the 
world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, 
who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arms. The 
last king was Artabanus V.. who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were 
annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. 

PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, 
for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698 ; and the 
second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke 
Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- 
ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the 
first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the 
second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year; the third 
was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There were other 
similai treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. 

PASQUIN ADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in 
this way : — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of 
idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and 
to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at 
the expense of *he passers -by. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth 



century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- 
ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons 
upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at 
night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the 
name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533. 

PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem- 
oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- 
parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp- 
tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they 
being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before, 
and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. It was celebrated in 
the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c. — Usher. 

PATAY, Battle op, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the 
Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was 
taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence 
of this victory, Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full 
armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. 

PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted 
for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They were 
first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about 
which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures 
were secured by letters patent. 

PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity 
among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian 
church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa- 
triarchs till the 7th century. 

PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the 
world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church 
is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been 
a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, 
was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He 
explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church 
is supposed to ha*ve been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and 
to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantine. This was demolished by 
the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It was destroyed by the 
great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London, 
commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present 
cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; 
and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the 
whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo- 
pher Wren. 

Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. I Length of St. Peter's, Borne - 669 feet. 
Its greatest breadth - - 223 Its greatest breadth within - - 442 

Height from the ground - - 340 | Height from the ground - - 432 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved 
their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave- 
ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and 
was constructed 312 B. c. In England there were few paved streets before 
Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood 
pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847. 

PAVIA, Battle of, between the French and Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with ht roic valor, 



520 TTJE WORLTj's PROGRESS. [ PET; 

and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender 
himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of 
the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived 
in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdu, madame, fori 
Vhonneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian 
soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. 

PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- 
posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about 
a. d. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers 
was regulated 30 George II., 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George III., 
1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively 
of London, 1127. 

PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- 
dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and 
absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 
80,000/. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size 
of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13.996Z. A pearl 
spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal 
to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of 
Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 
110,400Z. 

PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz 
Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first 
peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
Richard II.. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by 
Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
Kinsale, &c. in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by 
Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — 

At the death of Charless II. - 176 peers. I At the death of George III. - 339 peers. 

At the death of William III. - 192 | At the death of George IV. - 396 

At the death of Anne - - 209 I At the death of William IV. • 456 

At the death of George I. .' 216 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 

At the death of George II. . 229 | 

PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect 
maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
sinned or not, would certainty have died. 2. That the consequences of 
Adams sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are 
in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified 
men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with 
the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in 
virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at 
Rome, and in Carthage about 412. 

PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. 
The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wil- 
son, 1783. The king. Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after 
of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over 
his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty- 
seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, 
with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting 
of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It 
began 431 b. c. and ended 404 b. c. 



FER J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 

PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. The laws enacted against 
Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even up to the 
period of passing the Emancipation Bill many of them remained unre- 
pealed. All the laws there against Roman Catholics were repealed by the 
Relief Bill, passed April 18, 1829. 

PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted 
in the love, of God attended with good works. They made a confession 
upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of 
penance in proportion to the crimes committed. Penance was introduced 
into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- 
judged to the sin of fornication. 

PENDULUMS for Clocks. Affirmed to have been adapted by Galileo the 
younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this 
discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.- 
Dufrcsnoy. 

PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- 
ettes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Mar- 
seilles, about a. d. 1272. The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- 
gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 
1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 
1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William 
Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes 
and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acres 
sold by Penn for £400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. 
The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the 
legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors .£130,000 in lieu of quit- 
rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac- 
tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal 
Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental 
Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, 
when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 j 
1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1,724,033. 

PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- 
holsterer, a. d. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the 
undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's 
Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke 
of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to 
the revenue of the crown. — Delaune, 1690. This institution was considera- 
bly improved in and round London, July 1794. et seq., and was made a two- 
penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774. See Post- 
office. 

PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and 
in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty 
days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast 
of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the 
Passover. 

PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known te 
the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses 
and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. 
— Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- 
gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- 
ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- 
tioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 



522 the world's PROGRESS. [ PES 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle about 
342 b. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- 
totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same 
river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the 
Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- 
sophy was called Peripatetic. 

PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early 
Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the 
Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- 
sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable 
judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon 
them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely 
upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the 
primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the 
false-swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. 

PERONNE, Treaty op. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the 
power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re- 
strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. 

PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon 
ten. The first under Nero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium 
of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, 
massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn 
and devoured by dogs ; others were crucified, and numbers burned alive, 
a. d. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- 
jan, a. d. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor 
Severus, 197. The 6th. under Maximums, 235. The 7th, under Decius, 
more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their 
habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 
8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under 
Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with 
Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. 

PERSECUTIONS op the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. 

PERSECUTION op the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude 
of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.— 
Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and La- 
timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great 
numbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the 
Protestants in France, when numbers perished ; their assemblies were pro- 
hibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys 
proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- 
testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of 
their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. 
See Massacres and Bartholomew. 

PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire 
was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per- 
seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps 
established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject 
to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian 
monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c, it 
appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from 
the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when 



PET ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



523 



Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian 
monarchy, a. d. 229. 



Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of 
the Magi. — Justin - B. c. 2115 

Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- 
nerally confounded with the king of 
Bactria. — Zanthus ... 1082 

Cyrus, king of Persia • - - 560 

Lydia conquered by the Persians - 548 
Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 
Cambyses conquers Egypt {which see) 525 
Darius made king of Persia - - 522 

Revolt of the Babylonians - - - 512 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498 
Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with 
an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade 
the Peloponnesus - - - 490 

The troops advance towards Athens, but 
are met in the plains of Marathon, by 
Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- 
nians. — See Marathon ■ - 490 
Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of 
this year, at the head of an immense 
force. The battle of Thermopylae - 480 
Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 
200,000 of his troops, and is defeated 
in a naval engagement off Salamis - 480 
Cymon, son of Miliiades, with a fleet of 
250 vessels, takes several cities from 
the Persians, and destroys their navy, 
consisting of 340 sail, near the island 
of Cyprus -• - - - 470 
Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- 

ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 465 

The assassin is put to death in a horrible 

manner ----- 465 

Reign of Artaxerxes - - - 464 

Cyprus taken from the Persians - 449 

Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See 

article Retreat - - - - 401 



The sea-fight near Cuidus - - 394 

The Sidonians being besieged by the 
Persians, set fire to their city, and perish 
in the flames - - - 351 

Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first 
battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra- 
nicus 

[For the exploits of Alexander »n Per- 
sia, see the article Mocedon.] 

Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is 
torn in pieces 

Alexander founds the third or Grecian 
monarchy 

Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, 
at the instance of his mistress Thais, 
sets fire to the palace of Persepolis 

[The riches of this town, whose ruins, 
even as they exist at this day, are of 
indescribable magnificence, were so 
immense that 20,000 mules 'and 5000 
horses were laden with the spoils.] 

Persia was partly reconquered from the 
Greeks, and remained tributary to 
Parthia for near five hundred years, 
till about 

Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a 
common soldier, restores to Persia its 
ancient title 

Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant 

He is assassinated 

Hormisdas reigns 

Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel 
and successful tyrant - 

Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 

It fell under the dominion of Tamer- 
lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 

Reign of Thamas Kouli Khan - - 1732 

He carried the Persian arms into India, 
which he ravaged. See India - 1738 



• 334 



331 

331 



330 



250 



229 
238 

273 
273 

310 



In 1747, Ahmed AMalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, com- 
petitors for the throne of Persia sprung up and caused a period of slaughtei 
and desolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. 

PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- 
niard i, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest 
of th,.s country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, 
with i ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, 
which however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three 
small vessels, 140 infantry, and thirtj'-six horses ; with these, and two re- 
inforce) nents of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid 
the foLidation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New 
World. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the 
Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any 
attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- 
dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new 
Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 
21, 1828. 

PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the "West Saxons, to the pope at 
Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, 
because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on 
all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they 
paid one penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed 



524 the world's PROGRESS. [ PHA 

by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- 
pressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. 
PETER, the WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Herts- 
wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, 
and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- 
posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark 
of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the 
many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage 
habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, 
at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- 
pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 

PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About 
the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- 
nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, 
until a. d. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, 
and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious 
hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St. 

PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched 
wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; 
and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the foundation of a 
house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial 
city of Petersburgh ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels 
were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. 
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- 
sumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. 
The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. 

PETERSBURGH, Peace of, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring 
all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh, 
for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug. 5, 1772 
Treaty of Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. 
Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince 
royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join 
in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive 
Norway, March 24, 1812. 

PETRARCH and LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- 
teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- 
mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject 
of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned 
with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at 
Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 

PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx 
consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and speara 
crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called 
the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c. 

PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- 
brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended 
to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The 
admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri 
tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii. 9. 



PB'l 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 525 



PHAROS at ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptoieniy Philadelphia, and 
esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white 
marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires 
were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this 
.ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100Z. English, if 
Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon 
it; — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but 
Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote 
the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's 
name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible ; — 
'•' Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for 
the benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. 

PHARSALIA, Battle op, between Julius Csesar and Pompey, in which the for- 
mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its 
consequences. Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200. 
Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25.000 according to others, and 24.000 of his 
army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror, May 12, 48 b. c. After 
this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, by or- 
der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on 
the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that 
way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA, City op. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo. 
ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay 
in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia- Minor and first laid out with a view 
to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- 
sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or "Continental" Congress at 
Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 
4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken 
by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- 
tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a 
constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. 
Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established 
here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. 
Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96 664; in 1830, 
167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423. 

PHILIPPI, Battle op, between Octavius Ca?sar and Marc Antony on one side, 
and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former 
obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who 
commanded the right wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care 
of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him 
through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- 
ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself 
surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He however made his escape, and 
soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b.g. 
— Bossuet. 

PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- 
mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero's Orations (the 
second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which 
latter cost Cicero his life, 43 e. c. 

PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- 
pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- 
ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. 

PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- 
tory, which is only the Knowledge of facts ; or U mathematics, which is th« 



526 the world's PROGRESS. J PHT 

knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon which 
natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of 
philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. 
See Moral Philosophy. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and their 
schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy has 
undergone four great changes : — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and 
superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason 
and poetry, by the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- 
nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa- 
tion, taught by Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided 
between the two last. 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which 
some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all 
imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- 
ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- 
petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have 
cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a long time, 
without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in 
relation to this subject, see Alchemy. 

PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured 
it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from 
bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 
1670, and by the hon. Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos- 
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- 
lier ; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Ganton's 
phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- 
drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. 

PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod- 
ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology . Dr. Spurzheim 
improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- 
nological Society has been established in London. 

PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- 
tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed 
to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- 
ting. — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen 
a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which 
he covered it, restored the inanimate body of Glaucus in the same manner. 
— Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; " and 
the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, 
and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands 
of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it 
from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the 
formation of diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medi- 
cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine 
and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 
131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery 
of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new 
system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. 

PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching 
from an atom to God himself. It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of 
the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and 
effects. Mr. Locke would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. 
The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi ana Hebrew and 
Egyptian priests. From these it was derived to the Greek sages, particu- 
larly Thales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 



PIG ' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 527 

b. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic 
schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. 

PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- 
sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy 
or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason oi 
the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it 
is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- 
ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. 
Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see. 

PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are 
discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term ia 
referred to Aristotle; Cicero was attached to the science. It became a 
fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the 
last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. 
Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck 
with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at 
which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. 

PIANO-FORTE Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- 
ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, 
G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes 
with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- 
strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by 
Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were 
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since 
greatly improved by others here. 

PICHEGRUS, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable 
conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau 
arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- 
fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 
6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- 
ticle Georges, &c. 

PICQUET, The Game ok, the first known game upon the cards, invented by 
Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mezerai. See ar- 
ticle Cards. 

PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about 
the time that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebuda?, or Western Isles. 
They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands 
and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d, 
838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized 
all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the 
Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures was 
purchase! by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740b. c. 
See Painting. 

PIGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The 
ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when 
they took a long journey, and were desirous of sending back any news with 
uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought 
proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- 
ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its 
flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to 
his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at iEgina a 



528 the world's progress. [pji 

pigeon stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded \>J 
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted 
were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and 
Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- 
don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them 
arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the 
remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. 

PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, 
but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many 
licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 
7 Henry VI., 1428. 

PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- 
mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, 
that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with 
them for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- 
victed of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the head was put 
through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded 
with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It was in use in En- 
gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, 
by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and 
putrid offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, 
in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 
1837. 

PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- 
tutes a. d. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France 
in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- 
bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and 
skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — 
Stowe. 

PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, 
on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, 
stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of 
white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with 
a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side 
from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 
188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have 
been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the 
architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another 
cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that 
side. 

PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the 
saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, 
&c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 
1544. 

PrrCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by 
Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the 
ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or 
rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the 
Bounty. 

PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The, first administration of this illustrious states- 
man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry {which see), Dec. 
27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right 
honorable William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died 



PhA ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



529 



Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still 
loftier pre tensions, and lie departed life in possession of the esteem of a 
large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral was decreed to his ho- 
nor by parliament, and a grant of £40,000 to pay his debts. 

PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called 
Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This nama 
was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- 
ly to have his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also 
been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it in 

A. D. 142. 

PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrifying 
locusts." — Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the 
world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible 
that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ba- 
ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off a hundred 
thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it 
spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. 
Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 
2000 persons every day. 188 b. c. Pliny. 



At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- 
sons perish daily, a. d. 78. 

The same fatal disease again ravaged the 
Roman empire, a. d. 167. 

In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, 
and swept away such multitudes, that the 
living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 
dead, a. d. 430. 

A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- 
tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is 
said did not cease for many years. Univ. 
Hist. 

At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- 
habitants perished, A. D. 746. 

[This plague raged for three years, and was 
equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and 
Greece.] 

At Chichester in England, an epidemical 
disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — 
Will. Malms. 

In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a 
pestilence, A. d. 954. 

In London, a great mortality, a. d. 1094 ; 
and in Ireland, 1095. 

Again in London : it extended to cattle, 
fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. 
— Holings. 

In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry 
II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. 

Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
perished, 1204. 

A general plague raged throughout Europe, 
causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- 
tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In 
London alone, 200 persons were buried 
daily in the Charterhouse yard. 

In Paris and London a dreadful mortality 
prevailed in 1362 and 1367 ; and in Ire- 
land, in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland, called the 
fourth, destroyed a great number of the 
"people, 13S3. 

SO,OG0 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- 
lence in London, 1407. 

Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- 
ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; aijd Dub- 
lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. 

23 



An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; ana 
throughout England a plague which de- 
stroyed more people than the continual 
wars for the fifteen preceding years, 147S. 
— Rapin ; Salmon. 

The awful Sudor Anglicus, or sweating 
sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — 
Delnune. 

The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- 
ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 
1500.— Stowe. 

Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in 
three hours).. In most of the capital 
towns in England half the inhabitants 
died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 H. 
VIII., 1517.— Stowe. 

Limerick was visited by a plague, when 
many thousands perished, 1522. 

A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and 
the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence 
in Dublin, 1575. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in 
London alone, 1603-1604. It was also 
fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- 
tinople, in 1611. 

In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 
35,417 persons perished, 1625. 

In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons 
60,000 persons died, 1632. 

The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- 
ples (being introduced by a transport with 
soldiers on board), raged with such vio- 
lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- 
ants in six months, 1656. 

Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 
persons in London, 1665. 

[Fires were kept up night and day to r urify 
the air for three days ; and it is thought 
the infection was not totally destioyed till 
the great conflagration of 1666.] 

60,000 persons persons perished of the 
plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, 
brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. 

One of the most awful plagues that evet 
raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abo. 
Mariti 



530 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, [ PLA 



bers were carried off by a pestilent dis- 
ease in 1801 and 1805. 

Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, much 
resembling the plague, caused grtat mor> 
tality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see C/tolera) 1832, 
1834, 1849. 



PLAGUE, continued. 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried 

off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassorah, 

1773. 
In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died 

of plague, 1792. 
In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 

247,000 perished, 1799. 
In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- 

PLAGUES op EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although 
he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display 
of wrath upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated the 
plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c, In this year the king, named by some Amen- 
ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red 
Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lenglet. 

PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry 
II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {ivhich see), 1485. Anti- 
quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation ; and the 
best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of 
that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- 
grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement ; where being scourged with 
broom twigs, growing on the spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or 
Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. 

PLASTER op PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- 
ing likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about 
a. d. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, 
whence it obtained its name. 

PLATiEA, Battle op, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of 
Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian 
army consisted of .300 000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their 
lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few 
men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen 
Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The 
plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was immense. Pau- 
sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor 
during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their 
respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same 
day as the battle of Mycale, 479 b. c. ; and by it Greece was totally deliver- 
ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account 
of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia 
dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. 

PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely 
traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in 
public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act 
passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty 
upon plate passed in 1784. 

PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and 
gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from 
the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery 
color. It was unknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio 
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — 
Greig. 

PLATTSBURGH. on Lake Champlain, New York, Battle op; 14,000 British 
troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet 
on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. 



POE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 531 

PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece 
and Rome. Plays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 e. c. j 
but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The 
Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a 
proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The 
plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 
20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, went 
with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The 
plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. 
The funeral plays were plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their 
ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays 
were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company 
of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, 
and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 
1574. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See 
Drama. 

PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- 
French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued un- 
til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to 
De taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the 
courts of law till 1731. 

POET LAUR.EAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. 
The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 
1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- 
lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on 
his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth 
year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 
marks; and in 1630. this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles 
I. to 100/. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary 
Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 

NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OF Q.UEEN ELIZABETH. 



Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, 

who died - - - a. d. 1598 

Samuel Daniel, died - - - 1619 

Ben Jonson, died - - - 1637 

Sir William Da venant, died - -1668 

John Dryden ; he was deposed at the 

revolution .... 1688 
Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 



Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716 

The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 

Colley Gibber, died - - - - 1757 

William Whitehead, died - - 1785 

Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 
Henry James Pye, died- - -1813 

Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 
William Wordsworth, died - - 1850 

The present laureate is Tennyson. 
POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest 
species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and 
the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, 
and before painting in description. — Hazlitt. The exact period of the in- 
vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptural history, the song of Moses on 
the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, 
is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- 
lime. — Exodus xv. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed 
the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 
b. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, nourished 
about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by 
Archilochus, 700 b. c.—Dil Fresnoy. For odes, see article Odes. We are 
told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to 
England by Aldhelm» or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close oi 
the seventh century. 



532 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



f POI, 



POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning 
their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave 
denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maxim us, who ordered them to be pub- 
licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge 
they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there were some re- 
markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death. 

POITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John 
king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of 
France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. 
The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through 
which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two tings, 
prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- 
rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory. 
Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. 

POLAND, Anciently, the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it tc 
invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550; 
and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the 
emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- 
ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its 
political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king 
formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was afterwards removed to Pe- 
tersburgh, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till his death in 
1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. 



Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- 
cal dignity - - - a. d. 842 
[Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his 
reign was so prosperous that every 
succeeding native sovereign was call- 
ed a Piast.] 
Introduction of Christianity - - 992 
Red Russia added to Poland - - 1059 
Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of 
Cracow with his own hands ; his 
kingdom laid under an interdict by 
the pope, and his subjects absolved 
of their allegiance - - -1080 
He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is 
refused it by order of Gregory VII., 
and he at length kills himself - 1081 
Uladislaus deposed - - - 1102 
Premislaus assassinated- - - 1295 
Louis of Hungary elected king - - 1370 
War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 
The Wallachians treacherously carry 
off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to 
the Turks as slaves - - - 149S 
Splendid reign of Sieismund II. - 1548 
Stephen forms a militia composed of 
Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom 
he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 



Abdication of John Casimir - -1669 

Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 
Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 
He abolishes torture - - - 1770 

An awful pestilence sweeps away 

250,000 of the people - - - 1770 

The evils of civil war so weaken the 
kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the 
royal plunderers, the empress of 
Russia, emperor of Austria, and king 
of Prussia - - - -1772 

The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 

The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 
A new constitution is formed by the 

virtuous Stanislaus - - May 3, 1791 

[The royal and imperial spoliators, on 
various pretexts, pour their armies 
into Poland, 1792, et seq.] 
The brave Poles, under Poniatowski 
and Kosciusko, several times contend 
successfully against superior armies, 
but in the end are defeated. Kosci- 
usko, wounded and taken, is carried 
prisoner to Russia - - - 1754 

Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 
Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 

[Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- 



* An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- 
viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; butm per- 
mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and 
Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia ; yet they now^conspired against a 
country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a 
scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives! Russia seized Lithuania, 
and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of tha 
provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ■ and Prussia secured the maritime districts. 
The most extraordinary circumstance attending this affair was the total inaction of the two grta! 
powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by polio/ 
us well as justice, and deplored by the jood and brave among mankind. — Haydn. 



POL 1 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



533 



POLAND, continued. 

eru 30,000 PoTss of all ages and condi- 
tions in cold blood.] 
Courland is annexed to Russia - • 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- 
tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 
Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, 

Fen. 12, 179S 
Treaty of Tilsit (which see) - July 7, 1807 
[The central provinces form the duchy 
of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] 
General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 

New constitution - - Nov. 1815 

Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 

Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; 
the army declare in favor of the peo- 
ple - - - Nov. 29, 1830 
The Diet declares the throne of Poland 

vacant - - - Jan. 25, 1831 

Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the 



Russians lose 7CH.0 men ; the Poles, 
who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 

Battle of Ostrolenka; signal defeat of 
the Russians - - May 26, 1831 

The Russian, Diebitsch, dies June 10, 183] 

Grand Duke Constantine dies, June 27, 1831 

Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) July 14, 1831 

Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 183! 

[This last fatal event terminated the 
nemorable and glorious, but unfor- 
tunate struggle of the Poles. ] 

Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, 
decreeing that the kingdom of Poland 
shall henceforth form an integral part 
of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 

A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march 
on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1846 

Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and 
the treaty which had made it inde- 
pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1846 

Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1848 



DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. 



t D. 550 

700 



750 
760 

804 
810 
815 
830 
842 
861 
892 
913 
964 
999 
1025 
1041 
1058 
i082 
1102 

•:40 

1145 

1173 
1178 
1194 
1200 



1203 
1206 



1228 
1279 



Lechus I. His posterity held the 
dukedom for about 150 years. 

Cracus I. 

Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. 

Lechus II., deposed. 

Venda, drowned herself. 

Premislaus. who on being elected was 
named Lescus or Less. 

Lescus II., killed by the French. 

Lescus III. 

Popiel I. 

Popiel II. 

Piastus, a country peasant. 

Zemovitus. 

Lescus IV. 

Zemomislaus. 

Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. 

Boleslaus 1, surnamed the Intrepid. 

Miecislaus II. , went mad. 

Casimir the Pacific. 

Boleslaus II., killed himself. 

Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus. 

Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-moulh. 

Uladislaus II., fled. 

Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 

Miecislaus III., deposed. 

Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 

Lescus V., relinquished. 

Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a 
few months restored Lescus V. ; but 
for bad conduct he was again forced 
to relinquish the government. 

Uladislaus III. ; he voluntarily retired. 

Lescus V., a third time, being chosen 
by the nobles, assassinated ; suc- 
ceeded by his son, an infant. 

Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 

Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son 
of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 
died 1289. An interregnum of five 
years, when the Poles chose 



1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- 

sassinated. 

1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus; 

he refused the title of king ; deposed. 

1300 Winceslaus. 

1306 Uladislaus IV., again. 

1333 Casimir the Great, kiHed by a fall 
from his horse, while hunting. 

1370 Lewis, king of Hungary, succeeded by 
his daughter, 

1383 Hedwigis,"who married, in 

13S5 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- 
braced the Christian religion, and 
took the name of 
Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to 
Poland. 

1434 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 

1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 

1447 Casimir IV. 

1492 John Albert. 

1502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 

1507 Sigismund I. 

1548 Sigismund II., Augustus, chose 

1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue 
ceeding to the French throne. 

1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- 
vania. 

1587 Sigismund III., son to the king oj 
Sweden. 

1632 Uladislaus VII. 

1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 

1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 

1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter 
regnum for a year. 

1698 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re- 
sign. 

1704 Stanislaus I., Leczinsky, forced to re 
tire in 1710. 

1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 

1733 Stanislaus I., again. 

1733 Frederick Augustus III. 
I 1764 Stan*';ausAugustus resigns the crown 



So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old men 
when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. 



POLAR 

sage, 



REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pa* 



534 the world's PROGRESS. [ POM 

POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
stellation called the Little Bear; its nearness to the North Pole causes it ne- 
ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the 
seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese 
to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned ' 
and flourished 1970 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 

POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- 
riods. Its jurisdiction was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 
1640 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The 
London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The 
London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by st&'i ute, 
June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1840, in introducing a 
suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but 
we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the 
world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and 
useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but 
preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A 
science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. 
Its history may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth 
of Notions. 1776. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or 
the well regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cun- 
ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — 
Henault. 

POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- 
bellion *f Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler), 1381. It was 
again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed 
by the head, viz. — a duke 100Z., a marquis 80£., a baronet 30Z., a knight 20Z., 
an esquire 10Z., and every single private person 12d., 1667. This grievous 
impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. 

POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. 
It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and 
Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who 
took two wives ; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- 
dius a. d. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. 
In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- 
fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See 
Marriages. Polygamy forms an ai'ticle of the Mormon Creed. 

POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan- 
guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible 
termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 ; 
the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three eo- 
pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483Z. 
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printed 
at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- 
ris, by Le Jay, it 10 vols, folio, 1628^5. The fourth in London, printed by 
Bryan Walton, in t vols, folio, 1657. — Brunet. 

POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished 
by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed 
up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the 
night of the 24th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happen- 
ed at the. time to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles weie 



pop] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



535 



exhibited, The ashes buried the whole" city, and covered the surrounding 
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, acountrjanan, as he was turning 
up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- 
ing the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous produc- 
tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. 
Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried 
city; the part first cleared was supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. 

fONDICHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by 
the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and 
was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in 
January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- 
tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803. 

PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a 
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- 
tus Euxinus) is very obscure. Artabazes was made king of Pontus fty Darius 
Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of 
the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. 



Artabazes made king of Pontus by Da- 
rius Hystaspes - - - b. c. 487 
Reign of Mithridates I. - - -383 
Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - - 363 
Mithridates II. recovers it - - - 336 
Mithridaies III. reigns - - - 301 
Ariobarzanes II. reigns - - - 266 
Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capi- 
tal by the Gauls, &c. - - - 252 
Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- 
tack upon the free city of Sinope, and 
is obliged to raise the siege by the 
Rhodians - - - - 219 
Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, 
and makes it the capital of his king- 
dom 183 

Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 

He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 
Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or 
Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 
years of age .... 123 
Marries Laodice, his own sister - - 115 
She attempts to poison him ; he puts 

her and her accomplices to death - 112 
Mithridates makes a glorious campaign ; 
conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- 
chis, and other countries - - 111 
He enters Cappadocia - - 97 
His war with Rome - - - 89 



Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. S f 

Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes 
himself master of many Roman pro- 
vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to 
death - - - - - 81. 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chcero- 

nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain - SS 
Victories and conquests of Mithridates 

up to this time - - - - 74 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that un- 
der Lucullus, in two battles - - 73 
Mithridates defeated by Lucullus - 66 

Mithridates defeats Fabius - - - 68 

But is defeated by Pompey - 66 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies - 63 
Reign of Pharnaces - - - 63 

Battle of Zela (see Zelci); Pharnaces 

defeated by Caesar - - - 47 

Darius reigns - - - - 39 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns - - 36 

Polemon II. succeeds his father - a. e. 33 
Mithridates VII. reigns - - - 40 

Pontus afterwards became a Roman 

province, under the emperors. 
Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire 
of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this 
country, a. d. 1204, which continued 
till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 



j>OOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as 
the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By 
an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the poor were to 
be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard II. 
impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But no 
compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of 
the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. 



.£188,811 

665,562 

819,000 
1,556,804 
2,184,950 
4,952,421 

POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops, it was first adopted by Hy- 
genus, a. d. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phocas, emperor of tha 



In 1580, the Poor Rates were 
1680, they amounted to 
1698, they amounted to - 
1760, they amounted to - 
1785, they amounted to 
1802, they amounted to 



In 1815, the Poor Rates were 
1820, they amounted to 
1830, they amounted to 
1835, they amounted to 
1840, they amounted to 
1845, they amounted to 



X5,41 8.845 
7,329,594 
8,111,422 
6,356,345 
5,468,£99 
5,543,650 



536 the world's progress. [ POP 

East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome. 606. By the connivance of Pho- 
cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The 
custom of kissing- the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign 
act of the popes of Rome was by Adrian I., who caused money to be coined 
with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, 
on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John 
XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII., a layman, was made pope 1024. The 
first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 
IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- 
footed, at his castle gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority 
was firmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the 
pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- 
land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161 ; and 
also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown 
off his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- 
ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of 
England, 1226.' The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1808, 
for seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by 
parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. — 
Viner. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English books, 1541. 
The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other 
ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope became des- 
titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in effigy 
at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was 
expelled from Rome, and deposed, February 22, 1798, and died, at Valence, 
August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was 
dethroned May 13, 1809. " Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- 
leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected 
June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministry, 
May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 
16. 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and 
grants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner ■ in his palace 
for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 
24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed 
Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See 
ItaJ/y ; Rome; Reformation, fyc. 

POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 

1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months. 



1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences for 
crime led to the reformation. 

1522 Adrian VI. 

i523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. 
of England. 

1534 Paul III. 

1550 .lulius III. 

1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 days. 

1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty. 

15.59 Pius IV. 

1566 Pius V. 

1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- 
formed the Calendar, (which see). 

1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 

1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 

1590 Gregory XIV. 



1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 
1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 
1605 Paul V. 

1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 
1623 Urban VIII. 

1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 
1655 Alexander VII. : liberal and learned, 
1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 
1670 Clement X. 

1676 Innocent XI. ; reformed abuses. 
1689 Alexander VlII. 
1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism. 
1700 Clement XI. 

1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of 
his family. 



" ,J When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle 
2/ Torci, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the 
reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into 
the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His 
arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold 
his stirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brekespeara. 
Lie was elected to the popedom in 1154. 



POP j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



537 



TOPES, continued. 

1724 Benedict XIII. 

1730 Clement XII. ; reformed abuses. 

1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious. 

1758 Clement XIII. 

1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 

1775 Pius VI., February 14. 



1800 Cardinal Chiaramonte. elected at Ven 
ice, as Pius VII, March 13. ■ 

1823 Annibal dellaGensa,Leo XII., Sept.28. 

1831 Mauro Capellari, Gregory XVI..Feb.2. 

1846 Mastai Ferretti, Pius IX., inaugurate!.' 
June 21, aged 54. - - June lt>. 



For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular Views, from page 
50 to page 115. 

POPE JOAN. It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, 
named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a young monk named Felda. 
and in order to be admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit! 
On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being' 
very learned, was elected pope when Adrian II. died in 872. Other scan- 
dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated 
and believed without offence." — Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to 
assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have 
affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and 
others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three 
particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- 
pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason 
as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the 
scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — 
Rapin. 

POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best 
and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanac de Gotha, &c, be 
stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to 
contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions ; America, 75 
millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 
1377 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483 i+ 
had increased to 4.689,000. The following tables of the population of the' 
United Kingdom are from official returns : — 

POPULATION OP ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 



Year 1700 
1710 
1720 
1730 
1740 
1750 
1760 



Population 5,475.000 



ditto 5,240.000 

ditto 5,565,000 

ditto 5,796,000 

ditto 6,064,000 

ditto 6,467,000 

ditto 6,736,000 

POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES. 



Year 1770 

1780 - 

1790 

1801 - 

1821 

1841 • 



Population 7,423,000 



ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 



7,953.000 
8,675,000 
10,942,646 
14,391,631 
18,844,434 



r See the several States. 



Population 12.866,920 
ditto 17^063,353 



Year 1790 Population 3,929.827 Year 1830 

1800 - - - ditto 5,305,925 1840 

1810 - - - ditto 7,239,814 

1820 - - - ditto 9,638,131 

PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OF THE WORLD 



Chinese empire 

(Balbi) - - 180.000,000 

Russia - - - 58,500,000 

Russian empire - 72,000,000 

France - - 36,500,000 

Austria - - - 34,599,000 
Great Britain and 

Ireland - - 27.000,000 

British empire - 153,000,000 

Japan - - - 27,000.000 

Spain - - - 17,1)0,000 
Spanish empire 

(total) - ■ - 19,500,000 



Pruss. monarchy 
United States of 

America* 
Turkey - 
Ottoman empire 

(total) ■ 
Persia • 
Mexico 
Kingdom of the 

two Sicilies 
Brazil - 
Sardinia - 
Morocco 



16,550,000 

17,063,000 
12,000,000 

24,500,000 
11,800,000 
9,500,000 

8,750,000 
6,250.000 
5,800,000 
5,200,000 



Holland - - - 
Dutch monarchy 

(total) 
Bavaria - - - 
Sweden and Nor- 
way- 
Belgium- - - 
Poland 

Portugal - - 

Republic of Co- 
lumbia - 
Eccles. States- - 
British America - 



5,100,000 

14,750,000 
4,600,000 

4,550,000 
4,500,000 
4,250,000 
3,950,000 

3.350,000 
2,970,000 
2.950,000 



23* 



* In 1S10. In 1S50, estimated at 22,000,000. 



538 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



I eoa 



POPULATION, continued. 



Switzerland 
Denmark - - 
Hanover 
Wirtemberg - - 
Saxony 

Tuscany- - - 
Baden 

CITIES 

Cities. 

London (.Parlia- 
mentary Ret.) 
Jeddo {reputed) - 
Pekin (.reputed) 
Paris - 
Nankin - 
Constantinople 
Calcutta 
Madras - 
Naples 



2,450,008 
2.400,000 
lj780,000 
1,680,000 
1.650,000 
i;550,000 
1,400,000 

Inhab. 

1,776,556 

1,680,000 

1,600,000 

1,000,000 

850,000 

800,000 

710,000 

435,000 

410,000 



St. Petersburgh - 


405,000 


Hamburgh 


172,0* 


Vienna - - • 


395,000 


Lyons 


168,000 


New York (1845) 


371,000 


Palermo 


147,000 


Moscow 


355.000 


Marseilles - 


146,000 


Grand Cairo - • 


335,000 


Copenhagen • 


145,000 


Lisbon 


298.000 


Turin - 


143,000 


Aleppo - ■ - 


280;000 


Seville - 


142,000 


Berlin - 


280,000 


Warsaw 


141,000 


Amsterdam - • 


274,000 


Tunis - 


138,000 


Madrid 


270,000 


Baltimore (1818; 


134,000 


Philadelphia (1848) 


258,000 


Prague 


133,000 


Bordeaux - - 


247,000 


Smyrna - - ■ 


132,000 


Bagdad 


245,000 


Brussels 


'30,000 


Mexico - - - 


£25,000 


Florence - ■ 


132,000 


Rome - 


824,000 


Stockholm - 


lk'1,000 


Rio Janeiro - - 


200,000 


Munich - - ■ 


1 13,000 


Milan - 


193,000 


Dresden 


114.000 


Barcelona - - 


183,000 


Boston (1845) - ■ 


lWiOOO 






Frankfort - 


110,000 



PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being 
formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under 
ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making 
porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried 
on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest 
porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after 
which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresden 
China. 

PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth ; burnt bv 
the British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3,677 ; in 1820, 8,581 ; in 1840 
15,082. 

PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken 
from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 
1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, in 1742. Before the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, 
and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the 
rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke 
of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when 
Cosmo II. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by 
the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residence of 
Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte, Elba, and France. 

PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most 
strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses 
were established in the reign of Henry VIII. 

PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, 
the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman 
arms about 250 b. c, and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall 
of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 713. They kept 
possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, 
assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone 
most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of 
Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- 
tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, 
which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093. 



Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths 

here - - - - a. d. 472 

Invasion by the Saracens - - 713 

The kings of Asturias subdue some 
Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III. 
establishes episcopal sees - • 900 



Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish 
kings, and is proclaimed king by his 
army ----- 113J 

Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their 
way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- 
bon from the Moors • • • 114} 



por] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



539 



PORTUGAL, continued. 

The kingdom of Algarve taken from the 
Moors by Sancho I. - - - 1189 

Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father 
of his country, who builds 44 cities 
or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 

Military orders of Christ and St. James 
instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 

John I., sumamed the Great, carries 
his arms into Africa - - - 1415 

Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420 

Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape 
of Good Hope, discovered - - 149S 

Discovery of the Brazils - - 150U 

The Inquisition established - - 1526 

The kingdom seized by Philip II. of 
Spain 1580 

The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and 
place John, duke of Braganza, on the 
throne. His posterity still possess 
the crown .... 1640 

The great earthquake which destroys 
Lisbon. See Earthquake - - 1755 

Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and 
narrowly escapes death - - 1758 

[This affair causes some of the first 
families of the kingdom to be tortured 
to death, their very names being for- 
bidden to be mentioned; yet many 
were unjustly condemned, and their 
innocence was soon afterwards made 
manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- 
pelled on this occasion.] 

Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- 
pensation from the pope to enable 
his daughter and brother to intermar- 
ry. See Incest. - . - 1760 

The Spaniards and French invade Port- 
ugal, which is saved by the valor of 
the English - - 1762 and 1763 

Regency of John (afterwards king) 
owing to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 

The Court, on the French invasion, 
emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 

Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1S07 

Convention of Cintra (see article under 
that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France - 1814 

Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 

Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 

Return of the Court - - July 4, 1821 

Lrdependence of Brazil, the prince re- 
gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 

The king of Portugal suppresses the 

constitution - - June 5, 1823 

Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel 

departs, &c. - ' - May 1-9, 1824 

Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 

KINGS OP 

i'.D. 1093 King of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 
ugal. 

1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 

1185 Sancho I. 

1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or 
the Fat. 

1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 

1247 Alphonsus III. . 

1279 Dennis. 

1325 Alphonsus IV. 

1357 Peter the Severe. 

1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- 
num for 18 months. 



Death of John VI. - Feb. 18, i 826 

Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- 
firms the regency - April 26, 1828 

He relinquishes the throne in favor of 
his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826 

Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at 
Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 1826 

Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- 
ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 

Portugal solicits the assistance of Great 
Britain - - - Dec. 3, 1826 

Departure of the first British auxiliary 
troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1326 

Don Miguel formally assumes the title 
of king - - - -July 4, 1828 

He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 

Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 

Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 

Insurrection in favor of the queen, in 
which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 

Don Pedro's expedition sails from 
Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 

At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- 
self regent of Portugal, on behalf of 
his daughter - - April 2, 1SJ2 

He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832 

After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- 
pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 

Don Miguel is permitted to leave the 
country unmolested - May 31, 1834 

Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834 

The queen declared by the Cortes to be 
of ase - - - Sept. 15, 1834 

Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834 

Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of 
Leuchtenberg), just married to the 
queen, dies - - March 28, 1835 

The queen marries prince Ferdinand of 
Saxe Coburg - - -Jan. 1,1836 

A sudden change of ministry leads to a 
formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 

Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat- 
ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 1846 

[Oporto, where a revolutionary junta 
is established, and other large towns, 
are seized by the insurgent army.] 

Actions are fought at Viana, Valpassos, 
Braga, Torres-Vedras, &c, favorable 
to the queen. Battle of St. Ubes; the 
Insurgents defeated, losing 861 men 
in killed and wounded -May 1, 1847 

Intervention of England, France, and 
Spain, signed in London May 21, 1847 

Claim of the United States on Portugal 
for damages in the war of 1812, re- 
sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- 
bon .... July, 1850 

PORTUGAL. 

1385 John I., the Bastard, natural son to 
Peter the Severe. 

1433 Edward. 

1438 Alphonsus V. 

1481 John II. 

1495 Emanuel. 

1521 John III. 

1557 Sebastian, killed in Africa. 

1578 Henry, the Cardinal. 

1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Eman 
uel, deposed by Philp II. of Spain, 
who united Portugal to his other do- 
minions, i ill 1640. 



540 

PORTUGAL, continued. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



POS 



1750 Joseph. 

1777 Mary Frances Isabella. 

1799 John VI. 

1826 Don Pedro ; he abdicates May 2, aj 

favor of his daughter. 
1826 Maria de Gloria. 



1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos- 
sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 
claimed king, Dec. 1. 

1656 Alphonsus VI. 

1668 Peter II. 

1"07 John V. 

POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who 
erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the 
first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed 
post-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800. — 
Ashe. Louis XL first established post-houses in France owing to his eager- 
ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 
1470. — Henaalt. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward 
IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty 
miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence 
of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen w^th the 
Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post com- 
munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, existed in 1635.— Slrype. 

POST-OFFICE, The General, of England. See preceding article. The first 
chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by 
queen Elizabeth in 1581.* 

THE REVENUE OP THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ 



In 1643 It yielded 

1653 Farmed to John Manley, 

Esq., for - - - 

1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 

Esq., for - 
1674 Farmed fo.T - - - 

1685 It yielded - 
1707 Ditto - - • - 

1764 Ditto 
1800 Ditto - - - - 



£5,000 
10,( 



In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424.994 

1815 Ditto - - . - 1,755,898 

1820 United Kingdom - - 2.402.697 

1825 Ditto - - - -2,255,239 

1835 Ditto - - - 2,353,340 



1839 Last year of the heavy 

postage - - -2,522,495 

1840 First year of the low rate, 

1 penny for all distances 471,000 

The first post-office in the colo- 



21,500 
43.000 
65;000 
111,461 

432.048 
745,313 

POST-OFFICE in the ITiNITED STATES. 

nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general 
laost-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- 
partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of 
the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the 
Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of 
the cabinet. For successive Postmaster-Generals see Administrations. The 
following table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States 
at different times since 1790. 



Year. 


No. of Post 


Amount of 


Net Revenue. 


Extent in miles 




Offices. 


Postage 






of Po<-t Roads 


1790 - 


■ - 75 - - 


- $37,93t - 




$5,795 - 


■ 1,875 


1800 - 


- 903 - 


- 280,804 - 




66.810 - 


- 20.817 


1810 ■ 


- 2,300 - 


- 551,684 - 




55,715 - 


- 36,406 


1820 - 


- 4,500 - 


-1,111,927 - 




1 - 


- 72,492 


1830 - 


- 8,000 - 


- 1,850,583 - 




1 - 


- 115,000 


1840 - 


-13.468 • 


- 4,539,265 - 




1 . 


- 155,739 


1845 - 


- 14J83 ■ 


- 4,289,842 - 




t - 


- 143,940 


1846 • 


- 14,601 - 


- 3,487,199 1 - 




1 - 


• 152,866 


1847 - 


- 15,146 - 


- 3,955,893 1 ■ 




t - 


- 153,818 


1848 - 


- 16,159 - 


-4,371,0771 - 




44,227 - 


- 163508 


3 number of dead letters returned quartei 


•lyi 


s estimated 


at 450,000. 



* Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the past was only transmitted three days a week be- 
tween Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only sent a single letter, which 
was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 

1 In all these years the receipts fell short of the expenditures. 

t The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first three years of the new law passed March 3, 1845, 
leducing the letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances. 



pra] dictionary of dates. 541 

POTATOES. TLe potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori 
ginally carried to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw- 
kins, a. d. 1563. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 
1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many writers as 
occurring in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the 
county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
1G20. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that 
"patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding - 
ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It ia 
affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine; 
— Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c, causing great 
ilarni and distress, Oct. 1845. 

POTOSI, Mines of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, 
and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the 
form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in 
Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in 
comparison of what was formerly obtained. 

POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
about a. d. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, 
consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. 
The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some sup- 
pose it was equivalent to an Attic mm, or SI. is. Id. Our avoirdupois 
weight {avoir dab folds') came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; 
it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. — Chambers. 

POWDERING the HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad- 
singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them- 
selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the 
high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered- 
hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice 
of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guinea for each person. 
The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 
7000Z. per year, and in Scotland about 2501. It was abolished in Ireland. 

PRAETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when 
one praetor only was appointed ; but a second was appointed in 252 b. a. 
One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges 
in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, 
two more praetors were created to assist the consul in the government 
of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, 
and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province, 
a. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Caesar increas- 
ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 
64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, 
in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers 
were reduced to three. 

PRAGA, Battle of, in which 30.000 Poles were butchered by the merciless 
Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which 
the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army commanded 
by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 
12 pieces of cannon; fought between Grothotf and Wawer, March 31, 1831. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some- 
times state affairs; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings 
of France, wherein the rights of the Gallican church were asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's 
letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular 



542 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ PR3 

contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany 
in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published the 
Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue,- his daughters should 
succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713, 
and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity 
thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, ia 
which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. 

PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, 
who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) foi 

. their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flee 
with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money 
behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and 
the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia ; all owing to the pusilla- 
nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by the 
Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by the 
French, in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was 
taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same 
year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. 
In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia, 
and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Brown ;, 
was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was 
killed. After this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but 
he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, so 
called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled him.seh 
according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament 
consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they were 
to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to chose a fresh parlinxjont 
themselves. 

PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by 
the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and 
signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy 
state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious d isease. 
The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intend 
and import. — Ashe. 

PRAYERS for the DEAD, &c. They were first introduced into the Chris 
tian church about a. d. 190. — Eusebms. Prayers addressed to the Virgin 
Mary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593. The 
mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boldface 
II., a. d. 532. 

PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most, 
of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws oi 
Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour- 
tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedemy was 
regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIII., 1539 5 
and the other, 1 George I., 1714. 



TABLE op precedency. 



THE QUEEN. 

Prince of Wales. 
Prince Albert. 
Queen Dowager. 
Queen's other sons. 
Princess royal. 



Princess Alice ; and other I Archoisnop of Canttrfcaiy. 



princesses. 
Duchess of Kent. 
Queen's uncles. 
Queen's aunts. 
Queen's cousins. 



Lord Chancellor. 
Archbishop of York. 
'Lord high treasura 
'Lord president. 
'Lord privy seal. 



If of the rank of barons. 



PRE J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



543 



PRECEDENCE, contii/ued: 

"Lord high constable. 

rLord great chamberlain of 
England. 

*Earl marshal. 

'Lord high admiral. 

Lord steward of the house- 
hold. 

Lord Chamberlain. 

Dukes, according to patent. 

Marquesses, according to 
their patents. 

Dukes' eldest sons. 

Earls, according to their pa- 
tents. 

Marquesses' eldest sons. 

Dukes' younger sons. 

Viscounts, according to their 
patents. 

Earls' eldest sons. 

Marquesses' younger sons. 

Bishop of London. 

Bishop of Durham. 

Bishop of Winchester. 

All other bishops, according 
to their seniority of conse- 
cration. 

Secretary of State, being a 
baron. 

Commissioners of the great 
seal. 

Barons, according to their 
patents. 

[All the above, except the 
royal family, hold their 
precedence of rank by act 



COMMONERS. 

The Speaker. 

Treasurer, comptroller, and 

vice-chamberlain of the 

household. 
Secretaries of State, if they be 

under the degree of baron. 
Viscounts' eldest sons. 
Earls' younger sons. 
Barons' eldest sons. 
Knights of the Garter. 
Privy councillors. 
Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
Chancellor of the duchy of 

Lancaster. 
Lord chief justice of the 

queen's bench. 
Master of the rolls. • 

Vice-chancellor. 
Lord chief justice of the com- 
mon pleas. 
Lord chief baron. 
Judges and barons, according 

to seniority. 
Hereditary bannerets. 
Viscounts' younger sons. 
Barons' younger sons. 
Baronets. 

Bannerets for life only. 
Knights of the bath. 

Grand Crosses. 
Knights commanders. 
Knights bachelors. 
Eldest sons of the younger 

sons of peers. 
Baronets' eldest sons. 



Knights of ths Garter's eldesr 
sons. 

Bannerets' eldest sons. 

Knights of the bath's eldes' 
sons. 

Knights' eldest sons. 

Baronets' younger sons. 

Flag and field officers, 

Sergeants-at-law. 

Doctors, Deans, and chan 
cellors. 

Masters in chancery. 

Companions of the' bath. 

Gentlemen of the pr«vy 
chamber. 

Esquires of its knights of the 
Bath. 

Esquires by creation. 

Esquires by office or com- 
mission. 

Younger soj is of knights of 
the garter. 

Sons of bannerets. 

Younger sons of knights of 
the bath. 

Younger sons of knights ba- 
chelors. 

Gentlemen entitled to bear 
arms. 

Clergymen, not dignitaries. 

Barristers at law. 

Officers of the army and 
navy, not esquires by com- 
mission. 

Citizens, burgesses, &c. 



31 Henry VIII.] 

PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably 
appointed whatever conies to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of 
the most perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It 
was taught by the ancient Stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet intro- 
duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the 
strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose 
in the fifth century, when it was maintained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus. 
a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470. 

PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient 
states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of 
the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions 
of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau. and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec- 
tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who. as well as the duke of 
Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel- 
vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called 
from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the 
New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling 
elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting- 
house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey 
Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguish- 
ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri- 



* Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII. 
t When in actual office only, by 1 George I. 
N. B. The priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state is taken !]} 
rank of office, and net title." 



544 the world's PROGRESS. [ PKH 

buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformei in 1560. Tt was 
approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act 
of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with 
England in 1707. 

PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously elected 
president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 
to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United 
States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations. 

PRESS, the PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from 
the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of the 
eighteenth century, when many improvements were made. William Caxton, 
a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Stowe's 
Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806, 
The printing-machine was invented by Koenig in . 811. and Applegath's fol- 
lowed. The Columbian* press of Clymer was produced in 1814; and the 
Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after. 
Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at 
The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and 
Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought in; o 
use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within 
a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac- 
turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New-York. Their largest presses 
for newspapers are capable of throwing off 10.000 sheets per hour, which is 
so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders 
from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the 
best in the world for book printing. See article Printing. 

PRESS, Liberty op the. The imprimatur, " let it be printed," was much used 
on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The 
liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in 
London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. 
And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast, 
"The liberty of the press — it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not 
we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern. London, at a Whig 
dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required 
to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France 
and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but 
again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it 
was fully guaranteed by the constitution. 

PRESSING to DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of 
Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of 
the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, is the 
following : — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered 
two of his children, and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraign- 
ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 
death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James 
I. 1605, — Statue's Chron. 

PRESTONPANS, Battle of, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles 
Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John 
Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to 
fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the 
field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce 
his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish 
ballad, called, from the doughty hero, "Johnie Cope." Fought Sept. 21, 
1745. 

PRETENDER. The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender, 



FBI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 545 

or Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac- 
knowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- 
claimed, and. his standard set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, 
Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, 
to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had 
promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines), 
Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. 

PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, 
born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 
1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, 
January 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and 
sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds 
of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000/!. was offered for taking him, 
he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- 
caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- 
al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His 
brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Pngland, born 
March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the 
Lead of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing 
in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low 
room, then called hell. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none 
admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion 
of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- 
bers were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained to complete their 
wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith. 

PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. 
In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among 
the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- 
mily, 1491 b. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and 
the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the peculiar 
privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but 
that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arcli-flamen or 
high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular 
sects. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- 
merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should 
publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the 
Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — 
Ashe. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right of , an usage brought down from the earliest times. 
The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, 
and in the absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by 
the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It 
came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. 

PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention haa 
been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, 
Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to 
attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes 
John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and 
letters, Speculum Humana Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous 
and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The 
leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards pasted to 



546 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[PBA 



gether. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the 
Tractatus Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal 
types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was 
commenced in 1444 and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schseffer cast 
the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complete 
printing, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Fresnoy. 



Book of Psalms printed -1 A. d. 1457 

The Durandi Rationale, first work 
printed with cast metal types 1 - 1459 

[Printing was introduced into Oxford, 
about this time. — Collier. But this 
statement is discredited by Dibdin.] 

A Livy printed. — Dufresnoy - % - 1460 

The first Bible completed.— Ideml - 1460 

[Mentz taken and plundered, and the art 
of printing, in the general ruin, is 
spread to other towns] - - 1462 

The types were uniformly Gothic, or 
old German (whence our English, or 
Black Letter) until - - - 1465 

Greek characters (quotations only) first 
used, same year - - - - 1465 

Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) - 1466 

Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 

A Chronicle, said to have been found 
in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- 
lace (the fact disputed), bearing the 
date Oxford, anno - - - 1468 

William Caxton, a mercer of London, 
set up the first press at Westminster* 1471 

He printed Willyam Caxton' s Recuyel 
of the Historyes of Troy, by Raoul 
le Feure. — Phillips - - - 1471 

His first pieces were, A Treatise on the 
Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices 
(see below). — Dibdin - - ' -1474 

jEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is 
supposed to be the first book with its 
leaves numbered - - - 1484 

Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a 
Greek book printed (ap Aldi) ■ - 1476 

He introduces the Italic - - - 1496 



The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - a. d. 1482 

Homer, infolio^ beautifully done at Flo- 
rence, eclipsing all former printing, 
by Demetrius '438 

Printing used in Scotland - - - i609| 

The first edition of the whole Bible was, 
strictly speaking, the Complutensian 
Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see 
Polyglot ■ - - - _ - - 1517 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in 
Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1550 

The first Newspaper printed in England 
(see Newspapers) .... 1588 

First patent granted for printing • 1 591 

First printing-press improved by Wil- 
liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601 

First printing in America at Cambridge, 
Mass., when the Freeman' s Oath and 
an Almanac were printed - - 1639 

First Bible printed in Ireland was at 
Belfast.— Hardy's Tour. ■ - - 1704 

First types cast in England by Caslon.- 
Phillips. 

Stereotype printing suggested by Wil- 
liam Ged, of Edinburgh. — Nichols. 

The present mode of stereotype inven- 
ted by Mr. Colden, of New York 

Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
land in the last century. — Phillips.] 
See Stereotype. 

The printing-machine was first suggest- 
ed by Nicholson 

The Stanhope press was in general use. 
in 1806 

Machine printing (see Press) - - 1811 

Steam machinery (see Press) - - 1814 



1720 
1735 



1779 



1790 



TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDS. 



The Game and Playeoflhe Chesse. Trans- 
lated out of the Frenche and emprynted 
by vie Willia 'Ti Caxton Fynysshid the last 
day of Marche the yer of our Lord God a 
thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

TULLY. 

The Bokeof Tulle of Okie age Emprynted 
by me simple persone William Caxton in 
to Englysshe as theplaysir solace and re- 
verence of men growyng in to old age the 
xij day of August the yere of our lord 
M.cccc.lxxxj. — Herbert. 

THE POLYCRONYCON. 

The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges 
and Dedes of manyTymrs in eyghtBokes. 
Imprinted by William Caxton after hav- 
ing somew/iat chaunged the rude and 
olae Englysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer- 



tayn Words which in these Days be ney- 
ther vsyd ne understanden. Ended the 
second day of' Juyll at Westmestre the 
xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward 
thefoaxlh', and of tlie Incarnacion of oure 
Lord a Thousand four Hondred four 
Score and tweyne [1482.] — Dibdin's Typ. 
Antiq.. 

the chronicles. 

The Cronicl.es of England Enpnted by me 

Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre 

by London the v day of Juyn the yere 

of ihincarnacion of our lord god 

M CCCC.LXXX. 

POLYCRONICON. 

Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth days 
of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne ef 
kinge Harry the seuenth and of the Jn- 



' To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged b/ 
the learned Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of the Chesse," tie 
first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which il 
was printed, tut all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Leigh. 



pr:] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



547 



PRINTING, continued. 

carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv 
Emprynted by Wynkyn Theworde at 
Westmestre. 

HILL OF PERFECTION. 

The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the 
instance of the reverend relygyous fader 
Tho. Prior of the hous of St. Ann. the or- 
der of the charterouse Accompiyshe[d] 
andfynysshe[d] att Westmyrister the uiii 
day ofjaneur the yere of our lord Thou- 
eande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the xii yere 
qfkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
worde. — Ames, Herbert, Diedin. 

ENGLAND. 

The Descrypcyon of Englonde Walys Scot- 
land and Ireland speaking of the Noblesse 
and Worthynesse of the same Fyti?iysshed 
and enprynted in Flete strele in the syne 
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde 
the yere of our lord a m.ccccc and ij. men- 
sis Mayiis [mense Maii]. — Dibdin's Typ. 
Ant. 

the festival. 

The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and 
holidais taken out ofthegolden legend en- 



prynted at london in F letestrete at ye syni 
of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our lord m.ccccc. viii. And ended 
the xi daye of May e. — Ames. 

THE LORD'S PRAYER. 

As printed by Caxton in 1483. 

Father our that art in heavens, hallowed 6« 
thy name : thy kyngdome come to us ; thy 
will be done in earth as is in heaven : oure 
every days bred give us to day ; and for- 
give us oure tresspasses, as we forgive 
them that tresspass against us ; and lead 
us not into temptation, but deliver us from 
all evil sin, amen. — Lewis's Life op 
Caxton. 

a placard. 
As printed by William Caxton. 

If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to 
bye ony pies of two or thre comemoracios of 
Salisburi use' enpryntid after the forme 
of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and 
truly correct, late him come to westmon- 
ester in to the almonestye at the reed pale 
[red pale] and he shall have them good 
there. — Dibdin's Typ. Antiq.. 



Among the early printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, 
interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the 
semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of 
abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered 
leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced 
with the art of printing. 

PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, 
and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many 
hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in the 
Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. 
See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- 
toria, 1839. 

PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 in 
England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were first 
seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between 
England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on 
the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. 
These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 
Henry V. 1414. — Rymer's Fozdera. 

PRISONERS op WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when 
spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less 
continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead 
of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, 
and American prisoners of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30, 
1779. The number exchanged by eartel with France from the commence- 
ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri- 
soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, 
Sept. 1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
French, &c, in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest 



* Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is sup 
posed from the different color of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign prim 
ere.— Wheatky. 



548 the world's progress. I" PRO 

number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period cf the 
last war. 

PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- 
thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M. P. It was instituted in 1815, and held 
its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by 
the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, 
the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of 
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, 
on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.— 
Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object 
was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active 
promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for 
the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems 
adopted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- 
phia, &c, have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from 
Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady 
— Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per- 
son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a 
higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. 

PRIVY COUNCIL, England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted 
by Alfred, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was 
afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and 
despatch, and Charles .II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the 
principal officers of state (councillors ex officio), and ten lords and five com- 
moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To 
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made 
capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was 
examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. 

PRIZE MONEY. In the English navy the money arising from captures 
made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- 
buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless 
under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the 
said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants, 
&c, one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. 
one-eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c, one-eighth; ordinary and 
able seamen, marines, &c, two-eighths 

PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who 
having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until tha 
end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; 
they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of 
a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. 

PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assign- 
able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 
1804, and again in 1808, and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish 
Church, Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by pope 
Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- 
ceeding pontiffs. 

PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy 
of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid 
the king in a war with France, 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- 
posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy 
to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this 
tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their effects •, 
but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to giv« 



fEUJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 549 

an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- 
pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king was 
pi ;ased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves. 
— Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount 
in the last years of the late war. The assessments on 1 aal property, under 
the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,4232. 

PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred 
writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- 
ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve 
lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter, 
are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- 
phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the 
earliest times. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed 
by Cyrus, 538 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem {Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8) 
executed by Titus, a. d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in 
Scripture. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to 
request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means 
for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- 
position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to 
support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with 
the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 
April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of 
Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated 
from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were John and George, 
the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two 
dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- 
stance," Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, fyc. 

PROVISIONS — Remarkable pacts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100 
men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry 
I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and 
eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 
1200. — Burton's Annals. When wheat was at 65. per quarter, the farthing 
loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole 
grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6d. per quarter, 
the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Mat. 
Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is. 
per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Stowe. The price of provisions fixed by 
the common-council of .London as follows: two pullets, three-halfpence; 
a partridge, or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from 
Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward I. 1299. 
Stowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of 
our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn 31. 12s. • a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two 
dozen of eggs, Zd. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common- 
council above recited, 7 Edward II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold 
for 20s. per tun, 10 Richard II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 
1390, this was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by 
the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, 
and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Henry VIII. 1533. — An- 
derson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, foi 
one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 32C 
B. o. The Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in- 



550 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[prw 



habited the Riphtean mountains ; and from these the country was called 
Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- 
nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The 
Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, 
and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known 
until about a. d. 1007. 



St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
Christianity, but is murdered by the 
pagans - - a. d. 1010 

Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death 
by dreadful ravages - - - * * * 

Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- 
lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 

The Teutonic knights, returning from 
the holy wars, undertake the conquest 
of Prussia, and the conversion of the 
people ----- 1225 

Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- 
tal of Prussia ... - 1286 

The Teutonic knights, by their barba- 
rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It 
is repeopled by German colonists in 
the 13th century - - --,"*'* 

Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by 
purchase from Sigismond, emperor 
of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- 
denburg .... 1415 

[This Frederick is the head of the pre- 
sent reigning family.] 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- 
tives against the oppression of the 
Teutonic knights - - - 1446 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master 
of the Teutonic order, renounces the 
Roman Catholic religion, embraces 
Lutheranism, and is acknowledged 
duke of East Prussia, to be held as a 
fief of Poland - - - - 1525 

University of Konigsberg founded by 
duke Albert .... 1544 

The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the 
electorate of Brandenburg, and so 
continues to this day - - - 1594 

John Sigismund created elector of Bran- 
denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608 

The principality of Halberstadt and the 
bishopric of Minden transferred to the 
house of Brandenburg - - 1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia 
as an independent state, under Frede- 
rick William .... 1657 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian 
Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish 
the part he had taken in restoring 
peace to Europe - - - 1660 

The foundation of the Prussian monar- 
chy was established between the years 
1640 and 1680 

Frederic III., in an assembly of the 
states, puts a crown upon his own 
head, and upon the head of his con- 
sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- 
sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 

Ouelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 

Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- 
burgh, and Valengia, and purchases 
the principality of Tecklenburgh - 1707 

Reign of Frederick the Great, during 



which the Prussian monarchy is 
made to rank among the first powers 
in Europe - - - a. d. 1740 

Breslau ceded to Prussia -V . -1741 
Silesia, Glatz, &c, ceded - - 1742 

Frederick the Great visits England - 1741 
General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, 
and a Russian army, march to Berlin. 
The city laid under contribution ; and 
pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000 
crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and 
foundries destroyed - - - 1760 

Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786 
The Prussians take possession of Hano- 
ver Jan. 30. 1806 
Prussia jvins the allies of England 

against France - - Oct. 6, 1806 

Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18u6 

[Here followed the loss of almost every 
corps in succession of the Prussian 
army, the loss of Berlin, and of every 
province of the monarchy except 
Prussia proper.] 
Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 
Peace of Tilsit {which see) - July 7, 1807 
Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1808 

Prussia joins the allies - March 17, 1813 
Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 

The king promised liberty of the press 

March, 1847 
Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists 
urgent demands for liberal measures, 

March 14, 1847 
Barricades and fights between troops 

and students - - March 15, 1847 

The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 
- issues tlecree demanding a federal 
union of Germany, and granting li- 
berty of the press - March 18, 1847 
Another bloody collision, 274 killed 

March 18, 1847 
New ministry formed - March 18, 1847 
The king grants general amnesty 

March 20, 1847 
Agitations general throughout Prussia 
A free constitution granted, in a solemn 

convocation, by the king - April 11, 1847 
The duchy of Posen reorganized by the 

king - - - March 26, 1843 

Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 
Constitutional assembly of Prussia 

meets - - - May 22, 1848 

The arsenal at Berlin captured by the 

mob - - - June 16, 1843 

The king prorogues the assembly at 
Berlin, and appoints its meeting at 
Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 1848 

The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the 
order of the king to disband. Berlin 
in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848 

The assembly dissolved, and a new con- 
Dec. 6, 1843 



stitution promulgated 

MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG, ETC. 

succession of time, passed into tha 
families of Staden, Ascanit, Bellen- 



A..D. 923 Sifroi, margrave of Brandenburg. 

* * Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in 



pur] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



551 



PRUSSIA, continued. 

stadt, and that of Bavaria; till the 
emperor Sigismond, with the consent 
of the states of the empire, gave per- 
petual investiture to 

1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 
elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 

1440 Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or 
Ironside ; resigned. 

1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil- 
les. He confirmed the deed made by 
his predecessor, of mutual succession 
with the families of Saxony and 
Hesse; resigned. 

1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 
his son. 

1499 Joachim I., his son. 



1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew 
1571 John George. 
1598 Joachim Frederick. 
1608 John Sigismund. 
1619 George William. 
1640 Frederick William the Great. 
1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made king 
of Prussia. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1701 Frederick I. 

1713 Frederick William I. 

1740 Frederick II., surnamed the Gr lit 

1786 Frederick William II. 

1797 Frederick William III. 

1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. 



PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted 
to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, 
a. d. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was 
about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32 600 ; and in 1790, the number in 
Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 
public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The 
number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. 

PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- 
ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple 
of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in 
a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- 
bination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1. — Phillips. 

PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to 
take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch 
would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he 
not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a 
Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. 
This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to 
the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, 
which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able 
to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- 
vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although 
the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in 
general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inseription on 
the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well 
beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282. 

PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against 
Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it 
lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- 
gan 218 b. p., in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 
foot and 12000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the 
gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with 
uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his 
progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and 
of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and 
ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated 
by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. 

PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 



552 the world's progress. I PYT 

where, it is believed by the Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the 
fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of 
purgatory was known about a. d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman 
church in 593. — Plalina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — 
Dupin. 

PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to 
the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the 
Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the 
birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was 
to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among 
the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of 
the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she 
presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- 
gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called 
Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- 
beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of 
living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were 
members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon 
account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- 
verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson. 

PYRAMIDS of EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- 
nini, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu- 
ments of art. It is singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found 
but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and 
diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- 
nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high 
mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, 
it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the 
seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- 
dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of 
the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed 
of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- 
man labor has not been found on the earth. 

" Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids, 

" Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Youno. 

PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord 
Wellington, and the French, under the command of marshal Soult. The 
latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the 
battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- 
dan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of 
more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from 
July 25 to August 2. 

PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain ; 
by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her 
rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c, 
and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head 
of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- 
ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been 
produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the 
world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported 
that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter by 



$UA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553 

the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the 
world. He was the inventor of the multiplication- table, and a great im- 
prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at 
this day, 539 b. c. 
PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple 
of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received 
opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had 
obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name ; 
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, 
or Di< >medes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio- 
tyons, b. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. 

Q. 

QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a 
French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a 
shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor 
added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addison. Quacks 
sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several countries, particularly 
England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their esta- 
blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 
1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss 
Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- 
slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 25(K, Oct. 
30, 1830. 

QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter circle. 
The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- 
nomers under the Caliphs, in a. d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feei 8 inches 
radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- 
suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See 
Navigation. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great 
Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the 
accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple 
Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the 
reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of 
the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. 

QU&LSTOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of 
the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship was the first office 
any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the 
senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was 
greatly increased. 

QUAKERS or FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
truth; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic 
of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear 
towards man. — Clarkson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the 
name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and 
those present with him. to tremble at the word of the Lord. This respect- 
able sect, excelling in morals prudence, and industry, was commenced in 
England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- 
ber of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by George Keith, 
Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by the 

* The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where 
the first Friends who arrived weie females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and to.ei. 

24 



554 the world's PROGRESS. [ QUS 

Quakers originated with their founder, who published a hook of instruc- 
tions for teachers and professors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was 
enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- 
quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1693. 

QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all 
merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in 
the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- 
mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of 
Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other 
nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- 
rantine with their ships, &c, a longer or shorter time, as may be judged 
most safe. 

QUATRE-BRAS, Battle of, between the British and allied army under the 
duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the 
French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. 
In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. 

QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, 
with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged 
by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, 
after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. 
Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was 
slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege was raised the next year. The 
public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 
1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 1650 
houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 
1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards ; 1365 houses burnt, June 
28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. 

QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was 
Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the 
city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most 
magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with 
that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name of queen, 
that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of 
king. See note to article Hungary. 

QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- 
land, was subjected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate 
Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- 
nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her 
funeral, Aug. 14. 

QUEENS op ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the 
present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own 
right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry L, or the lady 
Jane Grey, whose quasi reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- 
four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who 

ears cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 
2,000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- 
eelves at this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger 
(from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an 
order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an em- 
bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service 
But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured 
by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in that 
year. See Plngue. Of the 120 few reached America. 



que] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



555 



died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac> 
tnal sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen 
The following list includes all these royal personages : — 



Of William I. 
Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; she was married in 1051 ; and 
died 1084. 

William II. 
This sovereign died unmarried. 

Of Henry I. 
Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
Scotland ; she was married November 11, 
1100; and died May I, 1119. 

Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- 
vaine ; she was married January 29, 1129. 
Survived the king. 

Maude oi Matilda. 
D<. nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to 
the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- 
ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry 
V., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. 
She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
earj of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the 
English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed 
in England and claimed the crown, 1139. 
Crowned, but was soon after defeated at 
Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with 
Stephen, which secured the succession to 
her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. 

Of Stephen. 

Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne; she was married in 1128; and 
lied May 3, 1151. 

Of Henry II. 

Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; 
and died 1204. 

[The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of 
this prince. 

Of Richard I. 

Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- 
varre ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- 
vived the king. 

Of John. 

Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
she was married in 1189. Divorced. 

Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- 
leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of 
the count de la Marche ; married to John in 
1200. Survived the king, on whose death 
she was remarried to the count de la Marche. 

Of Henry III. 
Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. 
Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- 
nastery, whither she had retired. 

Of Edward I. 

Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 
1253 ; died of a fever, on her journey to Scot- 
land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. 

Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she 



was married September 12, 1299. Survived 
the king. 

Of Edward II. 
Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
she was married in 1308. On the death, by 
the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was 
confined for the rest of her life in her owk 
house at Risings, near London. — Hume. 

Of Edward III. 
Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland 
and Hainault ; she was married January 24 
1328 ; and died August 16, 1369. 

Of Richard II. 

Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married 
in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. 

Isabella, daughter of Charles Vl.of France; 
she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the inva- 
der of her husband she returned to her fa- 
ther. 

Of Henry IV. 

Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; 
she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
in 1394. 

Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- 
vived the king, and died in 1437. 

Of Henry V. 
Catherine, daughter of the king of France i 
she was married May 30, 1420. "She outliv- 
ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, 
grandfather of Henry VII. 

Of Henry VI. 

Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- 
ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and 
died in 1482. 

Of Edward IV. 

Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John 
Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 
1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection 
of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life in 
confinement. 

Edward V. 

This prince perished in the Tower, in 
the 13th year of his age ; and died unmar- 
ried. 

Of Richard III. 

Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwick, 
and widow of Edward, prlace of Wales, 
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is 
supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
(having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to 
make way for his intended marriage with 
the princess Elizabeth of York. 

Of Henry VII. 
Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; she was married 
January 18, 1486; and died February 11 
1503. 



556 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[qu» 



QUEENS, continued. 

Of Henry VIII. 

Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She 
was married June 3, 1509; was the mother 
of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- 
wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died 
January 6, 1536. 

Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- 
leyn, and maid of honor to Catherine. She 
was privately married, before Catherine was 
divorced, Nov. 14, 1532; was the mother of 
queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- 
er, May 19, 1536. 

Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- 
mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. 
She was married May 20, 1536, the day after 
Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- 
ward VI., of whom she died in childbirth, 
Oct. 13, 1537. 

Anns of Cleves, sister of William, duke 
of Cleves. She was married January 6, 
1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died 
in 1557. 

Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of 
Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; 
and was beheaded on Tower hill February 
12, 1542. ' 

Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. 
She was married July 12, 1543. Survived 
the king, after whose death she married sir 
Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and 
died September 5, 1548. 

Edward VI. 
This prince, who ascended the throne in his 
tenth year, reigned six years and five months, 
and died unmarried. 

Lady Jane Grey. 
Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife 
of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen 
on the death of Edward. In ten days after- 
wards returned to private life; was tried 
Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 
1554, when but seventeen years of age. 

Mary. 
Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended 
the throne July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. 
of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- 
ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 
1598. 

Elizabeth. 
Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to 
the crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 
4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. 

Of James I. 
Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter r>f 
Frederick II. ; she was married August 3); 
1589; and died March 1619. 

Of Charles I. 

Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 

king of France ; she was married June 13, 

1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and 

died in France, August 10, 1669. 



Of Charles n. 
Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughtel 
of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. ; sh< 
was married May 21, 1662. Survived the 
king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 
21, 1705. 

Of James II. 
Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,, 
earl of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep 
tember 1660; and died before James ascend- 
ed the throne, in 1671. 

Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh 
ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- 
ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution 
in 1683, she retired with James to France - 
and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur- 
vived her consort seventeen yetrs. 

William and Mary. 
Mary, the princess of Orange, daugh tei if 
James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16; 7 ■ 
ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- 
cember 28, 1694. 

Anne. * 

Daughter of James II. She married George 
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed- 
ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 
1, 1714. 

Of George I. 
Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol 
Zell. She died a few weeks previously to 
the accession of George to the crown, June 
8, 1714. 

Of George II. 
Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and 
died November 20, 1737. 

Of George III. 
Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke ol 
Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married Septembei 
8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. 

Of George IV. 
Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 
8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- 
cess Charlotte ; and died August 7, 1821. See 
article Queen Caroline. 

Of William IV. 

Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, 

sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she 

was married July 11, 1818; and survived the 

king. 

Victoria. 
Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen 
daughter of the duke of Kent ; born May 24 
1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 
crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cous.ir 
prince Albert of Saxe-Cot«rg-Gotha, Feb- 
ruary 10, 1840. 



QUEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Ameri- 



RAC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 557 

ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the 
Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
same day. 

QtrtCKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It 
is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight 
of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- 
ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the 
chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- 
many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 
1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It 
was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by 
Mr. "Walker, in 1787. 

QT7IETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, 
whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists 
in France. His principal tenet was, that the. purity of religion coi-sisted in 
an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and 
the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of 
absolute rest and inaction in which the, sect supposed the soul to be, when 
arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then 
imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its Jod. Ma- 
dame de la Mothe-Guyon, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions 
and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated 
archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she 
occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect 
sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. 

QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some 
say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty 
from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, 
ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillip* 

QUITO. A presidency of Colombia (which see) celebrated as having been the 
scene of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and 
Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls 
were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost 
overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. 

R. 

RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chai tr- 
ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, 
who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- 
zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, 
and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were 
races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of 
Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, 
although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, 
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. 

RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- 
sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. 
The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times aa in- 
strument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI., 
erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now 
teen in the Tower. 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of 
Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- 
ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, a? 
being con^ary to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac. 



558 the world's PROGRESS. [ EA 

RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- 
cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. ]Je left 40,0002. to the Uni- 
versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1. 1714. The first stone 01 
the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 
1749, and was opened April 13, same year. 

R ADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- 
gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, 
Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- 
cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian 
regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. 

RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but on 
rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought 
among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 
1485 b. o. — Heylin. 

RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram- ways in and about New- 
castle so early as the middle of the 17th century ; but they were made of 
wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the 
pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 :— " The 
manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the 
river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- 
ers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will 
draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the 
coal-merchants," — Life of Lord-Keeper North. They were made of iron, at. 
Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at 
Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament 
(with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small 
branches to mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames 
at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first 
great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester 
railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. 

EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. 





Miles. 




Miles 


Great Britain and Ireland 


■ 3,375 


Italy .... 


115 


United States (in 1849, 6,117) - 


- 3,800 


Denmark .... 


106 


Germany (in 1849, 3,100) 


- 1,570 


Cuba .... 


800 


Holland - - 


- 200 


Russia 


52 


Belgium 


- 1,095 


British Colonies 


1,000 


France - 


- 2,200 


East India .... 


500 



Total length of railways opened throughout the world: — in 1847, 21,761 miles. 

In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles 
per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour ; 
in 1834. the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the 
North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present 
moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During 
the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been 
diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for 
one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- 
ponding ratio. — Tuck's Railways, 1847. 

RAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines complet. 
ed reached an aggregate of 

In New England 1,219 miles. 

In New York ' - 840 do. 

,ln other parts of the United States - - - .- - -4,058 do. 

Total .... 6,117 do 
[Sea American Almanac, 1850, page 211, for complete list.] 



RAV] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 

A considerable number of miles have since been completed, including a 
portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c, &c. The 
first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convey 
granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, 
opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- 
cester, July6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- 
timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 
1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housatonic, Feb. 
12, 1840. 

RAILROADS in FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 
] 783 ; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, 
commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident 
on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- 
ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and 
Brussels Railway, train ran off a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 
8, 1846. 

RAILWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in 
Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. 

RAMILIES, Battle op, between the English under the duke of Marlborough 
and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on 
Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious 
victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- 
ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which 
had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his 
daughters. 

RATISBON, Peace op, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- 
many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under 
the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. 

RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest 
of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions 
of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. 
Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in 
the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, 
that nothing could be done to oppose them ; they came from the western 
deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- 
vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an<7. 
in some parts of France are still unknown. 

RAVENNA, Battle op, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix 
(duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal 
armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment 
of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 
11, 1512. 

RAVILLAC'S MURDER op HENRY IV. op FRANCE. The death cf Ravil- 
lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, May 
14, 1610 ; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. 
He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the 
shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened 
the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. 
Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot 
pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil. pitch, and rosin wero 
poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain ; and 
his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to b« 



In Ireland (Browne) .... 1535 
In England, completed (Crammer,! u- 
cer, Fagius, fyc.) .... [547 

In Scotland (Knox) 1560 

In the Netherlands .... ]562 



560 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ RE1 

piuled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, 
and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through thu 
streets. 
REFORM in PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation 
for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for 
a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- 
sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- 
form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl 
Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by 
lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords 
by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority, May 7. 
New peers were created May 18, and the bill was finally passed by peers 
(106 to 22) June 4, 1832. 
REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church 
may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of Aqui- 
leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal 
reformers were Wicklifie, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, 
Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The 
eras of the Reformation are as follows : — 

In England ( Wickliffe) - - A. d. 1360 1 In Sweden (Petri) ■ - - a. d. 1530 

In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 | In England (Henry VIII.) - - - 1534 

In Germany (Luther) - - - - 1517 

In Switzerland (Zuinglius) - - -1519 

In Denmark 1521 

In France (Calvin) 1529 

Protestants first so called - - - 1529 

The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession 
to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first 
prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Luther, 
Protestants, fyc. 

RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to 
God. the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and 
applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false 
gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes 
and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits 
being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious 
ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- 
troduced by Enos, 2832 b. c. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described 
throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced 
with the Reformation {which see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for 
the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as Catholics suffered 
death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; 
they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv- 
ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. 

REPEAL of the UNION op Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- 
tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 
1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 
1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- 
berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in 
various parts of Ireland, some of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and 
called " monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf. on Oct. 8, 
was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were 
brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. 

RETREAT op the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had 
joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- 
xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the 
retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under 



IEV ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



561 



continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was- enabled 
to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops cf moun- 
tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. 
This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned 
home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 
215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might 
now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher 
who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which 
he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 e. c. — Vossius. 
REVENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list 
and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- 
nary, £l, 200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles 
II. Raised to £6.000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, 
which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 
1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. 

SINCLAIR. 

- £800,000 
400,000 
450,000 
500,000 
600,01 iL 
895.819 

1,517,247 
1,800.000 

- 2,001,855 
3,892.205 

■ 5,691 £03 
6,762,643 

- 8,522.510 
15,572.971 

- 65.599,570 
62,871,300 

- 55,431,317 
. . 50,494:732 

- 51,067,856 



SNERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC 

William the Conqueror 

William Rufus - 

Henry 1. 

Stephen 

Henry II. 

Richard I. ■ 

John 

Henry III. ■ 

Edward I. 

Edward II. 

Edward III. 

Richard II. 

Henry IV. 

Henry V. 

Henry VI. 

Edward IV. 

Edward V. 

Richard III. 

Henry VII. 



REVENUE SINCE 
- £400,000 

350,000 
300,000 
250,000 
200,000 
150,000 
100,000 
80,000 
150,900 
100,000 
154,000 
130,000 
100.( 11 10 
76,643 
64,976 

100,000 
130.000 
400,000 



THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN 

Henry VIII. 

Edward VI. - 

Mary .... 

Elizabeth 

James I. .... 

Charles I. - 

Commonwealth 

Charles II. 

James II. - 

William III. - 

Anne (at the Union) - 

George I. ... 

George II. ... 

George III., 1788 - 

Ditto, 1S20, United Kingdom 

George IV., 1825, ditto - 

William IV., 1830, ditto - 

Ditto, 1835, ditto • - - 

Victoria, 1845, ditto - 



REVENUE of the United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and 
sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 



$4,399,473 

- 5,926.216 
10,624,997 

- 13,520,312 
9,299,737 

- 15,411.634 
16,779,331 

REVIEWS and MAGAZINES 



1790 
1795 
1800 
1805 
1810 
1815 
1820 



1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 - - $16,993.a58 

1830 - - 24,280,888 1844 - - 2S,504;519 

1835 - - - 34,163,635 1845 - - • 29,769.134 

1836 - - 48,288,219 1846 - - 29,499.247 

1837 - - - 18,032,846 1847 - - - 26,346,79C 

1838 • ■ 19,372,984 1848 - - 35,436,750 

1839 - - - 30,399,043 

The first publication of the character of a re- 
view was the " Journal des Savants" established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis 
de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- 
tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De 
Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la 
Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted by a society o! 
learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 
1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discontinued ; but in 
1816. it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- 
tributors, as De Sacy, LangMs, Re'musat, Biot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other 
literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few 
years. 

The Gentleman's Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the Monthly 
Review, in 1749, were the first works of t'he kind published in London, that 
obtained any great degree of permanency .or celebrity. Of the journals 
which preceded the Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated 
by Nichols; viz. "Weekly Memorials, oran Account of Books lately set forth,'' 
24* 



562 the world's PROGRESS. [ REV 

1688-9; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; ' New Memoirs oi 
Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 
18 vols., 1728 to 1736; "Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. 

The Gentleman' 's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the 
first editor, who died in 1754, leaving the work in the hands of his associate, 
David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 
1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more 
than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author 
of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 ■vols., died in 1827, having been joint or solo 
editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession; 
and the appellation assumed a.ad retained by the conductor of the work 
from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. This Mag- 
azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- 
tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of 
this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is 
spoken, — that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which 
literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun 
January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 volumes 

The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was 
established in 1749, by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it 
54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work was 
continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, 
from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 
1825 108 volumes. 

The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- 
ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764- to 
1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished 
upwards of 2,620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. 
First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 
to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 
volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series 
was begun in 1815. 

The British Critic [London] was established in 1793 ; and its first editors were, 
the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom di'jd 
in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the 
work till the completion of the 42d volume. It was at first published in 
monthly numbers ; hi 1 * ^om 1827, it appeared quarterly, under the title of 
' : The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, 
called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- 
bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High 
Church principles. 

The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri- 
odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range 
and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- 
ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter ot 
Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith 
(the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its 
principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished 
names of Play fair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham : 
and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, 
upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- 
what less than 9000. 

The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early aa 
1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It 
may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- 



REV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 

ing, in a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High. Tory principles. 
It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by 
H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- 
bered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and 
learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected 
Avith the government. 

The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805. 
It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- 
ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had 
many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert 
Hall, and John Foster.— Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, from 
1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 
30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829. 
The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members 
of the established church, was commenced in 1802, and maintains what are 
commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- 
butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel 
Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have be-ai republished 
in this country. 

Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthly journal, was commenced in 1817. 
It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. 
The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 
1 he Westminster Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- 
tham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- 
lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, 
and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. 
The Foreign Quarterly Review [London], established in 1827, devoted to 
foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united 
to the Westminster Review. — Amer. Almanac, &c. 

REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- 
land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James 
II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- 
sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 
1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was 
consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) 
being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. 

REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- 
stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 
536 b. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- 
sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 
b. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or 
Greek monarchy, by Julius Csesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded 
by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. 
The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. 
This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire 
under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, 
from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern 
empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also the 
Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rome, 
France. Portugal, &c. 

REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated in modern history. In Portugal, a. d. 
1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia, 1730 
and 1762. In Sweaen, 1772 and 1809. in America, 1775. In France. 1789, 
18:30. and 1848. In Holland. 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In 
the Netherlands, 1830. Iu Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 



564 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



kio 



Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c, 1848-9. These last were temporary only 
— the former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- 
tively. 
REVIEWS and MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- 
rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- 
rary journals : n several places in this country, particularly Boston, New 
York, and Philadelphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or 
had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and 
religious reviews and magazines : 
boston. Founded. 
American Monthly Ma- 
gazine, (the first) es- 
tablished by Jeremy 
Gridley, continued 3 
years, about • - 1745 

Massachusetts Maga- 
zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 
Monthly Antliology, Prf. 



Ticknor, A. H. Eve 
rett, Buckminster, &c. 
(to 1311) - - - 1803 

General Repertory and 
Review, (1st Amer. 
quarterly,') edited at 
Cambridge by Andrews 
Norton - - 1812-13 

North American Re- 
view, commenced by 
W. Tudor* - - 1815 

Christian Examiner, 
(quarterly) Channing, 
Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 

American Biblic. Repo- 
sitory, founded by E. 
Robinson, D.D., at An- 
dover - - - 1831 

Christian Review,(B&p- 
tist) quarterly - - 1835 

Boston Quarterly Re- 
view^ (Brownson) - 1837 

New England Maga- 
zine, Buckingham - 1833 

American Quarterly Re- 
gister, Edwards - 18 — 

The Dial, (quarterly) 
Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 

Massachusetts Quarter 



NEW YORK. 

N. Y. Magazine and 
Literary Repository, 
(to 1792) - - 1787 

Literary Review, R. C. 
Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 1822 

Atlantic Mag., Sands, 
afterwards New York 
Monthly Review, - 1824 



Knickerbocker Mag., C. 

F. Hoffman, succeeded 
by Flint, and now L. 

G. Clark - - 1832 
Democratic Review (un- 
til 1841 at Washington) 1837 

American Monthly Ma- 
gazine, N. y.,(to 1838) 
Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- 
jamin - - - 1835 

N. Y. Review, (quar- 
terly) J. G. Cogswell, 
(to 1842) - - 1837 

American Review, G. 
H. Colton - - 1844 

Hunt's Merchant's Ma- 
gazine - • - 1839 



NEW HAVEN. 

Christian Observer 

American Journal of 
Science Sf Arts, (Silli 
man's) quarterly 

New Englander, Theol 
(quarterly) 

Church Review (quar- 
terly) - 



182- 



1818 
1843 



R13 



PHILADELPHIA. 

Aitkin's Pennsylvania 
Magazine was the 
most popular before 
the Revolution; Thos. 
Paine and Francis 
Hopkinson, editors 

Amer. Museum, pub. by 
Matthew Carey, (to 
1792) - - -1787 

Literary Magazine and 
American Register, C. 
Brockden Brown, (to 
1810) - - -18.6 

Portfolio, pub. monthly 
from 1809 by Jos, Den- 
nie; edited by Nicho- 
las Biddle,] 812-16, and 
1816-21 by J. E. Hall - 1801 

Analectic Mag., Mosga 
Thomas, (to 1820) '8\3 

Amer. Quar. Review, 
Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 

Graham's Magazine • 

Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale 

Stryker's American Re- 
gister, (quarterly) - 1847 

Southern Quarterly Re- 
view, at Charleston, 
(to 1833, recommenced 
1842) - - -1823 

Southern Lit. Messen- 
ger, at Richmond, by 
T. W. White - - 1834 

Biblical Repertory and 
Theological Review, 
Princeton, N. J. - 18— 



ly, Theo. Parker, &c. 1S46 

RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a. d. 406 ; it was rebuilt 
in the twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, 
the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. 
The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, 
becouse Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from 
paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city 
was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at 
Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is 
to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to 
be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius professor of rhetoric was appointed in 
Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 



* Subsequent editors : — W. Phillips, 1817 ; E. T. Channing, Dana, and Sparks. 1817; Edward 
Eferett, 18' 9; Jared Sparks. 1823; A. H. Everett, 1830; J. G. Palfrey, 1835; F. Bowen, .842. 



ROM ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



565 



RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of the Rhine- 
RHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Ro^er Williams 
and his associates, who left Massachusetts to escape religious persecution, 
and founded the town of Providence, in 1686. Williams obtained a patent 
from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode 
Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, 
which has continued in force till recently, unchanged by the Revolution. 
Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in 
June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti- 
tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United 
States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Pop- 
ulation in 1790, 58,825; in 1810, 76,931; in 1830, 97,212; in 1840, 108,130. 

RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- 
dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- 
itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not 
completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b.c. Its famous Colossus 
(which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroyed 
by the Saracen admiral Moavht, a. d. 672 — Priestley. 

RIALTO, at Venice. This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in 
his " Merchant of Venice. 1 ' It was built in 1570, and consists of a single 
arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near 
the middle, where it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet 
wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. 

RIGHTS, BILL op. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- 
land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill oj 
Rights. 

RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : 



At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- 
ed to the war, demolished, July, 1812. 

At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- 
tary, Sept. 24, 1831. 

At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 
killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835. 

At New York, '-abolition riots," caused by 
discussions on slavery, and supposed in- 
tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- 
gamation" between whites and blacks, 
July 10-12, 1834. 

At Charlestown, Mass., a Catholic seminary 
or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. 

At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 
40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. 

At Utica, Boston, &c, same cause, 1835-6. 

At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- 
ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 
30. 1836. 

At New York, caused by the high price ot 
flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- 
troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. 

At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- 
very newspaper destroyed, and he was 
killed, Nov. 7. 1837. 

At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 
slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- 
nia Hall, &c, May 17, 1838. 

In the Pennsylvania legislature, two different 
legislatures organized, the Senate expelled 
from their Chamber by a mob. Militia 
called out and the contest settled after 4 
days, Dec. 8, 1838. 



At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against 
abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. 

Disgraceful affray in Pennsylvania legisla- 
ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 
8, 1843. 

Another in House of Representatives of U. 
S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, 
Jan. 25, 1844. 

Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- 
ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 
churches burned, fourteen persons killed, 
forty wounded : finally put down by the 
military, May 6-8, 1844. 

The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and 
wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- 
ed out, July 7,1844. 

Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer 
County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 
1844 : renewed in December. 

Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor 
Wright to be in a state of insurrection. 
Col lection of rents being resisted by rioters 
disguised as Indians, and an under sheriff 
murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. 

Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 
25, 1847. 

Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y. 
against Mr. Macready, the English actor 
21 killed ; May 10, 1849. 

Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis 
sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in the 
Senate, of the U. S., the first gross insult to 
that assembly, May, 1850. 



RIVER and HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- 



566 the world's PROGRESS, [ RJM 

sembled at Chicago, III., July 5, 18-47. House of Representatives votes 
(112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- 
ment to promote such improvements, July 1848. 
ROBESPIERRE S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the 
populace in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of 
the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers ol 
eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- 
tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- 
bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through 
the hall ; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked 
minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and 
suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. 

ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who 
infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made 
excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historian 
assert that this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, 
who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. 
Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- 
merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1247, 
when he died. — Statue's Chron. 

ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were 
invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were 
first usod at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated 
in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See 
article Boulogne Flotilla. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of 
its divine founder was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was 
alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the 
rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of 
Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the 
papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of 
Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- 
phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. 
The tremendous power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reform- 
ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed 
doctrines, and the general diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the 
earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under 
the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them in 
1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor 
there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded 
from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and 
estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament 
in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 
1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation 
Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his 
seat under the act. 

ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic 
flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — 
Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author 
of Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence 
styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and 
particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.-- 
Huet de Or \gine Fabul. Roman. 



ROS ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



567 



ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the 
most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. 
Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- 
brated city, on the 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of 
the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the 
birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of 
the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
the summit of Mount Palatine"; and the founder, to give his followers the 
appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard 
ai a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from 
their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From 
such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the 
death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, tin; 
Palatine. Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and 
Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, 
to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neanj the 
whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting 
for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. 
The three Horatit, Roman knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, having 
been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- 
bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. — 
Lory. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63. 



Foundation of the city commenced by 
Romulus - - -B.C. 

Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters 
Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the 
title of king of Italy, which ends the 
Western empire - - a. d. 

Rome is recovered for Justinian, by 
Belisarius .... 

Retaken by the Goths 

Narses, Justinian's general, again re- 
conquers Rome 

Papal power established 

Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, 
and becomes free 

Pope Stephen II. invested with the tem- 
poral dominion of Rome 

Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor 
of the West - - - - 



753 



476 



Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at 
Rome 1347 

[The popes continued in possession of 
the city and territories. See article 
Popes and Italy.] 

The recent struggles of Rome for free- 
dom commenced in - - - 1848 

Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 

Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- 
ter, assassinated at the senate-house. 
The populace march to the Quirinal, 
and present their demands to the 
pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- 
stituent assembly, a new ministry, 



&c. The pope refuses ; the people 
attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the 
pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- 
nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1848 

The pope, after being a prisoner in his 
palace for seven days, escapes from 
Rome to Mola di Gaeta, in the dis- 
guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 

Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- 
stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1S48 
[ The Roman republic proclaimed; Maz- 
zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 

French armament against the republic 
reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 

French repulsed under the walls of 
Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 

Rome surrenders after an attack of 29 
days, and false promises on the part 
of the French - - July 2, 1849 

j Rome entered by the French under Ou- 
dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi 
and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 

Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 

Oudinot surrenders the government 
into the hands of three commissioners 
of the pope, who begin the work of 
reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1349 

Letter of the French president, dictat- 
ing the basis of the restoration of the 
pope's temporal power, viz. : general 
amnesty, secularization of the admi- 
nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- 
ral government - Aug. IS, 1849 

Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 



ROSARY. " We owe to Dominic de Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- 
gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary 
and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as 
being said in 1093. 

ROSES, The White and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated 
England, were carried on under the symbols of the White and the Bed Rose, 
and were called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lan- 



568 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ ROM 

caster chose the i ed roses as their mark of distinction, and those of York 
were denominated from the white. These wars originated with the descend- 
ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, Ri- 
chard II., who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king 
by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii 
to the crown; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward 
III., whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the thira 
son of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira 
cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- 
scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdona 
with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parfcularly ir 
the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, May 22 
1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII 
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.; 1486 

ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of herraetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger 
many in 1302, and again early in the 1 7th century, They swore fidelity 
promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the an 
cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno 
sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. 

ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng. 
land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava- 
lurs, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. This 
latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves 
putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii 
hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 

ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- 
age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was 
appointed its first president.— Leigh. 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of 
persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- 
berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions 
of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the 
metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus 
and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- 
der the patronage of George III., and incorporated by royal charter aa 
" The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and 
facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and 
improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and 
experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. 
The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- 
tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thi* 
establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. 

ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. 
Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of 
divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in tb.4 
apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society 
continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a bodj 
politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and 
Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.'' 

RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of (he 
civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- 
aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the 
Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded; 
and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60, were 



BUS ] 



DICTIONARY OF BATES. 



569 



permitted to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was 
called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 
1649.— Goldsmith. 

RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this 
vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son 
of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion 
from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- 
guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- 
pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. 
Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- 
thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian 
king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- 
cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in 
subjection till 1540. when John Basilowitz restored it to independence.'- In 
the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered 
Siberia. 



The foundation of the present monarchy 

laid a. d. 1474 

Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- 
to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 

Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, 
signifying great king, and drives the 
Tartars clear out of his dominions, 
1534 to 1550 

The navigation from England first dis- 
covered by RQbert Chancellor - - 1554 

The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 
30,000 of the people - - - -1571 

The Novogorodians having intrigued 
with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief 
inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- 
ces before his eyes .... 1531 

The race of Rurick, who had governed 
Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598 

The imposition practised by Demetrius 
See Impostors. 1606 

The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their 
own king, Sigismund II., upon the 
throne of Russia .... 1610 

Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of 
Romanzov, ascends the throne - - 1613 

Revolt from Polish tyranny - - - 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 

Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682 

He visited England, and worked in the 
dock-yard at Deptford - - - 1697 

Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- 
ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 

The Russians begin their new year 
from January 1 - - - 1700 

Peter builds St. Petersburg - - 1703 

Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given 
to Anne of Courland - - - 1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 
in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, 
who is imprisoned for life - - 1741 

Peter III. dethroned and murdered ; suc- 
ceeded by Catherine his wife, - 1762 

THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA 

1606 Chousky 
murdered, 



The young prince, the rightful heir, till 
now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 

The dismemberment of Poland com- 
menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177/- 

This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 

Catherine gives her subjects a new code 
of laws ; abolishes torture in punish- 
ing criminals ; and dies - - 1796 

Murder of the emperor Paul, who is 
found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 

Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 
by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 

Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 

The grand-duke Constantine renounces 
the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 

The emperor Nicholas is crowned at 
Moscow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 

Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1820 

Nicholas invested with the order of the 
Garter - - - July 9, 1827 

Peace concluded between Russia and 
the Persians - - Feb' 22, 1828 

War between Russia and the Ottoman 
Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 

[For the disastrous consequences to 
Turkey of this war, see Turkey and 
Battles.] 

The war for the independence of Poland, 
against Russia - - Nov. 29,' 1830 

This war closed with the capture of 
Warsaw, and the total overthrow of 
the Poles. See Warsaw - Sept. 8, 1831 

[For the events of this last war, see ar- 
ticle Poland.] 

Cracow, which had been erected into a 
republic, and its independence gua- 
ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 
1815, is occupied by a Russian and 
Austrian army - Feb. 13, I83o 

Failure of the Russian expedition a- 
gainst Khiva - - Jan. 3, 1340 

Treaty of London. See Syria - July 15, 1843 



1461 John III. 

1504 Demetrius ; 

1504 Basil V. 

1534 John IV. 

1584 Theodore I. 

1598 Bovise Godounove. 

1605 Theodore II. 

J605 Pemetrius II. , assassinated. 



1616 Michael fedorowitz. 

1645 Alexis. 

1676 Theodore III. 

1682 Peter I., the Great. 

1725 Catherine I. 

1727 Peter II. 

1730 Anne, a nun. 



570 the world's progress. [s*;j 



RUSSIA, continued. 



1740 John V. ; murdered, Jily 17, 1762. 

1741 Elizabeth. 

1762 Peter III. ; deposed, and died soon af- 
terwards. 



1762 Catherine II. 

1796 Paul I. ; murdered, Feb 25, 1901. 

1801 Alexander. 

1825 Nicholas, December 1. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy t« 
assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James 
II.) at a place called Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. 
This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at New- 
market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eight 
days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1688. The plot was discov- 
ered June 12, following. The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a 
false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1683. 

RYSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Sp^in, and Holland 
signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. 

S. 

SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh 
day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- 
dage of the Egyptians ; the Christians observe the first day of the week in 
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- 
sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be 
kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at 
break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one 
shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. 
Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform 
ance of servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, 
meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charit} r , on forfeiture of 
five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. 

SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts 
of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- 
dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not 
a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath 
was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently 
that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the 
Jews, 1549. 

SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, 
during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every 
forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, 
&c, that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original families, 
&c. — Josephus. 

SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away 
their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some 
public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines were determined to 
revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf 
of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- 
tween them, 750 b. c. 

SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 b. c. 
The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 
356 b. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all 
the cities of the Phoceans, 348 b. c. — Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con- 
sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; Ushtr. 
Sacrifices to the gods were fii st introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of 



ST. V ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 571 

Argos, 1773 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated 
with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and 
other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- 
fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 83. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, 
which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in 
the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in a. d. 304. They 
were known in England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in 
use in 1388. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En- 
glish ladies. — Slowe. 

SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one 
Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, 
taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul 
was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. 
As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the Sama- 
ritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This 
sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. 

SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- 
cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- 
proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in 
passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be 
capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- 
nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are 
authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in 
Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, same year. 

SAGUNTUM, Siege of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now 
Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after 
exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the 
ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- 
selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became 
master of a pile of ashes and of dead. 

ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or 
America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahami. or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for 
his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of 
discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. 

ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- 
lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most 
heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, 
was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31 
1813. 

ST. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- 
lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by 
Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- 
rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of 
Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at 
Rome. 

ST. VINCENT, Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets off the 
Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. 
Vincent), who took four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged tb§ 
rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 



5(2 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [ SAJ* 

SALAMANCA. Battle of, between the British and allies commanded by lord 
Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 
1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington waa 
victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in 
killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy 
was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 
pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed 
to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- 
shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An 
immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 
more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. 

SALAMTS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- 
fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 
366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. After 
this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, 
with 300.000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- 
treat, he found the bridge of boats he had crossed over at the Hellespont, 
now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. 

SALIQUE, on SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- 
ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- 
fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French 
monarchy, in 511. — Henault's France. In order to give more authority to 
the maxim that " the crown should never descend to a female," it was usual 
to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but 
this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring 
the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. 

SALT and SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from 
salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near 
Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been 
lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered 
about a. d. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine 
salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. 

SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They 
were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and 
were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple 
built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- 
tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place 
between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- 
proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lempriere. 

SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one 
entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety 
of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- 
cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. 
St. Burehrs, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- 
minster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- 
tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in London were 
privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- 
pressed in 1696. 

SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At 
first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot 
from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of 
cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest 
materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, 
princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn 
by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, 



£AR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 573 

among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of 
which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry 
their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. Sea 
Shoes. 

S ANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They 
were discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- 
tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard 
of mankind. It was in one. of these islands that this illustrious circumna- 
vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. 
Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, 
effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha, chief of 
Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds 
him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihorihoand his queen died in Eng- 
land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established 
by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 
pupils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- 
Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- 
aries, &c, 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jtdd, an Ame- 
rican, prime-minister. 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2630 tons, belong- 
ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling 
station. See Owhyhee. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of sev- 
enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from 
Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John 
xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon 
at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. 

SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- 
lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her .beauty, and her 
amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth 
of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid 
her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. 

SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their 
language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; 
and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part 
of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the 
empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. 
— Blair. There are now no people known by this name ; the descendants 
of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. 

SARAGOSSA. Anciently Csesarea Augusta ; whence, by corruption, its name. 
Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, 
while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and 
left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little 
Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- 
luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of 
the inhabitants perished in a Are at the theatre. Saragossa taken by 
the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re- 
nowned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. 

SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman 
der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir 
the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the 
American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17 
1777. 

SARDANAPALTIS. The last king of Assyria. .See Assyria. One of the mos( 



574 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 



I SA1 



infamous ;md sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to 
his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into 
their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused 
a vast pile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon 
it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, 
and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart- 
ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. 
This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The richea 
thus destroyed were worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold, and tea 
times as many talents of silver III about 1,400,000,000/. sterling. — Athenceus, 

SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c, are supposed to 
have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls 
(when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from 
whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the 
Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, 
from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has 
been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- 
nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v, Inch 
various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. 



Subjugated by the Romans 



B.C. 231 



Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 

Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 

The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, 
who are, however, too weak to expel 
the Saracens 1132 

Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes 
master of Sardinia - - - - 1324 

Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- 
lish naval forces .... 1708 

Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 

They again lose possession - - - 1719 

Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- 
valent for Sicily .... 1720 

Victor Amadeus, having the title of king 
abdicates in favor of his son - a.d. 1730 

Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is 
taken, and dies in prison - - - 1732 

[The court kept at Turin till 1706, when 
these dominions were overrun by the 
French arms, and shortly afterwards 
annexed to the French empire.] 

The king resigns his crown to his bro- 
ther, duke of Aoust - . June 4, 1802 

Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- 
parte crowned king of the whole. 

December 26, 1805 

Restored to its rightful sovereign, with 
Genoa added to it December 1814 

King Charles Albert, having protested 
against Austrian encroachments in 
Italy, calls out an additional force of 
25,000 men - - - Jan. 10, 1548 

Proclaims the basis of a Constitution 

Feb. 8, 1848 



Declares war against Austria, enters 
Milan with An army, to assist the po- 
pular cause, and drives the Austrians 
towards Mantua - - March 23, 1843 

Takes Lodi .... April 1,*"* 

Forces the Austrian line near Verona, 

April 17, **** 

Takes Peschiara - • - May 30, **** 

Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, 
at Goito *"*-• 

Sardinian army driven from Vicenza, 
Verona, the Adige, &c., June-July - 1848 

Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of 
Milan Aug. 4, **** 

Followed by an armistice - - '."" 

Rupture of the armistice - - March 1849 

Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under 
Charles Albert, totally defeated by 
Radetsky *"** 

The king abdicates in favor of his son, 
Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and 
leaves the kingdom - March 23, **" 

Insurection at Genoa against the new 
king April 1, ***" 

Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, **** 
and fully reduced - - April 11, **** 

Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- 
bon July 28, *'"*•* 

Victor Emanuel opens the legislative 
chamber with a moderate speech, and 
is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. *"* 

Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, **" 

The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re- 
lieve the refugees fom various parts 
of Italy • - Aug. 30, "" 



KINGS OP SARDINIA. 



A. e. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- 
nuel duke of Savoy. 
1730. Charles Emanuel 
1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 
1796. Charles Emanuel. 



1802. Victor Emanuel. 
1821. Charles Felix. 
1831. Charles Albert, Apri. 27. 
1848. Victor Emanuel 



SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made ita 
appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius. who was so celebrated in 
this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 



SAW 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 575 

b.c. — Livy. Lucilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we 
may compare him to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, ac« 
companied with mire and dirt. — Horace. 

SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with 
the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol 
worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according to Vertigern was 
named by them Saterne's-day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, 
dies Satumi. — Addison. 

SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the 
sun. and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by 
Galileo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c, by Huygens in 1634 ; 
his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by 
Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the 
planets. 

SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long 
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and 
equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, 
however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Romein,h<> 
reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while 
others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first 
celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- 
mius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were 
encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what they pleased 
to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. 

SAVINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having ac- 
cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was 
adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an 
extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks 
to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. 
Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings 
banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in 
that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount 
deposited, 32.661.924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- 
ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous 
throughout the United States. 

SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 
395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title 
of earl. Amadeus, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- 
nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor 
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from 
Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country 
in 1792. and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont 
Blanc, in 1800. 

SAW. Invented by Dagdalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — Apollodorus, Ta- 
lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. . 
Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he 
e?rs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. 
Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 
1555. In England saw-mills had at firsi the. same fate with printing in Tur- 
key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were 



576 the world's PROGRESS. [_ BUB 

violently opposed ; and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be 
abandoned. 

C .A XONY. The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied 
to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the 
same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than 
two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many 
centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick 
Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his 
brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- 
gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1836. Saxony became 
the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at 
Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put 
down by the Prussian troops, May 7, 1849. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating 
to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, 
such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other 
great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, 
false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard II,. 1378. 

SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 b. c. 
Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, 
never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, 
and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. 
As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life 
and death were the same thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he 
did not hurry himself out of the world 1 "Because," says he, "there 
is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- 
lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — 
Strabo. 

SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the 
earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; 
they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was 
the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The 
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Le 
Gendre. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- 
tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — 
Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scully. In Eng- 
land there are now 13.642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the 
education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- 
chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday 
schools) 4.836 ; and the number of children, 181.467. The number of 
schools in Wales is 841. and the number of children 38,164: in Ireland, 
13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the system of 
public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school-fund 
in Maine amounts to $350,000; in Massachusetts, $850,000 ; in Connecticut, 
$2,077,641; New York, '$6,491,803; New Jersey, $369,278; Delaware, 
$225,000; Virginia. $1.448.261 ; Georgia, $262 300; Alabama, $1.215,381 ; 
Tennessee, $1,346,068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio. $1,566,931; Michigan, 
$500,000; Indiana. $2,195,149; Missouri, $575 668; Iowa, $132,909. Total 
in 1849, $21,420,275. In the State of New York the number of District 
School Libraries is about 11,000. See Education, Libraries, &c. 

SCIENCE in the United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. 
American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of 
Arts and Sciences, 1780. First jourse of Chemical Lectures in the United 
States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of 



EOF ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 577 

Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science, formed, 1845. 

SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men 
turned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipwreck 
of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This 
brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these 
rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which 
were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men. went 
instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romneymd 
Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sis 
Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in 
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. 

SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire 
was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued 
an independent kingdom t- ; ll the death of the English queen Elizabeth, 
when James VI. of Scotkmd, the most immediate heir, was called to the 
throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- 
cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each 
country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign o[ 
queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name ^.f 
Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et scq. 

SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pum ping- 
screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, 
is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the 
screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the 
two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each 
handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be 
seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, 
the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the 
assistance of this screw, press down or raise ujd as much as 150 men could 
do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the 
spirals and the length of the handles. — Greig. 

SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. 
The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by 
others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and 
sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach 
to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezaleel 
and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all the 
vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, and 
their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipoenus and 
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of 
them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only be fact 
so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countries the art 
was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making 
his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which were 
so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in 
gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers among the 
Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the revival of 
the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at 
Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculp- 
ture was revived, under the auspices of the Meclici family, about 1460 — 
Abbi Lenglet. 

FCYTHIA. Tbe country situate on the most northern parts of Europe and 
Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European and 
25 



578 THE world's PROGRESS. [ SSM 

Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account 
of the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were 
unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast 
tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians made 
several irruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 
624 when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight 
years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conquests in 
Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ 
they invaded the Roman empire. 
SEAS Sovereignty op the. The claim of England is of very ancient date. 
Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, 
and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England 
over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken 
by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death 
of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated 
by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, 
to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. 

SECRETARY op STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign two secretaries were appointed ; 
and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for 
Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the 
reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the 
American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- 
liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the 
secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of 
State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by Washington, 
Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Secre- 
tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected 
by the people. 

SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of 
things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all 
others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- 
tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- 
sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balbi. 

Jews .... 4,500.000 I Idolaters, <fcc, not professing the 
Christians - - • - 225,000^000 Jewish, Christian, or Maho- 

Mahometans - - - 155,000,000 | metan worship - - 665,500,000 

SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first 
seen in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by 
the duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex- 
claimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of 
beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- 
cis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of 
such covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use 
in 1649. 

SEDUCTION. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other 
punishment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured family. And 
even this satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in 
the world ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss 
of his daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Palcy's 
Moral Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by 
the legislature of New York in 1844. 

SEMPACH, Battle of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The 
heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vic- 
tory over the duke, who was slain. July 9, 1386. By this battle they es- 



sex] dictionary of dates. 579 

tablisbe 1 the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo* 
rated with great solemnity at Sempach. 

SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the 
seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became 
the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by 
Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name 
of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his 
own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of 
Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor 
Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into 
disuse. 

*§EPTUAGINT VERSION op the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- 
lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and 
on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or 
letter. — Justin Martyr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen- 
tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- 
lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the Tostai.aent, 
and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Josep/ms. 
Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. 

SERINGAPATAM, Battles op, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the 
British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts 
were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. 
After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed 
to cede one-half of Mysore, and to pay 38,0U0,000 of rupees (about 
3,300,000/!. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his 
two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be- 
fore Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 
14; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
same year: In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. 

SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily 
attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus 
along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many 
of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was 
afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American 
papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the 
coast, but its existence has been generally doubted. Haydn quotes from 
Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which 
was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an 
Orkney pony, 1808. 

SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 
1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants 
was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on 
servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000Z. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue 
from it had fallen to 201,4822. 

SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at 
Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the 
Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and 
Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 
9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by 
assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 
1812. 

SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains 
sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of 
the planets, &c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 



580 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[sm 



in 1550.— Vinci's Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs are 
said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d. 
995.— Ashe. 

SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed 
being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved 
detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward IV. 1467. — Anderson. 
Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The 
number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — by some 
at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. 

SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shire-reve, governor of a shire oi 
county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I/s reign ; but some say 
that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William 
in 1079. 

SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar- 
gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier 
de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insur- 
gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The 
battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same 
cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. 

SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven- 
tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece 
by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by 
the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- 
land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called 
the Great Harry, and cost 14,000Z. — Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships 
were the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being 
on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
by Uescharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 
1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- 
gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping 
of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from 
New York — are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the 
world. See Navy and Steam Vessels. 
SHIPPING of Great Britain and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the 
"3 river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle 
of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons 
—less than London now. In 1840. the number of ships in the British em- 
pire was 29,174; tonnage, 3,277,338; seamen, 205,904. These returns were 
exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam Vessels. 

SHIPPING of the UNITED STATES. Tonnage 



Yean 

1791 

1792 

1793 

1794 

1795 

179(3 

1797 

1798 

1799 

1800 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 

1805 



Tonnage. 


Years. 


Tonnage. 


502,146 


1806 


1,208,735 


564,437 


1807 


1,268,548 


491,780 


1808 


1.242,595 


628,817 


1809 


i;350,281 


747,964 


1810 


1,424.783 


831,900 


1811 


1,232,502 


876,913 


1812 


1,269,997 


898,328 


1813 


1,666,628 


946,408 


1814 


1,159,209 


972,492 


1815 


1,368,127 


. 1,033,219 


1816 


1,372,218 


892,101 


1S17 


1,399,911 


949,147 


1818 


1,225,184 


• 1,042,404 


1819 


1,260.751 


• 1,140,369 


1820 


1.280,166 



image 


at different 


aeriod 


Years. 


Tonnage. 


Years. 


1821 


■ 1,298,958 


1835 


1S22 


- 1,324.699 


1S36 


1823 


- 1,336,565 


1837 


1824 


■ 1.3S9.1G3 


1838 


1825 


- 1,423.112 


1839 


1826 


- 1.534,190 


1840 


1827 


- 1,620,608 


1841 


1S28 


- 1,741,392 


1842 


1829 


- 1,20(1,978 


1843 


1830 


- 1,191.776 


1844 


1831 


- 1,267,846 


1845 


1832 


- 1,439.450 


1846 


1833 


- 1,601.150 


1847 


1834 


- 1,758,907 


1848 



Tonnage. 

1,824,940 
1,892,102 
1,896,685 
1,995,635 
2,096,478 
2,180,764 
2,130,741 
2,092,390 
2,158,602 
2,280,095 
2,417,002 
2,562,084 
2.839, Mf 
3; 150,50: 



SHR J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 581 



SHTP-MONEY It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. 
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- 
tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; 
Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000^. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 
tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- 
den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place 
in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died June 
24, 1643. 

SHIPWRECKS, and DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping. 

SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- 
ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Fresnoy. 
Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the 38th of 
Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period 
from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans, — 
Stotoe. 

SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, linen, rush, or "wood. 
Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah 
iii. 18. Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would 
have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that 
they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- 
frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by 
women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, 
like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- 
land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet ; they wore 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves 
in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462. but was prohibited, on the for- 
feiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467, 
See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The 
buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe; Mortimer. 

SHOP-TAX, in England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops 
was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in 
London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was 
passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See 
Acts. 

SHREWSBURY, Battle op, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the 
army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of 
Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- 
sisted of about 12.000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry 
was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son, 
who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, 
and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- 
formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur 
supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and 
every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 
gentlemen were slain, and about'6000 private men. The death of Hotspur 
by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory 
to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.] 

SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, 
and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the 
treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51. 



582 the world's progress. [ SIC 

While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by 
the splendors that surrounded him. " Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible 
that a people possessed of such magnificence at home could envy me an 
humble cottage in Britain V The emperor was affected with the British 
hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained 
upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith. 

SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- 
fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- 
mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake 
of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and hence arose the 
custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek 
Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. On these 
days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, 
provided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; 
and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people in 
every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the 
parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- 
ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the 
name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. 

SIBYLS. The Sibyllas were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished 
in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks 
of one, others of two, Pliny of three, iElian of four, and Varro of teii, an 
opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is 
said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- 
nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon 
the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for 
the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again 
demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring 
with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created 
to consult them on all occasions, 531, b. c. 

SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, 
a peojjle of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A 
second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 
1264 b. c. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, 
and at last the Carthaginians became masters of the whole island, till they 
were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors 
suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the continent, and that it was 
separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charyb- 
dis were formed. — Justin; Livy, 

The Romans arrive m Sicily - b. c. 264 

Agrigentum taken by the Romans - 262 

Palermo besieged by the Romans - - 254 

Archimedes flourishes ... 236 

The Romans take Syracuse, and make ail 

Sicily a province - - - - 212 

The servile war began. — Livy - - 135 

Conquered by the Saracens - A.d. 321 

[They made Palermo the capital, and the 

standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 

years.] 
They are driven out by a Norman rrince, 

Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the 

title of count of SiGily - - - 1030 

Roger II., son of the above-named, unites 

Sicily with Naples, and is crowned king 

of the Two Sicilies - - - 1130 

Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, king 

of France, conquers Naples and Sicily, 



Arrival of Ulysses. — Homer - - B.C. 1186 

He puts out the eye of Polyphemus - 1186 

Syracuse founded. — Etisebius - - 732 

Gela founded. — Thucydides - - - 713 

Arrival of the Messenians - - - 668 
Phalans, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to 

death. — See Brazen Bull - - - 552 

Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela - 496 

Law of Petalism instituted - - 466 

Rsign of Dionysius - - - - 405 
O Tended with the freedom of the philo- 
sopher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a 

slave. — Stanley ... - 386 

Plato ransomed by his friends - - - 386 
Damon and Pythias flourish. — See Damon 

and Pythias .... 386 

The sway of Timoleon - - ■ - 346 

Usurpation of Agathocles - - - 317 
Defeat of Hamilcar - - - 309 
Pillage of the temples of Lepari - 304 



BIS J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



583 



SICILY, continued. 
deposes the Norman princes, and makes 
himself king - - .ad. 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Sici- 
lians, a general massacre of the invaders 
takes place, one Frenchman only escap- 
ing. — See Sicilian Vespers - - 1288 

In the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet 
sent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; 
but Naples remains to the house of An- 
jou, which expires - - - 1382 

J.ne, the late sovereign, having left her 
crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his pre- 
tensions are resisted by Charles Du 
raBzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the 
throne - - - - - - 1386 

Aiphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- 
sion of Naples .... 1458 

Thi kingdom of Naples and Sicily united 
to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504 

The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an 
insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a 
fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises 
two hundred thousand men - - 1647 

Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of 
these commotions, procures himself to 
be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few 
days, delivered up to the Spaniards by 
his adherents - - - - - 1647 



Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the 
treaty of Utrecht - a. d. 

Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI., 
Sardinia being given to him as an equi- 
valent - - - - - 

The Spaniards having made themselves 
masters of both kingdoms, Charles, son 
of the king of Spain, ascends the tnrone, 
with the ancient title renewed, of king 
of the Two Sicilies 

Order of St. Januarius instituted by king 
Charles - - - - - 

The throne of Spain becoming vacant, 
Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne 
of the two Sicilies in favor of his brother 
Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
which destroys 40,000 persons - ' - 

Naples preserved from the power of the 
French by the British forces under admi- 
ral Nelson - 

Violent earthquake in the neighborhood 
of Naples - 

The French invade Naples, depose i '~>g 
Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of lAe 
Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, bro- 
ther to the emperor of the French 
For subsequent events, see Naples. 



1713 
172) 

17S4 
1738 

17l- 9 
1783 

15 99 
A&05 

1806 



KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 



A.d. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he 
resigned it to the emperor Charles 
VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in 
lieu of it. 

1718. Charles VI. emperor. 

1734. Charles, second son to the king of 
Spain, resigned in 1759. 

1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 
king. 



1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 

1S08. Joachim Murat; he was shot, October 13, 
1815. 

1815. Ferdinand I. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of 
Naples, and intermediately Ferdinand 
III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- 
dom of the Two Sicilies. 

1826. Francis I. 

1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8. 



SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known 
by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had 
become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou 
was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- 
plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- 
lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
happened to pass by with her train. - She was observed by one Drochet, a 
Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under 
pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this af- 
front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, 
crying out " Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, 
or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number 0$ 
8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the 
massacre became general throughout the island. 

SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held ou1 
for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. 
This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege 
of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten years, 1184 b. c. The fol- 
lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen 
tury :— 



Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- 
parte ; siege raised after \ 
60 days, open trenches. 

Algesiras, 1341. 



Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessels 
first used by a French en- 
gineer named Renau, 1816 

Alkmaer, 1573. 



Almeida, August 27, 1810. 
Amiens, 1597. 
Ancona, 1798. 
Angouleme, 1?43 



584 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[si» 



SIEGES, continued. 

Antwerp, 1576. I se of in- 
fernal machines 1583,1535 
1706, 1792, 1814. 

Arras, 1414. 

Ath, 1745. 

Avignon, 1226. 

Azoff, 1736. 

Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- 
ken by escalade on the 
night of April 6, 1812. 

Bagdad, 1248. 

Bangalore, March 6, 1791. 

Barcelona. 1697, 1714. 

Bayorme, 1451. 

Beauvais, 1472. 

Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 
1688, 1717, 1739, 1789, 

Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. 

Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom, 1583, 1622, 
1747, 1314. 

Berwick, 1293. 

Besancon, 1668, 1674. 

Bethune, 1710. 

Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 

Bologna, 1512, 1796. 

Bommel ; the invention of 
the covert-way, 1794. 

Bonifacio, 1553. 

Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 

Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. 

Bouchain, 1676, 1711. 

Boulogne, 1545. 

Brannau. 1744, 1805. 

Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. 

Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. 

Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. 

Brisac, 1638, 1703. 

Brussels, 1695, 1746. 

Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. 

Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 
1812 ; raised. The French 
in their retreat blew up the 
works, June 13, 1813. 

Cadiz, 1812. 

Caen, 1346, 1450. 

Calais, 1347, (British histo- 
rians affirm that cannon 
were used at Cressy, 1346, 
and here in 1347. First 
used here in 1388. — Ry- 
mbk's Fcbd.) 1558, 1596. 

Calvi, 1794. 

Campo-Mayor,Mar. 23,1811. 

Candia ; the largest cannon 
then known inEurope used 
here by the Turks, 1667. 

Capua, 1501. 

Carthagena, 1706. 

Castillon, 1452, 1586. 

Ceuta, 1790. 

Chalons, 1199. 

Charleroi. 1672, 1677, 1693, 
1736, 1794. 

Chartres, 1568, 1591. 

Chaves, March 25, 1809. 

Cherbourg, 1450. 

Chincillaroct. 30, 1312. 

Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706 ; July 
10. 1310; Jan. 19, 1812. 

Colberg, 1760, 1807. 

Colchester, 1645. 



Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 

1430. 
Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. 
Coni, 1691, 1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu, 1715. 

Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. 
Cracow, 1772. 
Cremona, 1702. 
Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 

to Jan. 12, 1814. 
Dendermonde, 1667. 
Dole, 1668, 1674. 
Douay, 1710. 
Dover, 1216. 
Dresden, 1745, 1813. 
Drogheda, 1649. 
Dublin, 1500. 
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
Edinburgh, 1093. 
Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811. 
Flushing', Aug. 15, 1809. 
Fontenoy, 1242. 
Prnderickshal ; Charles XII. 

killed, 1718. 
Frederickstein, August 13, 

1814. 
Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 
Gaela, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, 

July, 1806, - 1815. 
Genoa 1747, 1800. 
Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. 
Ghent, 1576. 1708. 
Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See 

Gibraltar), 1782. 
Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
Gottingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. 
Gravelinea, 1644 
Grenada. 1491. 1492. 
Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. 
Guastalla, 1702. 
Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
Ham, 1411. 
Harfleur, 1415, 1450. 
Heidelberg, 16S8. 
Herat, June 28, 1838. 
Huningen, 1815. 
Ismael: the merciless Suwar- 

row butchered 30,000 men. 

the brave garrison, and 

6000 icomen, in cold blood, 

Dec. 22, 1790. 
Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 

1792, and 1793. 
Landrecis, 1543, 1712. 
Laon, 991, 1594. 
Leipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 
Lemberg, 1704. 
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. 
Ley den, 1574. 
Liege, 1468, 1702. 
Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. 
Lilo, 1747. 

Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
Londonderry, 1689. 
Louisbourg, 1758. 
Lyons, 1793. 
Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau- 



ba.n first came into notiet, 

1676, 1743, 1794. 
Magdebourg, 1631, 1806. 
Malaga, 1487. 
Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. 
Marseilles, 1544. 
Mentz, by Charles V., lift^ 

1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. 
Melun, 1420, 1559. 
Menin, 1706, 1744. 
Mequinenza, June 8, 1S10. 
Messina, 1282, 1719. 
Metz, 1552. 
Mezieres, 1521. 
Middleburgh, 1572. 
Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 

1792, 1794. 
Mimargis, 1427. 
Montauoan, 1621. 
Montevideo, Jan. j BOS. 
Mothe : theFrench, taught by 

a Mr. Midler, an English 

engineer, first practised thg 

art of throwing shells, 1634. 
Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. 
Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. 
Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 

1792, 1799, 1806. 
Nice, 1705. 
Nieuport, 1745, 1794. 
Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, 1423, 1563. 
Osiend, 1701, 1706, 1745. 
Oudenarde, 170S, 1745. 
Padua, 1509. 

Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813. 
Paris, 1429. 1485, 1594. 
Parma 1248. 
Pavia. 1525, 1655, 1796. 
Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
Philipville, 1578. 
Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 1C8S, 

first experiment of firing 

artillery a-ricochet, 1734, 

1795. 
Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. 
Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. 
Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. 
Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. 
Uuesnoy, 1794. 
Rennes, 1357. 
Rheims, 1359. 
Rhodes, 1522. 
Riga, 1700, 1710. 
Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
Rome, 1527, 1798. 
Romorentin; artillery first 

used in sieges -Voltaias. 

1256. 
Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1808. 
Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 
Roxburgh, 1460. 
St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. 
Salamanca, June 27 1812, 
Salisbury, 1349. 
Saragossa, 1710, 1809. 
Saverne, 1675. 
Schweidnitz ; first expert- 

ment to reduce afortrtat 



bilJ 



UCriONARY 01 DATES. 



585 



Thorn, 1703. 

Thouars, 1372, 1793. 

Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. 

Toulon, 1707, 1793. 

Toulouse, 1217. 

Toumay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 
1667, 1709, (this was the 
best defence ever drawn 
from countermines), 1745. 
1794. 

Treves, 1675. 

Tunis, 1270, 1535 

Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. 

Urbino, 1799. 



Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. 

Valencienes, 1677, 1794. 

Vannes, 1343. 

Venloo, 1702, 1794. 

Verdun, 1792. 

Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1845 

Vienna, 1529, 1683. 

Wakefield, 1460. 

Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. 

Xativa, 1707. 

Xeres, 1262. 

Ypres. 164S, 1744, 179-1. 

Zurich, 15-44. 

Zutphen, 1572, 15S6. 



STEGE3, continued. 

by springing globes of com- 
pression, 1762, 1807. 

Scio (see Greece), 1822. 

beringapatam. 1799. 

Seville 1096, 1248. 

Smolensko, 1611. 

Soissons, 1414. 

Stralsund ; - the method of 
throwing red hot balls first 
practised with certainty. 
1675_!213, 1807. 

Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. 

Tarragona, May 1813. 

Temeswar, 1716. 

Thionville, 1643, 1792. 

SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed witii 
free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, 
mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra 
Leone, at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. 
The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, 
• February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- 
ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at 
Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the 
use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves 
by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
silk, a. d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for 
weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. 
Silk- worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- 
lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780. 
The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1180, 
when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the 
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south 
of France, a little before the reign of Francis L, about 1510 ; and Henry IV. 
propagated mulberry-trees and silk-worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. 
In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at 
Kenilworth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. 
Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 
1620. Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spital- 
fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- 
ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. 

SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other 
ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 
1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. 
In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a 
mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum 
at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680/. In England silver-pkt-« 
and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty 
and ambitious man, a.d. 709. — Tyrell's Hist, of England. Silver knives, 
spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. 

SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by 
Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 
269 b. o. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which 
were 223 grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest- silver coin 
in England. See Shillings, &c, and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 
25* 



58G the world's prc g-ress. r SLA 

were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 15s. in silver, being a yearly 
average of 444,3301— Pari. Ret. 

SJMONLANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder 
Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome 
about a. d. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet ho 
had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in 
France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and 
the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- 
larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan. 
24, 1834. 

SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very anciem custom both 
among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which 
was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode 
and circumstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the 
empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian II. a. d. 886, eccle- 
siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it 
was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern 
nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with jl tedious 
sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of 
the world. — St. Augustin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the churcl» 
music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- 
neral, he set up singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. 

SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and 
distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- 
nefactor ; Philopater, lover of his father ; Philometer, lover of his mother, 
&c. Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- 
tides was called the Just; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; 
Xenophon, the Attic Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian 
Sage ; Menedaemus, the Eretrian Butt ; Democritus, the Laughing Philoso- 
pher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- 
land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility, a. d. 1100. The old 
Normans used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, 
for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed 
Mac, as Macdonald. son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the 
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such 
as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c, were taken by Brabanters and 
other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — 
Rymer's Ecedera, vol. x. 

SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- 
nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaklea into Egypt, Arabia, 
and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. 
The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, 
they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold 
the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 335 b. c. See 
Helots. 

SLAVERY in ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a 
great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. 
By one of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent 
debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their serines or labor, they 
had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave 
him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampiey£, 42 B. c. 
Csecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves 12 b. c. 



BLA J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 587 



SLAVERY in ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect- 
ing the sale of slaves wa& made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so 
commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were 
sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ire- 
land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a 
runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before 
two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take 
the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and 
cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within thai 
space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead 
or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second 
desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, 
arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
away, become a slave to his master, 1547. 

SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the 
Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, 
describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized 
a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four 
millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the 
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- 
soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computes that, at the 
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, 
"Add 1.000.000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. 
Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. 
the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, 
the annual number was about 100,000; and in 1807 (the last year of the 
English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by 
government, that from 1792 upwards of 8,500 ; 000 Africans had been torn 
from their country, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been 
sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave 
trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, 
allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives 
of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. 
King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 
9, 1847. 

SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was 
the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic 
of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West 
Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. Queen Anne directed the 
colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should 



" European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-ereaturss, 
recollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and 
that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning. — Cooper's Letters on the Slave 
Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im- 
punity. Not only its prosecution, but its effects have in some measure called down upon us tha 
frowns and the judgments of heaven. 

11 By foreign wealth are British morals changed, 
And Afric's sons, and India's, smile avenged." 
1 .15 trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the United 
States in 1807. By England (see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February 
1815. Napoleon,' in trie hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain. 
1S17; with the Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic continues 
to be encoiraged in several states.— Hizydre. 



588 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[ SalTf 



*i>e devoutly and duly served, according to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and 
Ihat the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantable 
negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, 
and carried off'42,000 slaves ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; 
and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- 
riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1883, the number of 
slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 
770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament 
in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The 
motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. 
After several other efforts of humane and just men, the question wa3 
introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then minis- 
ters, March 31, 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament. 
March 25, 1807. 

SLAVERY op the AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe, 



— but the next /ear the slaveij of ji- 
dians was recognized as lawful ; and 
the practice of selling the natives of 
North America into foreign bondage 
continued for nearly two centuries. 
The excellent Winthrop enumerates 
Indians among his bequests. — Ban- 
croft. 

Slave Trade. 

[Slavery had been already prohibited 
in most of the northern States in their 
constitutions.] 

Act of congress against fitting out ves- 
sels for slave trade - - - 1794 

Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- 
ted States from holding property in 
foreign slave vessels. United States 
vessels authorized to seize slavers - 1801 

Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, 
the introduction of slaves into the 
United States - - - - 180 

Act declaring the slave trade piracy, 
punishable with death - - 1820 

[Slavery has, however, been continued 
in thirteen of the States. See Mis- 
souri. ] 

The number of slaves in the United 
States in 1790 was 697,697 

In 1800 896,849 

In 1810 1,191,364 

In 1820 1,538.064 

In 1830 2,010,436 

In 1840 2,487,355 

SLAVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted 
slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- 
vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20,000.000^. sterling, 
passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28. 1833. By the operation of this act, 
slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 
slaves became free. 

SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day 
attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- 
tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says ha 
slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so ah 
tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, 



Many of the early navigators to Ame- 
rica, including Columbus himself, 
carried considerable numbers of the 
aborigines to Europe, where they 
were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- 
bella commanded the liberation of 
Indians held in bondage in her pos- 
sessions, in - - - - 1501 

SLAVERY in the UNITED STATES. See 

The first negro slaves in the English 
colonies of North America were 
brouaht to Virginia in a Dut£h vessel 
of war - - . - - 1620 

Negroes " who had been fraudulently 
brought from Guinea" to Massachu- 
setts (the first in New England), were 
sent home at the public expense by 
the general court of that colony - 1646 

Gorton and Roger Williams made a de- 
cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 

White slaves were sold in England, to 
be transported to Virginia : average 
price for 5 years' service, £5 — while 
a negro was worth £25. — Bancroft - 1672 

Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - 1650 

The Quakers abolished slavery among 
themselves .... 1754 

Resolutions against the slave trade 
passed by the first congress of the 
colonies .... 1774 

Act against the external slave trade 
passed by congress of the United 
States ..... 1789 



SOD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 589 

596 b. c. We have many, and even very late, instances of persons ia 
these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. 
SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the 
small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with perfect 
success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, 
to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. 
Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr. 
Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, but the pie- 
sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and Vaccination. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a iia. 
tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left £100,000 
" to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution 
for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress 
accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment cf the trust, 1846. 
Corner stone of the building laid, May 1, 1847. 

SMOLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated 
Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The 
French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but 
they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, 
which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, 
the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded 
to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. 

SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to. 
enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- 
terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against 
smuggling was enacted in 1736. 

SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures 
made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo 
in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice 
soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- 
ably more than 3,000,0000Z. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were 
entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88.263Z. See Tobacco. 

SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express 
mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be 
an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap„ 
In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon 
in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, washed theirs by 
treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. 
The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it 
was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. 

SOBRAON, Battle of ; India. The British army, 35.000 strong, under Sir 
Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- 
my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; 
and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, 
the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British 
loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. 

SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thouars, and 
queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by 
the French government. 

SOCIALISM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all 
men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or- 



590 the world's PROGRESS. [ son 

gauged on that principle. It has been taught, more or less distinctly, ic 
all ages and nations : by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, among 
the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among the 
Jews ; by the first Christians a. d. 34 ; by several of the fathers of the 
Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella, 
a. d. 1623 ; and by Babeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern 

teachers of it have been Charles Fourier, who was bornatBesanconin 1772; 
and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri 
St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of 
England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instni 
mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, 
England, and the United States, where socialism, in different forms, has a 
considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made 
by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize 
labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious 
sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, 
adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. 

SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and Laj^'us Socinus. 
They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he 
was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- 
son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Christ 
died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- 
trines with his death. Original sin, grace, and predestination they treated 
as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. 

SODOM and GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed 
by fire from heaven. 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy 
was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- 
minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive 
The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry 
VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by 
statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. 
SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- 
tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught 
by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he 
placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- 
quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most 
accurate calculations, to be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- 
goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernican 
system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. 
How truly the poet says — 

" He who through vast immensity can pierce, 

See worlds on worlds compose one universe, 

Observe how system into system runs, 

What other planets circle other suns, 

What varied beings people every star, 

May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope. 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance 
from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October 
30, 1004 b. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — Us\er, 
Lengiet. 

SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions. 
33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Eli- 
zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing 
with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instances 
of the punishment of son erers, see Witchcraft. 



spa] dictionary of dates. 591 

SOUDAN or SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, 
which they went by in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards 
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- 
dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 
a. d. 1165. after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when 
the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. 
Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; 
Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were 
fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. 
The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 milea 
on the sea. See Acoustics. 

SOUNDINGS at SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Edipus, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, 
where it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was 
made in latitude of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 
mile from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the 
weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made 
under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re- 
ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary 
government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- 
ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- 
liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South 
Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. 
This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active 
in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by 
the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution 
adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed 
Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249.000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830, 
581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. 

bOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 
1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which 
ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, 
to the value of 2.014,000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, 
absconded with 100,000/. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10.000/., and 
returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- 
dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The 
artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100Z., to the 
enormous price of 1000Z. See Law's Bubble. 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. 

SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, 
fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively 
planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole coun- 
try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, 
Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foun- 
dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Views, p. 65, et sea. 

The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain Alphonsus II. refusing to pay the Sara- 

from the Romans - - a. d. 412 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, 

The Visigoths enter Spain under their war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- 

leader, Euric ... - 472 riou's, and obtains the appellation of 

The Saracens from Arabia invade the " the chaste" - - a. d. 791 at seq. 

country - - - 713 et seq. Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. - 83C 

Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Ferdinand I, count of Castile, takes the 

king of Asturiis - * - 718 title of king - - -HOC 



592 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



SPAIN, continued. 

Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031 
The kingdom of Arragon commenced 

under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by 

Henry of Bourbon - - -1087 

The Saracens, beset on all sides by the 
Christians, call in the aid of the Moors 
from Africa, who seize the dominions 
they came to protect, and subdue the 
Saracens - - - 1091 et seq 

The Moors defeated in several battles 

by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - -1118 

Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one 

great pitched battle - - - 1 135 

University of Salamanca founded - 1200 
Leon and Castile re-united - - - 1226 

Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- 
ish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- 
tile and Leon - - - - 1236 
The kingdom of Granada begun by the 
Moors, their last refuge from the 
power of the Christians - - 1238 
Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - -1252 
The crown of Navarre passes to the 

royal familv of France - - 1276 

200,000 Moors invade Spam - - 1327 

They are defeated by Alphonsus XL, 

with great slaughter - - - 1340 

The infant Don Henriquez, son of John 
the First of Castile, first had the title 
of prince of Asturias - - -1388 

Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- 
bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole 
Christian dominions of Spain are uni- 
ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 
Granada taken after a two years' siege ; 
and the power of the Moors finally 
extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 
Columbus is sent from Spain to explore 

the western world - - - 1492 

Ferdinand conquers the greater part of 

the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512 

Accession of the house of Austria to the 

throne of Spain - - - 1516 

Charles V. of Spain and Germany re- 
tires from the world . - - 1556 
Philip I. commences his bloody perse- 
cution of the Protestants - - 1561 
The Escurial began building - - 1562 
Portugal united to Spain - - - 1580 
The invincible Spanish Armada de- 
stroyed. See Armada, and Naval 
Battles .... 1588 
Philip III. banishes the Moors and their 
descendants, to the number of 900,000, 
from Spain - - - - 1610 
Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 
Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704 
Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 
Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, 

succeeds to the crown - 1759 

Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3 : 000,- 
000 dollars, seized by the English 

Oct. 29, 1804 
Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, 

Battle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 

Sway of the prince of Peace - - 1806 

Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias 

asrainst his father - July 25, 1807 

Treaty of Fontainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 



The French take Madrit A. r>. Ma-xh, 18U8 
The prince of Peace disn issed by he 

king of Spain - March 18, 1803 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of 

Ferdinand - - March 19, ISOfl 

And at Bayonne, in favor of his " friend 
and ally," Napoleon, when Ferdi- 
nand relinquished the crown, May 1, 180% 
The French are massacred at Madrid, 

May 2, 1S03 
Napoleon assembles the notables at 

Bayonne - - May 25, 1303 

Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as 

king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 

He retires from the capital - July 29, 1808 
Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 
Madrid retaken by the French, ar.d Jo- 
seph restored - - Lee. 2, 1808 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned 
in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, 

Dec. 5, 1S08 
[Spain now becomes the scene of the 
struggle called the Peninsular War, 
for the events of which see the arti- 
cles severally.] 
Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 
Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 
Spanish revolution began - Jan. 1, 1820 
Ferdinand swears to tlie constitution of 

the Cortes - - March 8, 1820 

Removal of the king to Seville, and 

thence to Cadiz - March 20, 1823 

The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 
They invest Cadiz - - June 25, 1823 
Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 
Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- 
solved; executions - Oct. 1823 
Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 
The'French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1823 
Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 
Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 
Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- 
ing the king's "indisposition, and a 
complete change made in the minis- 
try • - - Oct. 25, 1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate 
successor to his brother's throne, 
should the king die - April 29, 1833 
Death of Charles IV.. and his queen 
assumes the title of governing queen, 
until Isabella II., her infant daughter, 
attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 
The royalist volunteers disarmed, with 

some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 
Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with 

his family - - June 18, 1834 

He suddenly appears among his ad- 
herents in Spain - July 10, 1834 
The peers vote the perpetual exclusion 
of Don Carlos from the throne, Aug. 30, 1034 
[Here commences the desolating evil 
war, in which British auxiliaries take 
the side of the queen.] 
Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, 

and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 1838 

General Evans retires from ifie com- 
mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- 
rives in London, after having achieved 
various successes in Spain - June 20, 1837 
Madrid is declared in a state of sieee. 

Aug. 11, 1837 
[Espartero and other Christino gc terals 



8~>4l 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



593 



SPAIN, continued. 

engage with the C&.- jsts, and nume- 
rous conflicts take place with various 
success.] 

Madrid is again declared in a state of 
siege - - a. d. Oct. 30, 1838 

The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 

The Carlists under Marota desert Don 
Carlos . - - - Aug. 25, 1839 

Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty 
of peace - - " Aug. 29, 1839 

Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 

Sept. 13, 1839 

Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to 
maintain the war, enters France with 
a body of his troops - July ?, 1840 

The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- 
bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 

Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 

The queen regent appoints a new min- 
istry, who are nominated by Espar- 
tero .... Oct. 5. 1840 

The abdication of the queen regent of 
Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 

[She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; 
visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; 
but returns to France.] 

Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the 
papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 

The Spanish cortes declare Espartero 
regent during the minority of the 
young queen - - Apr. 12, 1841 

Insurrection in favor of Christina is 
commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. 
O'DonnelPs army - - Oct. 2, 1841 

It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of 
the kingdom - - Oct. 1841 

Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at 
Madrid, and his followers are repuls- 
ed, and numbers of them slain by the 
queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 

Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is 
shot ax Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 

Zurbano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 

Rodil, the constitu'ional general, enters 
Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 

Espartero decrees the suspension of 
queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 

Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
into Madrid - - ' Nov. 23, 1841 

An insurrection breaks out at Barce- 
lona ; the national guard joins the 
populace - - Nov. 13, 1812 

Battle in the streets between the national 
guard and the troops ; the latter lose 
500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 



The troops evacuate the citadel, and 
retire to Montjuich - Nov. 17, 1813 

The regent Espartero arrives before 
Barcelona, and demands its uncondi- 
tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 

Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 

It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 

The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 

The revolutionary junta is re-establish- 
ed it Barcelona - - June 11, 1S43 

[Corui . na, Seville, Burgos, San'.iago, 
and numerous other towns, shortly 
afterwards " pronounce" against the 
regent Espartero.] 

Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, 
which surrenders - - July 15, 1843 

Espartero bombards Seville - July 21, 1843 

The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843 

[The revolution is completely success- 
ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and 
embarks on board her Majesty's ship 
Malabar. ] 

The new government deprive Espartero 
of his titles and rank - Aug. 16, 1843 

Espartero and his suite and friends ar- 
rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 

Reaction against the new government 
breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 

The young queen Isabella II., 13 years 
old, is declared by the cortes to be of 
age - - - Nov. 8, 1843 

The queen- mother. Christina, returns to 
Spain - '- - March 23, 1844 

Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- 
linquishes his right to the crown, in 
favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 

Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 
12 ; they return to power, March 17 ; 
and again resign - - March 28, 1846 

The queen is publicly affianced to her 
cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke 
of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846 

Escape of Don Carlos and others from 
France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 

Marriage of the queen ; and marriage 
also of the infanta Louisa to the duke 
de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846 

[The Montpensier marriage occasions 
the displeasure of England, and dis- 
turbs the friendly relations of the 
French and English governments.] 

Amnesty granted by the queen to po- 
litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1546 

The queen has a son born, who dies the 
same day - - - July 1, 1SS) 



KINGS OP SPAIN, 



A.p. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered. 
411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Wallia. 

420. Theodoric I.; killed in battle. 
450. Torrismuno , assassinated by his fa- 
vorite. 
452. Theodoric n. 
466. Euric. 

484. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
507. Gesalric ; killed in battle. 
511. Ainalaric ; killed in battle. 
631. Theodat; assassinated by a madman 



548. Theodisele ; murdered for female vio- 

lation. 

549. Agila; taken prisoner and put to deatfe. 
554. Athanagild. 

567. From this year to the year 687 irxteet 

kings reigned. 
687. Egica or Egiza. 
697. Vitizza. 
741. Roderick; killed in X attle in 714 

An interregnum till 
718.- Pelagius. 
736. Favila ; killed by a boar in hunting 



594 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[«*• 



SPATN, continu :d. 

738. Alpho.isus I. ; Catholic. 
757. Froila I.; killed by his brother Aure- 

lius. 
768. Aurelius. 
774. Silo. 
7a3. Mauregat. 
789. Veremond. 

791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 
324. Ramiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to 

the sword in one battle. 
860. Ordogno I. 
802. Alphonsus III. ; surnamed the great ; 

deposed by his son. 
910. Garcias. 
' 914. Ordogno II. 

923. Froila II. 

924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 
931. Ramiro II. , killed in battle. 
950. Ordogno III. 

955. Ordogno IV. 

956. Sftncho I., the Fat; poisoned with an 

apple 
967. Ramiro III. 
982. Veremund II. ; the Gouty. 
999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of 

Viscu. 
1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 
1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and 

Castile. 
1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; 

Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and 

Garcias in Galicia. 
1072. Alphonsus VI., the Valiant ; in Castile 

and Leon. . 
1109. Alphonsus VII. 
1122. Alphonsus VIII. 

1157. Sancho III., the Beloved, in Castile; 

Ferdinand in Leon. 

1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 
1214. Henry I. 

1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas- 
tile and Leon were reunited, and per- 
petually annexed. 

1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 

1284. Sancho IV., the Brave ; Peter III. in 
Arragon. 

1295. Ferdinand IV. 

1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 



1350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated 
by Edward the Black Prince of Eng 
land; afterwards beheaded by ha 
subjects. 

1368. Henry II., the Gracious; poisoned bj 
a monk. 

1379. John I. ; he united Biscay to Castile. 

1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 

1406. John II. 

1454. Henry IV. the Impotent. 

1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom, 
by his marriage with Isabella, thfl 
vingdoms of Castile and Arragon 
were united. 

1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his queer- 
Joan. 

1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 

1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany, 
resigned both crowns, and retired ro 
a monastery. 

1555. Philip II., married Mary, queen-reg- 
nant of England. 

1598. Philip III., son of the preceding; he 
drove the Moors from Grenada and 
the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV., his son; a reign of nearly 
continuous and unfortunate wars with 
the Dutch and France. 

1665. Charles II. 

1700. Philip V, duke of Anjou, grandson to- 
Louis XIV. of France : resigned. 

1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few 
months. 

1724. Philip V. ; again. 

1745. Ferdinand VI., surnamed the Wise ; he 
distinguished his reign by acts of 
liberality and beneficence. 

1759. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 

1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of his 
son and successor. 

1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, of 
of France, also forced to resign. 

1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- 
leon; deposed. 

1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded 
by his daughter. 

1&33. Isabella II.. Sept. 29 ; who came to the 
throne when three years of age. 



While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- 
try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- 
able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From 
the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and 
the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, 
and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from 
the kingdom. 

SPANISH ARMADA against England. See article Armada. 

SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of 
the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without 
walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for 
eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is 
supposed to have been the first king, 1514 b. c. From Lacedaemon the fourth 
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the 
city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history ol! 
Lacedaemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, 
from Lelex to the settlement of the Iieraclklaa, comprising about four hun- 



SPI^ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595 

dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclida? as absol.tte monarehs, til] 
Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the 
government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the 
establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors 
by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the 
appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- 
dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- 
jngation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- 
two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views : Greece, page 7, et 
seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They 
cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their 
laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the very constitu- 
tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never 
were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They 
hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- 
selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret, 'llie 
women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall 
of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their 
own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, tliey brought 
disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. 

SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- 
known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented 
in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, 
about a. d. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own 
illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly 
given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor was Salvi- 
no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- 
tacles. 

SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- 
ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- 
vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetarium was constructed 
by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It was maintained by Pythagoras that the 
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to 
the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 

SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the 
goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- 
dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with 
her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to 
her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a 
garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the tero- 
ple of Fortune. Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments but such as 
were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- 
vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton 
was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. 
Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's 
machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of Har- 
grave's ; but he rdso applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, 
and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first, he 
worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream 
of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which 
is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P Mips. 

SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was 
the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the 
French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet t* 



59G the world's PROGRESS. [ STA 

condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor 
Charles V., 1529. This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. 

SPIRITS. See Distillation. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- 
rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of 
numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors 
have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support 
of the state. In 1840, England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, 
Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- 
lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, 
on the following quantities of spirits, viz.— Rum, 2,830,263 gallons ; brandy, 
1,107,756 gallons; Geneva, 18,640 gallons; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 
gallons ; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25,190,843 gallons ; mak- 
ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty 
amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns. 

SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it 
Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it 
was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be 
the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from 
the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. 

STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by 
statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed 
upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was 
commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which 
stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable 
statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain 
which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the 
United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- 
menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- 
duties produced in England, in 1800. the revenue of 3, 126,535/!. ; and in 
1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &c. 

STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the 
cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross 
to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on 
the authority of Eusebius, who states that he had received it from the em- 
peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. 
Standard op Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- 
ried in procession about 1768, when several hundred Christians who igno- 
rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. The 
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- 
ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. 

STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished 
with stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and 
part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stais on its 
roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), 
but from the Slarra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- 
chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- 
ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. 
The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of 
the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent 
of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in 
their sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- 
temptible. — Goldsmith. T * was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were 



STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 597 

from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-chancellor having the casting toioe.— « 
Gibbon. 
STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b. c 
Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably 
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 b.c. Job, He- 
siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library 
at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in 
which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- 
covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar System. 

STATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- 
viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- 
sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- 
vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a 
a eontest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming 
the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
proceed to business, without the conciirrence of the two other orders, if 
they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to 
concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. 

STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the 
dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of 
great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was 
not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in 
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 

STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter 
passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among 
the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the 
request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with 
ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden 
statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the 
art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast 
models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among 
the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that 
of Charles I. in 1678. 

STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- 
nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the 
marquis of Worcester in his Century of Inventions, as '■' a way to drive up 
water by fire," a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- 
ventor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. 



Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 

Captain Savery's engine constructed 
for raising water - - - 1698 

Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal 
Society, about - - - - 1699 

Atmospheric engine by Savery and 
Newcomen .... 1713 

First idea of steam navigation set forth 
in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 

Watt's invention of performing conden- 
sation in a separate vessel from the 
cvlinder .... 1765 

His first patent - ... 1769 

Kis engines upon a large scale erected 
in manufactories, and his patent re- 
newed by act of parliament - - 1775 

Thomas Paine proposed the application 



Watt's expansion engine - - - - 177H 

Double acting engines proposed by Dr. 
Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 

Watt's double engine, and his first pa- 
tent for it granted .... 1781 

The marquess Jouffroy constructed an 
engine on the Saone - - - 178) 

Fitchs' experiments in steam naviga- 
tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's 
■Im. Curios.) .... 1783-& 

Oliver Evans' experiments in the 
same 1785-6 

Rumsey's experiments in the same in 
Virginia 1787 

W. Symington made a passage on the 
Forth and Clyde canal - - - - 178S 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by 



of steam in America .... 1778 Henry Jackson 1791 

Engine made to give a rotary mo*'on - 1778 JoufTroy's experiments in Fr»nce - • 179S 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[STB 



STEAM ENGINE, continued. 

Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer 
on the Hudson 1797 

First experiment on the Thames - - 1801 

The experiment of Mr. Symington re- 
peated with success - 1802 

Trevethick's high-pressure engine - 1802 

Oliver Evans' experiments m^ locomo- 
tive engines in Penn. - - - 1804 

Woolfs double cylinder expansion en- 
gine constructed .... 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806 

Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
Hudson, built by himself, and named 
"The North River;" engine by Boul- 
ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33 
hours: first steam navigation on 
record - ... 1807 

The next three steam-boats in the world 
were the Car of Neptune, - -1808 

The Paragon 1811 

The Richmond 1812 

all in New York. 

Steam power to convey coals on a rail- 
way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 1811 

Steam vessels first commenced plying 
on the Clyde (.first in Europe) - 1812 



Steam applied to printing in tiid Times 
office. See Press .... 1814 

There were five steam vessels in Scot- 
land (Pari. Returns') in - - - 1813 

First steam vessel on the Thames 
brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow 1811' 

The first steamer built in England (Pari. 
Returns) 1815 

The Savannah '-.earner, of 350 tons, 
went from New York to Liverpool 
in 26 days - - - - July 15, 1819 

First steamer in Ireland - - - 1820 

Captain Johnson obtained 10,000i. for 
making the first steam voyage to In- 
dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed 
from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 1325 

Locomotive steam carriages on rail- 
ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 

The Railway opened (see Liverpool) - 1830 

The Great Western arrives from Bris- 
tol at New York, and the Sirius from 
Cork, same day, being their first voy- 
age, in IS days - - June 17, 1838 

War steamers built in England - - 1838 

First steamer of the Cunard line was 
the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas- 
sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs., arrived July 18, 1840 

STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States 
gave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153,600 tons; but these 
returns were not complete. The increase from 1838 to 1850 was very great : 
probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300,000 
tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, 
which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole 
number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United 
States, in 1838, was 3,010. 

STEAM VESSELS op the BRITISH EMPIRE. 



STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ; 


Year. England. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 


Dependencies. 


Total. 


1814 - - o 

1815 - - 3 


5 





1 


6 


5 





2 


10 


1820 - - 17 


14 


3 


9 


43 


1825 • - 112 


36 


3 


17 


168 


1830 - - 203 


61 


31 


20 


315 


1835 - - 344 


85 


68 


48 


545 


1845 - - 694 


139 


79 


89 


1001 



STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated ba, 
lance in the Pentateuch The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned in 315 b. c. 

STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac- 
tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the 
hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, 
improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The 
Ars Scribendi Characteris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- 
tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. 
There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement 
and great simplicity. 

STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking 
the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — 
Anderson. 

STEREOTYPE. See Privting. It is said that stereotyping was known in 
1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged 



8TO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 

of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by 
others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran- 
cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Ferguson. But stereotype 
printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and 
Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro- 
duced into London, by Wilson, in 1804. — Idem.' 

STEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have 
been invented by Cadwallader Colden of New York, who sent the details of hia 
plan in 1779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plaa 
to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- 
ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- 
thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that 
which Colden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New 
York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In 
June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. 
J. W. Francis. 

STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 
1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- 
ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones 
any more. — Howell. He adds, "Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; 
for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with 
a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and 
the present was then much taken notice of. — Idem. Others relate that Wil- 
liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, 
a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like 
them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind 
made in England, 1561. — Stowe. 

STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced 
into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have 
had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 
337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- 
missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols 
averaged in the year — 

1780 - j663 13 6 I 1795 - j674 8 6 1 

1785 - - 68 6 6 1800 - - 66 3 3 

1790 7L 2 6 j 1805 - 58 14 1 

See Publw Debt. 

STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; they obtained the name 
of stoics because they listened to his instructions and harangues in a porch 
or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- 
preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected 
the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this 
sect is famous for. — Stanley. 

STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone 
bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge 
exists at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges 
The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone 
china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statuea 
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. 
Stone paper was made in 1796. 

STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. 
Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosias,' 
in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a. j 



1810 


- £67 16 


3 1 1825 


- £90 8 


1815 • 


-58 13 


9 1830 - 


- 89 15 7 


1820 


- 68 12 


j 1840 


- 89 17 6 



600 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[STO 



475.-- Geoffrey of Monmouth Erected as a sepulchral monumrnt of Ara- 
brosius, a. d. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in 
which the Druids officiated. — Dr. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- 
ings at Ahury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice adminis- 
tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. 

HTORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo' 
rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944 
One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming 
from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses 
fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, 
and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against 
the barons, perished, 1215. — Holmshed. 



It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- 
pests of rain and wind, a.d. 1233. 

A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash 
passed through a chamber where Edward 
I. and his queen were conversing, did them 
no damage, but killed two of their attend- 
ants: 1285. — Hoveden. 

A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in 
France, which fell on the army of Edward 
III., then on its march. The hail was so 
large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to 
conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. 

When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohe- 
mia, on setting foot on shore an awful 
storm arose, and her ship and a number 
of others were dashed to pieces in the har- 
bor, Jan. 13S2. — Holinshed. 

Richard's second queen also brought a storm 
with her to the English coasts, in which 
the king's baggage was lost, and many 
ships cast away, 1389 — Idem. 

A hurricane throughout Europe, which did 
very considerable damage; more remark- 
ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the 
day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. 

A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 
200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of 
their crews, 1696. 

The storm called the "Great Storm," one of 
the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
land. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbors, and on the 
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives 
was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.* 

A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, 
it is said, perished upon the mountains, in 
their march to attack Drontheim, a. d. 
1719. 

One in India, when many hundreds of ves- 
sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, 



greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 
30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. 

A dreadful hurricane at the Havana; many 
public edifices and 4048 houses were de- 
stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, 
Oct. 25, 1768. — Annual Register. 

An awful storm in the north of England, in 
which many vessels were destroyed, and 
4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. 

At Surat, in the East Indies; destroyed 7000 
of the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages ami 
farms laid waste in France, 1785. 

A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the 
Leeward Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 
1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 
104 vessels were lost. 

At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred 
vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 

Awful hurricane on the western coast of 
England, and in Ireland. The storm raged 
through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- 
wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- 
verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 
100 were drowned in the neighborhood ; 
the coast and harbors were covered with 
wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels 
lost being nearly half a million sterling. In 
Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other 
places, more than 200 houses were blown 
down, and as many more were burnt, the 
wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- 
ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- 
hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 
6-7, 1839. 

Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 
houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct 
10-11, 1846. 

Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 
21. 1848. 



rfTOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German 
stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of 



* The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling. The number of per- 
sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in 
ships blown from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve 
men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees 
were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed. 
and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bi- 
shop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. MulU 
lades of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 



bug] dictionary of dates. 601 

the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port- 
able braziers. See Chimneys. 

STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, ty Louis- 
Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two offi- 
cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of 
the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the 
French government, Oct. 29. 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, 
by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See France. 

STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the 
forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the 
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed 
and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol : fought May 16, 
1643. 

STUCCO-WORK. The art Avas known to the ancients, and was much prized 
by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. 
It was revived by DUdine about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- 
formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection in 
England. 

STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be 
but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c. 
Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See 
Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act 
passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 
1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. 

STYLE, ROYAL, op the KINGS op ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and 
Titles. 

SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- 
ticularly in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the 
war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of 
England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a 
bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- 
reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- 
ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable 
of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at 
Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting 
powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, 
Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to 
the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. 

SUB-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging 
to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed 
Aug. 9, 1841. Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. 

SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics 
from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and the 
crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act of 
June 12, 1701. 

SUCCESSION, The WAR op. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by 
the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and 
unprofitable results, arose in the question whether an Austrian or a French 
prince, grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. 
Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the alliea 
withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded; 1702 to 
1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. 

SUGAR, Saccharum officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 
26 



602 THE world's PROGRESS. [ EUL 

ancient Je^ s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
325 b. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the 
juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was 
produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — ■ 
Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 
1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the 
Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510. — Robertson's 
History of Charles V.* 

SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- 
ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1G59, 
though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years 
sooner. Sugar was first taxed byname, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor- 
timer. See Beet Root. 

SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish 
history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman 
philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from 
the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- 
stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin L, when the soldiers, think- 
ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- 
troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of 
illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 e. c. In the Catholic church, 
iv the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be 
made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesias- 
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the 
statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation 
of land and goods. 

A PEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. 



Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 
Of lord James Beresford - April 27, 1841 
Of the earl of Munster - March 20. 1842 
Of Laman Blanchard - - Feb. 25i 1845 
Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 2% 1845 
Of Haydon, the eminent painter 

June 22, 1845 



Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 
Of marshal Berihier - - June 1, 1815 
Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 
Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 
Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 
Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 
Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 

There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of 
the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount 
Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, 
into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the 
furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- 
able passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could 
not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree 
being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should 
be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- 
nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being 
previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. 
SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and 
given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the 
Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d'. 1055. — Vattier. It 

* About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence 
to Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date su^ar 
was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. 
Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript 
letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, Gth March, 1546, advertises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship, 25 sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte 
penco a pounde." In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., 
of which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five 
"Million'; and a half sterling. 



BtJ?] DICTIONARY OF DAT.L&. 603 

was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth 
century of the Hegira. 

SUMMATRA, Island op. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committed 
piracies on American vessels, the town was destroyed by the United States 
frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. 
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more 
than one maid in the street unless she were drunk ; and that she should 
not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 
450 b. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among 
the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the 
dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which 
was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be 
left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ed- 
ward III. and Henry VIII. See Dress, Luxury, &c. 

SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 
529 b. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, 
about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, 
and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought 
into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- 
lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculae 
were first discovered byChr. Schemer, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed 
by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened 
the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its 
motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A ma- 
cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 
1766, and frecpiently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length 
taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. 

SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first 
erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided 
into hours, 293 b. c. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 613.— 
Abbe Lenglet. 

SUNDAY, or LORD'S DAY. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- 
vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the 
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that 
day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the 
sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews 
on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance 
was made by Constantine, a. d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans 
prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Sunday Sports, au- 
thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- 
lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy 
and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary 
cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by 
the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Rapin. 
Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. 
Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. 

gCTREMACY over the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the 
.hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made 
head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VIII. 
shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself. Our 
kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- 
ferred upon then, by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 



604 the world's progress. [ SW1 

tL'j ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous ethers, 
beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. — Haydn. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made 
a separate study from philosophy. &c, about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions 
the ambe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. 
Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; iEtius, 500 ; Paulus JEgineta, 
in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century 
sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was 
confined to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the 
illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England 
surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 
1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 

SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Hen- 
ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was 
enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the 
drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and 
a new charter in 1800. 

SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d, 
316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying 
public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The 
garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; 
and 13 and 14 Charles II., 1662. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, 
near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from 
rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- 
sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait 
is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. 

SUTTEES, or the BURNING op WIDOWS. This custom began in India from 
one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his 
death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows 
have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 
700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present 
at many of these sacrifices. On February 4, 1743, he saw a young and 
beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, 
thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and courage that astonished every 
witness of the scene. — Holwell. The English government in India have dis- 
couraged these self-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference 
with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by 
English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though 
rarely, taken place. 

SWEARING on the GOSPEL. First used a. d.. 528. Introduced in judicial 
proceedings about 600. — Eapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by 
fine; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2s. for the first offence ; for 
the second/ offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 William III., 1695. See 
Oaths. 

SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- 
tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory 
on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been 
masters of the country. 

Gylf reigns in Sweden - - -B.C. 57 | barbarians, falls upon the Nor.» j. 
During this reign, Odin, surnamed the Europe, making vasts conquest 

Divine, at the head of a swarm ot | 



BWE J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



605 



SWEDEN, continued. 

Ynge, founder of the family of the Yn- 

lingars, reigns ... b.c. 32 
[The early history of the kingdom is 
altogether involved in fables and ob- 
scurity.] 

Ohf the Infant is baptized, and intro- 
duces Christianity among his people, 
about .... a.d. 1000 
Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike 
people and invasions of other coun- 
tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- 

gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 
Stockholm founded - - - 1260 

Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular 

form of government - - - 1279 

The crown of Sweden, which had been 
hereditary, is made elective ; and 
Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, 
or the Foolish, king of Norway, is 
elected ..... 1318 
Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 

The crown made elective - - 1320 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - - 1365 

Sweden united to the crown of Denmark 

and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 
University of Upsal founded - - 1476 
Christian II., "the Nero of the North," 
massacres all the Swedish nobility, to 
fix his despotism - - - 1520 

Th« Swedes delivered from the Danish 

yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523 
He makes the crown hereditary, and 

introduces the reformed religion - 1544 
The titles of ;ount and baron introduced 

by Eric XIV. .... 1561 
The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, 

between 1612 and - - - 1617 

He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633 

Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 
Abdication of Christina - - - 1654 

Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 
Charles XII., " the madman of the 

North," begins his reign - - 1699 

He makes himself absolute abolishes 
the senate - - - **** 

KINGS OF 

A, d. 825 Regnard Lobrock. 
* * " "Reigns uncertain.] 

966 Eric, the Victor. 

994 Olaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 
1026 Edmund Jacobson. 
1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 
1041 Haquin 

1056 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 
1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 
1064 Halstan. 
1080 Philip. 

1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 
1130 Ragwald ; murdered by the Visigoths. 
1133 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 
1144 Suercherll. 

1150 Eric X. ; beheaded by rebels. 
1162 Charles VII. ; made prisoner by Ca- 
nute, who reigns. 
1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 
1192 Sue rcher III., son of Charles; killed in 

battle. 
1211 Eric XI. 
1220 John I. 



Battle of Pultowa, where Chailts is 
defeated by the czar of Russia. See 
Pultowa - - - a.d. 1709 

He escapes to Bender, where after three 
years' protection, he is made prison- 
er by the Turks - - - 1713 

He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, 
and fighting numerous battles, he is 
at length killed at the siege of Frede- 
rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 

Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- 
ic government - 1719 

Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- 
terwards called Linnaeus - - 1741 

Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, 
who are beheaded - - - 1756 

Despotism re-established - - 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by count 
Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he 
expired the 29th - - - 1792 

The regicide was dreadfully scourged 
with whips of iron thongs three suc- 
cessive days ; his right hand was cut 
off", then his head, and his body im- 
paled - - - May 18. 1792 

Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- 
vernment assumed by his uncle, the 
duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 

Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of 
Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 

Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte 
Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of 
Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London, 

Nov. 12, 1810 

Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 

Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against 
Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 

Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- 
ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 

Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- 
den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S 

Treaty of navigation between Great 
Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 

SWEDEN. 

1223 Eric XII. 

1250 Waldemar. 

1276 Magnus II. 

1290 Birger II. 

1318 Magnus HI. ; dethroned by his ffubjsett 

1365 Albert. 

1397 Margaret. 

1411 Eric XIII. ; abdicated. 

1441 Christopher. 

1448 Charles VIII. 

1458 Christian I. 

1497 John II. 

1520 Christian II. 

1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 

1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison. 

1569 John HI. 

1592 Sigismond I., kin.j (f Poland. 

1608 Charles IX. 

1611 Gustavus Adohphus II. 

1632 Christina; resigned her crown to 

1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke M De m 

Ponts. 
1660 Charles XI. 



606 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



I awa 



SWEDEN, continued. 

1599 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of 

Frederickshall. 
1718 Ulrica Eleanora ; resigned when her 

husband was elected. 
1720 Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. 
1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 



1771 Gustavus III., Adolphus. 

1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 

1809 Charles XIII. 

1818 Charles John XIV., Bernadotte, Feb. 5 

1844 Oscar, his son, March 8. 

so called from the learned but ec- 



SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, 

centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Nev 
Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- 
tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of 
the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and 
ignorance now prevail, and in which church this knowledge will bear its 
proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purity of life. 
His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, 
but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- 
rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. 

SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered 
by Julius CEesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. 
Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz 
was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in 
Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; 
after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given 
name to the whole confederacy. 

The Helvetians converted to Christian- 
ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 612 

Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - - 909 

Becomes subject to Germany - - 1032 

Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - - 1179 

Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions 
the memorable revolt under the pa- 
triot William Tell. - - 1306 

Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 

A malignant fever carries off, in the can- 
ton of Basle, 11,000 souls - - 1314 

Form of government made perpetual - 1315 

Lucerne joins the confederacy - - 1335 

Ttip canton of Zurich joins, and be- 
comes head of the league - - 1350 

Berne, Glaris, and Zug join - - 1351 

The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 

Second league of the Grisons - -1424 

The third league of the Grisons - 1436 

Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay 
of France, under Louis XI. - - 1480 

Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 

Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges 
Swiss independence - - - 1499 

Schaffhausen joins the union - -1501 

The Swiss confederacy acknowledged 
by France and other powers - 1516 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the 
bishop compelled to retire • - 1519 

The Grison leagues join the Swiss ,on- 
federacy as allies - - - 1544 

Appenzel joins the other cantons • 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts 
Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, 
and penetrates the town ; but in the 
end is defeated . - - - 1602 

[This circumstance gives rise to an an- 
nual festival commemorative of their 
escape from tyranny.] 

t r WORD,S. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese. 
1879 b. ;.—U/iiv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implements 



Independence of Switzerland recognized 
by the treaty of Westphalia (see 
Westphalia, Peace of) - a. d. 1648 

[From this period until the French Re- 
volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- 
lity, disturbed only by the changes 
arising out of their various constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 

Domestic strife in Geneva, between the 
aristocratic and democratic parties ; 
France interferes - - - 1781 

1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum 
in Ireland (see Geneva) - - 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 

Helvetic confederation dissolved; its 
subjugation by France - - 1798 

The number of can tons increased to 19 ; 
the federal government restored; and 
a landamman appointed by France, 

May 12, 1802 

Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate 
from the republic - July 13, 1802 

Switzerland joins France with 6,000 
men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 

The Allies entered Switzerland in the 
spring of 1814. The number of can- 
tons increased to 22, and the indepen- 
dence of Switzerland secured by the 
treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 

Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 

— passes resolves against the Sonder- 
bund, and troops of Uri attack canton 
Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 

Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov. 
10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24, 1847 

Neufchatel declares independence, 

Feb. 29, 1848 



byr'J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES, 607 



of wai The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- 
sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at 
an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel 
swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel. The 
Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated 
artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew 
Ferraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 
3724. 

SYCAMOKE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The 
date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was very early. 
In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Mary 
queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she 
planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that, from this little tree have 
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded by governor Philip, on a cove of Port 
Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally 
intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of 
the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. 
The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it 
has a legislative council, which was first held July 13, 1829. See New South 
Wales; Convicts, cf-c. 

SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had 
synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others 
to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- 
gogues. There are in London six synagogues. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by 
Christian princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his 
legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation 
only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the 
last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but 
by royal authority, 25 Henry VIII., 1533. 

SYNOD op DORT. The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to 
which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, 
and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. 
— Aitzema. 

SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c. — Eusebius. 749 b. c.—Univ. Hist. 
Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was 
slain, 212 b. c. (see Sicily). Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with 
fnany thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, 
Aug. 6, 1757. 

SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned 
from Scripture ; and it otherwise afibrds nothing peculiar, being involved 
in the histories of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (which 
see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after th-3 battle 
of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidte) founded the celebrated city 
of Antioch. 



Seleucus, sumamed Nicator, i. e. Con- 
queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 

JEra of the Seleucidde (which see) - 312 

Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death 
ofAnrigonus - - 301 

City of Antioch founded - - 299 



Antiochus, son of Seleucus. falling in 
love with his fathers' queen, Straton- 
ice, he pines away nearly to death • 
but the secret being discovered, she 
is divorced by the father and mavrier. 
by the son. " - - b. c. 297 



* This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of pnysic 
Erasistratus, the illustrious father of anatomy (jointly with Herophilus), had observed, than when 



608 



THE WORLD'S rE.OGE.ESS. 



[STB 



SYRIA, continued. 

Battle of Cyropaedion - -B.C. 

Seleucus ia foully assassinated by Ce- 
raurius. — Lenglat. 

Antiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes 
the name of Soter, or Saviour 

Reign of Antiochus II., surnamed by the 
Milesians Theos, or God ! 

Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance 
with Smyrna and Magnesia* - 

Eeign of Seleucus III., surnamed Ce 
raunus. or Thunder - 

Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus 
III. is signally defeated 

Antiochus' conquest of Judea - 

V-'ar with the Romans begins - 

Reign of Antiochus IV., who assumes 
the title of Tkeos-Epiphanes, or the 
Illustrious God ! - - - 

He sends Appolomus into Judea; Jeru- 
salem is taken ; the temple pillaged ; 
40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 
40.000 more sold as slaves 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son 
Seleucus with her own hand 

Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, 
whom she attempts to poison ; but he 
compels his mother tc swallow the 
deadly draught herself 

Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and 
of Grypus at Antioch 

Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- 
ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus 
Asiatichus, about 



243 

- 226 

217 

204 
192 



65 



Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 

[This conquest is made by the Fatimite 

caliphs who rule in Egypt.] 
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 1067 
The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 1068 

The Crusades from Europe commence 

(see article Crusades') - - 1095 

[The Christians ultimately conquer that 

part of Syria called the Holy Land. — 

See Jerusalem] 



Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 116IS 

Saladin puts an end to the power of the 

Fatimite dynasty - - - 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria - - 1259 

Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who 

expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 1408 

Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 

After the conquest by Selira, Syria con- 
tinued in possession of the Turks till 
the invasion of Egypt by the French. 

July 1, 1798 

Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with 
great loss - - - Aug. 6, 17 38 

He overruns the country, and takes Ga- 
za and Jaffa - 1793 

Siege of Acre - March 6 tD May 27, 17.+9 

Bonaparte returns to France from E- 
gypt .... Aug. 23, 1799 

Egypt is evacuated by the French army 

Sept. 10, 1801 

Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A "re, 
and overruns the whole of Syria, 1831-32 

Ibraham Facha, his son, defeats the ar- 
my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 

[Numerous battles and conflicts follow 
with various success.] 

Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ar- 
my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 

The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria 
and places itself at the disposal of 
Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839 

The Five Powers propose to the Porte 
to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 

16, 1839 

Death of the celebrated lady Hester 
Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 

Treaty of London (not signed by offend- 
ed France) - - July 15, 1840 

Capture of Sidon - Sept. 27, 1840 

Fall of Beyrout (see Bet/rout) Oct. 10 1840 

Fall of Acre (see Acre) - Nov. 3, 1840 



After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- 
tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pfxhalic of Egypt 
hereditary ; n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish 
fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that effect signed at 
London, between the representatives of those powers, July 18, 1841. This 
result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and. its c< aticu- 
ance among the great powers of Europe. 



ever the queen appeared, the young prince her step-son blushed, a tremor overspread his frame, 
his pulse quickened, and his voice grew weak. She was of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. 
On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder. Erasistratus adopted an expedient which 
was the foundation of his great fame. He informed tne king that his heir must die, as he languished 
under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, " is the object of his love?" "My wife," 
answered the physician. " Then resign her to him," said the king. "But if," said Erasistratus 
"it were the queen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your affections to another?' 
"Yes," replied Seleucus, "I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to sav« 
my son's life." "Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, "for the object of his love i* Stra 
tonice !" — Biog. Diet. 

' This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Oifwi. I! 
was presented to Oxford by the earl of Arundel in the reign of Charles II. 



ras] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 609 

T. 

TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. 

TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies undei 
sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 80,000 Spaniards), and the French 
army, amounting to 47.000, commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani, 
July 27 and 28, 1809. 

7 ALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality 
of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The 
one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second 
century; the second, being- commentaries, &c, by succeeding rabbis, were 
collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimon- 
ides in the twelfth century. 

T AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of 
Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued, the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- 
tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter 
had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed 
his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1403. — Chalcon- 
dila's Hist. Turk. 

TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The. use of tan was in- 
troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising 
orange-trees, It was discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first 
brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- 
ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. 

TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence 
its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. 
— Guicciarditii. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- 
vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William 
Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir 
Francis Crane, 17 James I., 1619. — Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of 
tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early 
instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also 
in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 

TARENTUM, War or. The war which the people of Tarentum suppo\ted 
against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is 
greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. c 
281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their 
ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- 
soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. 

TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar 
race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. 
It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- 
manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and 
the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of 
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The 
first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghis 
Khan, a. d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and ad 
Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it 
was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered 
Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and 
founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, 
till the close of the eighteenth century. 
TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various names, 
26* 



610 the world's progress. [tea 

in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. 
" In the raigne of king Edward the Third only three taverns were allowed 
in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- 
street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in 
the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his 
dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. 
Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff's merriment. — Shakspeare, 
Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, estab- 
lished in 1480: this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by 
an act of Edward "VI.. 1552. to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 
in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln. 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in 
Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in 
Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 
3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- 
lator, 540 b. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, 
about 55/. English money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects 
styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D' Eon's His- 
toire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by 
William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, as 
in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till 
the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British 
colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act 
repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue, Cost of Govern- 
ment, &c. 

TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the church, 
beginning with the words Te Deum laudamns — We praise thee, O God. It 
is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, 
about a. d. 390 ; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp 
and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a 
great victory or for a bounteous harvest. 

TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. 
Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from 
Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from 
thence, and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India 
Company took up the trade. — Anderson. Green tea began to be used in 1715 
The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- 
struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, 
and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. 

TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 

lbs. 27.803,668 

- 30,544,404 
- 44,360,550 

- 38,068,555 

In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000.000/. annually. 
Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every 
year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons, 
1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- 
land, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30.000,000.' — Evidence in the House of Commons, 1830. The first 
tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East 
India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United 
States for one year, ending July 1, 1847, was $4,278,463 ; while that of coffee 
was $9,1.02 872. 



1726. 


lbs. 700,000 


1805. 


lbs. 24,133,000 


1825. 


1766. - 


7,000,000 


1810. - 


25,414,000 


1830. 


1792. 


• 13,185,000 


1815. 


- 26,368,000 


1S35. 


1800. - 


23,723,000 


1820. - 


25,662,474 


1840. 



TEM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 611 

TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, aboat 1768. 
The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the 
first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor- 
thumberland at Sion. 

TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- 
struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrsia, 
because the signals were always made by Are. The most ingenious of the 
moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when 
the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a 
telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. 
M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about 
this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful 
purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. 
Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was 
erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- 
concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the 
combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular 
words, letter by letter. See Electric THegraph. 

TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. 
Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes ex- 
act!} 7 , and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, 
of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- 
cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated 
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of 
which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's 
moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and 
were improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by 
Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by 
More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- 
tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000Z. in 1802 ; but the Herschel telescope, 
made 1789 — 1795, is superior: it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- 
meter, 3^ inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See 
Herschel Telescope. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that 
the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this 
country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the 
most prominent of the first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt 
of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The 
exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total 
abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general 
habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various 
names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from 
various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with 
spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent 
in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the 
Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has 
administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his 
countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger- 
many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. 

TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in 
a. d. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The templars were numerous 
in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- 
pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon 
other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged. 
and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 



612 the world's progress. [tew 

in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed 
in England, and finally in 1340. 

TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house 
of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased 
by the professors of the common law. and converted into inns. They are 
called the Inner and Middle Temple. 

TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusebius. 
The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. 
The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — Apollonius. For tem- 
ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 
b. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by 
Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d. 
70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built 
of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidas, 548 b.c. 
A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmaeonidse, about 513 b. c.-— 
Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 
b. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it, 
employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260.— The Temple of 
Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed wi th 
her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years b. c, 
is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the world. — The heathen 
temples were destroyed throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the 
Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. 

TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- 
ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga 
river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the 
Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent 
contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North 
Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
1796. Population in 1790, 35 691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 
1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. 

TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili- 
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of 
the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
&c, was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. 

TEUTON! or TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri 
made inciu*sions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They 
were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made 
prisoners. 101 b. c. See Cimbri. 

TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy 
Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in 
the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Chri*tian 
army under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The 
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cselestine III., a. d. 1191. See 
Prussia, &c. 

TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, 
were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, 
as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- 
wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French king, 
Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses 
of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. 



the] dictionary of dates. 613 

TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- 
cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction 
with the adjacent State of Coahuila, on the formation of the Mexican re- 
public — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis- 
agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant 
from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indeper 
dence commenced 1833. and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican 
president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the 
independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), 
after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 
1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an- 
nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to 16, June 8, 1844.] 

THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication 
between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most 
extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was 
begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption 
took place, May 18. 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width 
is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, 
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the 
bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot 
passengers, March 25, 1843. 

THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a 
nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most 
properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called 
thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- 
quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland 
by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the 
first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres 
were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There 
was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were 
assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- 
vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by 
Balthazar Sienna, a. d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England 
was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of 
Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before 
that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- 
mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery. 2d. ; lords' room, Is. 
— Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frcrft 
Drury-lane; it runs thus: "By his Majestie, his company of Comedians at 
the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Humov- 
rovs Lievlenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The 
play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened 
in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States 
was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- 
tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company 
acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in 
New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia 
soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New 
York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. 

THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- 
toinpylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to 
Jupiter. I:i the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, 
and upon any emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 



614 the world's progress. [tub. 

gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cant- 
byses, king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. 
— Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country successively called 
Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Boeotia. See Bmotia. Thebes was 
called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- 
brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by 
the Romans, 145 b. c. — Livy ; Thucydides. 

THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death 
at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- 
ly punished theft with death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could 
redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- 
tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very 
severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's 
acts, 9 and 10 George IV. 

THEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660, and 
they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- 
ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that 
their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was 
given by God to the Hebrews. 

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- 
ver, founded 1808. 

THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several 
scientific person all about the same time. Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 
a. d. 1609. — Boerhaavc. Invented by Paulo Sarpi. 1609. — Fulgentio. Invent- 
ed by Sanctorio in 1610.— Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented 
about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of 
construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years 
subsequently. 

THERMOPYLAE, Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the 
defile of Thermopylfe, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three 
days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- 
cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, 
thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their 
country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 
heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- 
sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and 
insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with 
their royal leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the 
hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c— • Vossius de Grcec. Hist. 

THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being 
the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king 
of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all 
Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their 
origin, as the Achasans, the iEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The 
two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the 
deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. 
See them severally. 

THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and 
Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it 
so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 b. c. By- 
zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Constantinople 
was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet H., a. d, 1463,— 
Priestley. 



XIA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 615 

THRASHING -MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use. 
The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones 
or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted 
in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, aboul 
1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. 

THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car- 
thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No 
less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken 
prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10.000 Romans made their es- 
cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius, 

THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England 
also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the 
privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly 
resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a 
present by the council King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it 
on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out; 
" Hold ! hold! doctor ; another turn would make me confess any thing." 

THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero 
worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly 
by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over 
the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is 
said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day, which 
was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and 
Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English; Thursday, or Thors-day, 
has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- 
donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 
about 79 b. c. ; and Cassar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic 
War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
a. d. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved 
for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove 
universal gravitation, about 1683. 

TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- 
sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- 
tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- 
vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones 
of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 
19 following. 

TILTS and TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the 
eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, 
and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry 
IV., about a. d. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the 
suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in 
France in 1560. — Voltaire's Gen. Hist. 

TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000 
loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand 
on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship 
consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres 
in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per 
annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800.000 loads of timber annually, 
exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c, together with about 8,000,* 
000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Ret. 



616 the world's progress. |_ TOS 

TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. .;. Early au- 
thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each 
twelve inches long; but as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- 
vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being r 
great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, 
sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, 
Watches, &c. 

TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 
years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave thera 
commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- 
mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- 
mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- 
ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- 
ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the 
stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. 
Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall 
into a dukedom, with which he invested his son. Edward the Black Prince, 
1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest 
sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, 
which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in 
Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; 
in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons 
of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 
400,000Z. 

TITHES and TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 
b. c. — Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were 
given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. " I will not put the 
title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right 
certainly commenced and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- 
ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, 
is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. 
Ofia, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to 
expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had 
caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Bum's Eccles. Laiv. Tithes were 
first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, 
a. d. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by 
Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran 
councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. 

TITLES. ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles 
swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and " My liege" 
conferred upon him, 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred 
upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of "Most High and Mighty 
Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. 
had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last 
were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. 
of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field 
of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
" Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present " Sacred " 
or " Most Excellent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of 
Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, 
about 1463. 

TOBACCO, Nicotiana Tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, 
a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, 
one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was 
first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- 



top] 



DICTIONARY Of DATES. 617 



iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 
1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake 
are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured 
only for exportation for some years. — Stotce's Chron. In 1584 a proclama- 
tion was issued against it. King James I. issued his famous Counter-Blast 
against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. 10//. 
per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited 'in England by Charles II. 
An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation 
was allowed in Ireland 1779. The tax was increased, and put under the 
excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to 
tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- 
land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased 
in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantity consumed in England 
; n 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached 
to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is 
grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all Oe 
southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,551,122. 
Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United 
States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred for 
smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad 
taste of this weed. 

TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. ;§42. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- 
taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was 
ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse 
in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 
14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was 
once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. 

TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the 
first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The 
dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- 
tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of 
queen Anne's reign. 

TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d, 
1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
1341. Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for 
every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes 
were used in 1663. 

TONNAGE and POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, 
commenced in England about 21 Edward III., 1346. The first granted to 
the kings of England for life, 5 Edward IV., 1465. Cunmgham's Hist. 
Taxes. 

TONTINES, Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so 
called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on 
foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by 
amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- 
taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 
100Z. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- 
holders his share produced him 3000Z. per annum. He died worth 2,115,- 
244Z., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798.— Haydn. 

TOPLITZ, Battle of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians 
and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. Battle of Toplitz, 
August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a 
considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a triple 



618 the world's progress. |_toc 

alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. Treaty ol 
Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. 
TORTURE. It lias disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. 
It was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It waa 
used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in 
England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1699. 
The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order 
of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some time 
before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gustavus III., 1786. It 
yet continues in other countries. 

TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be 
derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- 
lector of tithes and taxes. — Encyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- 
heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, 
into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated 
the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; 
while " the Whigs" denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — Ashe. 
The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- 
paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (which 
see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- 
ties in the aristocracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; 
and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our 
revolutionary war the term was applied to the royalists ; but, oddly enough, 
at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, 
while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See IVIiigs. 

TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by 
land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of 
ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise 
the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord 
Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of 
Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- 
tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated 
by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised 
towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. 

TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- 
tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- 
ricians of Toulouse, had their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- 
nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to 
the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. 

TOULOUSE, Battle of. The final battle between the British Peninsular army 
under lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had 
been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of 
the troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soultj 
whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight- 
ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British 
forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the 
allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that 
of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte 
had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was 
aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. 

TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, 
such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- 
tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show 



TOW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 619 

their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word toumer, 
" to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, 
both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d. 
890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 
919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance 
in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the 12th century, when tha 
taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the 
count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused 
the king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from 
this event abolished in France, and with them " the age of chivalry is 
fled." A magnificent and costly feast and splendid tournament took 
place at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many 
of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour 
being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- 
tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. 

TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- 
neral Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians 
and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, 
May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, 
when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- 
pieces, May 6, 1794. 

TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that 
which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, 
and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We 
are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as 
well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, 
a. d. 732. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of 
Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- 
ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be 
reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- 
tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, 
except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing 
towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above 
the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these 
productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet 
high. 

TOWER of LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more 
than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first 
marked out by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and 
completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, 
and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, 
and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- 
built ; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly 
repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are 
the Armory, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, 
and many murders See England. 

TOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and 
bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between 
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter 



620 the world's progress. I TIU 

of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects 
fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower 3 
his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. 

TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng- 
land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against 
the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve 
and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and 
fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships 
After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- 
mirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. 
But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral 
Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and 
his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every 
man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. 

TRAGEDY. That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first 
tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the 
first gained by iEschylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- 
cles, 470 b. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c. — Ibid. Another by 
Astydamus, 377 b. c. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres. 

TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a. d. 114, by the directions of the emperor 
Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. This column, which still exists at 
Rome, was built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 
140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the 
emperor. 

TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. It began to be practised in the fifteenth 
century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went 
farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of pro- 
longing life, a. d. 1483. — Henault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion 
upon animals, M. Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of five 
persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited 
the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English 
physician, who died in 1691, practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. 
Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- 
tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. 

TRANSPORTATION of FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were 
ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment 
for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England 
is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- 
tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- 
portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More 
recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, waa 
transported for forging a frank, (l§d. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first 
transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the 
settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished 
with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable 
by transportation for life. . 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION. This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about 
a. d. 840. It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000. It 
was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the 
doctrine before 1066. Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- 
tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095. The word " transubstantiation" 
was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165. John Huss, in subsequent 
tim es, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of tht 
council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 



rs.E J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



621 



TRAPPISTS, or MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart- 
rnent of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- 
cipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with 
rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were 
shipped by the French government at Painboeuf, Nov. 19. and were landed 
from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established 
themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain 
there the extreme rigor of their order. 

RAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage 
English subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money 
there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license 
for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. — Rapin. 

TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to rais<» 
water for the irrigation of the fields. The 'fread-mill lately introduced into 
the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is 
the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton 
jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. 

TREASON. See High Treason. It wa« punished in EngJand only by banish- 
ment till after Henry I. — Bakers Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward 
III., 1349. Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. 
The laws relating to treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment 
was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c. and even burning alive. 
Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason, 
which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three 
ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; 
and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so 
declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. 

TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any 
foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty was 
with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of 
Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following 
forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; Leagues, &c. 



Abo, peace of - 


- 1743 


Aix-la-Chapelle 


- - 1668 


Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of 


- 1748 


Akermann, peace of 


- - 1826 


Alt Radstadt 


- 1706 


America, peace with 


- - 1783 


Amiens, peace of 


- 1802 


Armed Neutrality - 


- - 1800 


Arras, treaty of 


- 1435 


Arras, ditto - 


- - 1482 


Augsburgh, league of - 


- 1686 


Baden, peace of 


- - 1714 


Barrier treaty 


- 1715 


Basle, peace of 


- - 1795 


Bassein, India • 


- 1802 


Bayonne, treaty of - 


- - 1808 


Belgium, treaty of London 


- 1839 


Belgrade, peace-of - 


- - 1739 


Berlin, peace of 


- 1742 


Berlin decree 


- - 1806 


Berlin convention 


- 1808 


Breda, peace of 


- - 1667 


Bretigny, peace of 


- 1360 


Bucharest, treaty of 


- - 1812 


Cambray, league of 


- 1508 


Cambray, peace of 


- - 1529 


Campo-Formio, treaty of 


- 1797 


Carlowitz, peace of 


- - 1699 



Carlsbad, congress of - 
Cateau-Cambresis, peace of 
Chaumont, treaty of 
Chunar, India 
Cintra, convention of - 
Closterseven, convention of 
Coalition, first, against France 
Coalition, second, ditto 
Coalition, third, ditto - 
Coalition, fourth, ditto 
Coalition, fifth, ditto 
Coalition, sixth, ditto 
Concordat 
Conflans, treaty of 
Constantinople, peace of 
Constantinople, treaty of 
Copenhagen, peace of 
Cressy 
Dresden 

Family compact 
Fontainebleau, peace of 
Fontainebleau, treaty of 
Fontainebleau, concordat a 
Friedwald, treaty of 
Fuessen, peace of 
Ghent, pacification of 
Ghent, peace o f America) 
Golden Bull 



- 181S 

- 155S 
-1814 
•1781 

-180* 
-1757 

- 1793 

- 1799 

- 1805 

• 180S 

• 1809 

- 1813 
-1801 

- 1465 
-1712 
-1833 
-1660 

- 1544 

- 1745 
-1761 
-1679 

• i7a5 

-1813 

- 1551 

- 1745 

- 1576 
-1814 
-135e 



622 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



{ran 



TREATIES, continued. 
Grand Alliance 
Greece, treaty of London 
Hague, treaty of the 
Hague, treaty of the 
Halle, treaty of 
Hamburgh, peace of 
Hanover treaty - 
Holland, peace with 
Holy Alliance - 
Hubertsberg, peace of 
Interim - 
Kiel, treaty of 
Laybach, congress of 
League • 

Leipsic, alliance of 
Leoben, peace of 
Lisbon, peace of 
London, treaty of (Greece) 
London, convention of (Turkey) 
Lubeck, peace of 
Luneville, peace of 
Madrid, treaty of 
Methuen treaty - 
Milan decree 
Munster, peace of 
Nantes, edict of 
Naumberg, treaty of 
Nice, treaty of 
Nimeguen, peace of 
Noyon, treaty of 
Nuremberg, treaty of 
Olivia, peace of 
Paris, peace of (see Paris) 
Paris, treaty of 
Paris, peace of (Sweden) 
Paris, capitulation of 
Paris, treaty of - 
Paris, peace of 
Paris, treaty of - 
Partition, first treaty 
Partition, second treaty - 
Passarowitz, peace of 
Passau, treaty of 
Petersburgh, peace of 
Petersburgh, treaty of - 
Petersburgh, treaty of 
Petersburgh, treaty of - 
Peterswalden, convention of 
Pilnitz, convention 3f - 
Poland, partition of - 
Pragmatic Sanction 
Pragmatic Sanction 
Prague, peace of 
Presburg, peace of - 
Public good, league for the 



TREATIES op the UNITED STATES.- 

Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 

Treaty of Paris (independence secured) 

Sept. 3, 1783 
Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 17S5 
Treaty with Morocco - - - 17S7 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain 

(Jay's) ..... 1794 
Treaty with the Six Nations and other 

Indian tribes .... 1794 
Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and 

Algiers, by Humphries - - - 1795 

Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by 

J. Q. Adams) ... - 1799 

Treaty with France, by Ellsworth, Pa- 

Jri«k Henry &c. Sept. 30, 1800 



- 1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the 

- 1829 Quadruple Alliance 

- 1659 Radstadt, peace of - 

- 1669 Radstadt, congress of 
■ 1610 Ratisbon, peace of - 

- 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of 

• 1725 Religion, peace of • 

• 1784 Rhine, Confederation of the 

- 1815 Ryswick, peace of - 

- 1763 St. Germain's, peace, of 

- 1548 St. Germain-en-Laye 

• 1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with 

- 1721 France - 

- 1576 Seville, peace of 

- 1631 Siiirod, peace of - 

- 1797 Smalcald, league of - 

- 1668 Spain, pacification of (London) 

- 1829 Stettin, peace of 
. 1840 Stockholm 

- 1629 Stockholm, peace of 

- 1801 Stockholm, treaty of 

- 1526 Stockholm, treaty of 

- 1703 Temeswar, truce of 

- 1807 Teschen, peace of - 

- 1648 Teusin, peace of 

- 1598 Tilsit, peace of 

- 1554 Tolentino, treaty of 

- 1518 Toplitz, treaty of - 

- 1678 Triple Alliance - 
■1516 Triple Alliance of the Hague 

- 1532 Troppau, congress of - 

- 1660 Troyes, treaty of 

- 1763 Turkmauchay, peace of 

- 1796 Ulm, peace of 

- 1810 Utretht, union of 

- 1814 Utrecht, peace of 

- 1814 Valencay, treaty of 

- 1815 Verona, congress of 

- 1817 : Versailles, peace of 

- 1698 I Vienna, treaty of 
-1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance 

- 1718 ! Vienna, definitive peace 

- 1552 I Vienna, peace of 

- 1762 Vienna, treaty of, March 23 

- 1772 [ Vienna, treaty of, May 31 

- 1805 I Vienna, treaty of, June 4 

- 1810 [ Vossem, peace of 

- 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - 
- 1791 Warsaw, alliance of 

- 1795 Westminster, peace of 

- 1439 Westminster (with Holland) 

- 1713 Westphalia, peace of 

- 1653 ' Wilna, treaty of - 
1805 ! Worms, edict of 

- 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of 

Some of the most important : 
Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe 
and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame^ 
rican government 
Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, 
signed by J. Q,. A'dams, Gallatin, and 
H. Clay, for the L •. jted States, clos- 
ing the " war of 1812," Lut leaving 
the original dispute much as before - 
Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 
Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero- 

kees - 
Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 
Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. 
Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- 
ing American citizens for spoliation* 



1653 
1718 
1714 
1797 
1630 
1306 
1555 
1806 
1697 
1570 
i679 

1795 
1792 
1613 
1529 
1834 
1570 
1630 
1719 
1724 
1813 
1664 
1779 
1595 
1807 
1793 
1813 
1717 
1668 
1820 
1420 
1828 
1620 
1579 
1713 
1813 
1822 
1783 
1725 
1731 
1737 
1809 
1815 
1815 
1815 
16T3 
1768 
1683 
1674 
1716 
1648 
1561 
1521 
1610 



1808 



1814 
1815 

1816 
1325 
1S2S 



TRI J 



DICTIONARY OP DATES. 



623 



dishing ; ratified by the se: ate 

Jan. 16, 1843 

Treaty of peace witl. Mexico, signed at 
Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2, 1848 ; 
ratified by the senate (with modifica- 
tions) ; ratified at Queretaro by Ame- 
rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- 
ford, and Mexican minister Rosas 

May 30, 1848 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between 
North and South America; signed 
at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer 
and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 



Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years. 

Cedars on Lebanon, 800 years. 

Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 
800 years. 

Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 years. 

Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. 

[For proofs and details see the article re- 
ferred to.] 



TREATIES, continued. 

during the war with Napoleon 

Nov. 13, 1826 

Treaty with Brazil - March 18, 1829 

Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 

Treaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 

Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 

Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 

Treaty with Russia (commercial) 

Dec. 18, 1832 

Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- 
ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. 
Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 
to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 

Treaty with China, negotiated by C. 

TREES, Age of. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al- 
manac for 1838, p. 102, are, 

The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, 

700 years. 
(Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 

years.) 
Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Gene- 

seo, New York, 500 years. 
Yeie trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, 

1,200 years ; and in Scotland, said to be 

2,500 years. 

TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic 
church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- 
citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. 
The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- 
tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last 
council was held. 

TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there 
is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at 
Ha warden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a 
list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of 
one of them, of the name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name 
and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate.— Phillips. 

TRIBUNES of the PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first 
chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the 
time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- 
cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was 
soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. 
Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the 
ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. 

TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken 
from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it 
from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the 
line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom 
the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three 
Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- 
land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. 

ntlNITY and TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by 
all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {which see). Theophilus, 
bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used 
the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His 
Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Watkins 



G24 the world's progress. ["tec 

An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, bj John de Matha and Felix 
de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of lifteen persons, was insti- 
tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- 
ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 
1813. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between 
the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the 
Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was. known 
as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28. 1668. 

TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after 
they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two 
sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled 
the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, 
accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state 
with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their diiferent 
pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, 
b. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Ca3sar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the 
expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- 
rate, b. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through 
whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his 
colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in 
Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See 
Rome. 

TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, 
and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by 
several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout 
Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in 
their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the 
troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. 

TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and 
more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came 
hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the 
daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus 
built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in 
succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes- 
sor, converted it into Ilium. 

Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- I War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 

nor. — Blair - - b.c. 1546 I Reign of Priam or Podarces - - 1224 

Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, 

Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds son of Priam, 20 years before the 

the city of Dardania - - 1480 j sacking of Troy.— Homer's Iliad, 

Reign of Ericthonius - - - 1449 j book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204 

Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- , Commencement of the invasion of the 

pie are called Trojans - - 1374 I Greeks to recover Helen - - 1193 



The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 ] Troy taken and burned in the night of 

Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - -1314 j the 11th of June, i. e. 23d of the 

Reign of Laomedon - - - 1260 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ; He- 

sione delivered from the sea-monster. 

—Blair, Usher - - - 1225 



month Thargelion. — Parian Mar- 
bles. 408 years before the first 
Olympiad. — Apollodorus - - 1184 

iEneas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1183 



Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about 
thirty stadia distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, 
and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe« 



TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 625 

dition, it never rose to much importance, and in the age of Strabo waa 
nearly in ruins. — Priestley. 
TROY "WEIGHT, The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in 
Britain. — Arbiiihnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from 
Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It 
was first adopted at Troves, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used 
to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- 
tablished by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. 

TROYES Treaty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it 
was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles 
VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should 
inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by 
the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was 
finally reoccupied bj the allies, March 4, 1814. 

TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- 
pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the 
time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then 
shells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive wars. — 
Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time 
of Offa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by 
Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained bv 
Moreland, 1671. 

TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from 7V 
isco, or Tiw, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. 
Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. 
See Week Days. 

TUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by 
Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- 
tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the 
scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, particularly 
those of 1789 and 1848. 

TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always 
been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- 
merce in the 16th century ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of 
Alcmaer. in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold 
for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, 
sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant 
and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tidipifera/wsiS 
carried to England from America, about 1663. 

TUNBRIDGE- WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by 
Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage 
of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its 
waters, a. d. 1606. 

TUNIS and TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The 
territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and 
were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 b. c, 
Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African kings 
till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was 
expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under 
Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 
10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was 
first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey 
refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 
27 



626 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[tub 



TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw« 
parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The 
sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen. 
These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions. Sophi, king 
of Persia, being of the sect of Ali. was the first who assumed the red color, 
to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. 

TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated 
their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798. the French 
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and 
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians 
and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered 
to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- 
ed it to the king of Sardinia. 

TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by 
reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they 
became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of 
manv races of men. 



Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca 

(see Mecca) - - - a.d. 571 

His imposture commenced (see Maho- 

metanisrn) .... 604 
The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 

Flight to Medina (see Medina) - 622 

iEra of the Hegira (see Hegira) - 622 

Death of Mahomet - - - 631 

Holy wars begin (see Crusades) - 1095 
The Turkish empire first formed under 

Othman at Bythmia - - - 1298 

The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and 

take Adrianople - - - 1360 

Amurath I. institutes the Janizaries, a 
guard composed of Christian slaves 
bred Mahometans - - - 1362 

Eajazetl. overruns the provinces of the 

Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. 

He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is 
at length taken by Tamerlane (see 
Tamerlane) .... 1403 
The Turks invading Hungary, are re- 
pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 
Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
der Mahomet II., which ends the 
Eastern Roman empire - - 1453 
Greece made subject to the Mahome- 
tans (see Greece) - - - 1458 
The Turks penetrate into Italy, and 
take Otranto, which diffuses terror 
throughout Europe - - - 1480 
Selim I. raised to the throne by the Ja- 
nizaries ; he murders his father, bro- 
thers, and their sons - - - 1512 
He takes the islands of the Archipelago 

from the Christians - - - 1514 

He overruns Syria - - - 1515 

Adds Egypt to his empire - - 1516 

Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 

Rhodes taken from the knights of St. 

John, who go to Malta ' - - 1522 

Solyman II.. with 250,000 nien, is repuls- 
ed before Vienna - - - 1529 
Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an 
end to the fears of Europe from Turk- 
ish power (see Lepanio) - - 1571 
Asnurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- 
gles his five brothers - - - 1574 



[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians 

during this reign] 
The Turks driven out of Persia by the 

famous Schah Abbas - - a. d. 1585 

Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - -1595 

Great fire in Constantinople - -1606 

Reign of Amurath IV., who strangles 

his father and four brothers - • 1624 

The Turks defeat the Persians, and take 

the city of Bagdad - - - 1639 

The island of Candia, or Crete, taken 

after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but 

relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 

Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 
Peace of Carlovitz - - - 1699 

Mustapha III. deposed - - - 1703 

The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 
Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Rus- 
sia relinquishes Azoff - - 1739 
Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; 
the English and Russianfleets defeat 
the Turkish .... 1770 
The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 
[This ends the disastrous war with Rus- 
sia and Austria (begun in 17S7), the 
Turks having lost more than 200,000 
men. — Ashe.] 
War against Russia - - Dec. 30, 1806 
Passage and repassage of the Darda- 
nelles effected by the British fleet, but 
with great loss (see Dardanelles) 

Feb. 19, 1807 
The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- 
dered, and Mustapha IV. called to - 
the throne - - May 29, 1807 

Treaty of Bucharest {which see) May 

28, .813 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souis, re- 
turning from Mecca, destroyed by a 
pestilential wind in the deserts of 
Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 
Subjection of the Wachabees - -1819 

Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares 

himself independent - - - 1820 

Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia 

March 6, 1821 
The Greek Patriarch put to death at 
Constantinoplir - - April 23, 182! 



ruR j 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



627 



TURKEY, continue!. 

Horrible massa:re at Scio; the most 
dreadful in rmdern history (see note 
to Greece) - - - April 23, 1822 

Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 

New Mahometan army announced to be 
organized - - - May 29, 1826 

Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- 
stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 

Firman of the sitan abolishing the Ja- 
nizaries .... 1826 

Fire at Consta icmople ; 6000 houses re- 
duced to ashes - - August 30, 1826 

Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet 
destroyed~-by the fleets of England, 
France, and Russia (see Navarino) 

Oct. 20. 1827 

Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, 
and 85 Russian settlers, from the 
Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 

War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 

The emperor Nicholas takes the field 
against the Turks - May 20, 1828 

The Russian emperor arrives before 
Varna ... - Aug. 5, 1828 

Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 

Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 

The sultan leaves his capital for the 
camp, bearing with him the sacred 
standard - - - Sept. 26, 182S 

Dardanelles blockaded - Oct. L, 1828 

Suirender of Varna - - Oct. 15, 1828 



Russians retreat from 1 efore Schuinla, 

October 16, 18£S 

Surrender of the castle of the Morea to 
the French - - - Oct. 30, 1S28 

Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians 

Nov. 10, 1828 

Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa 
near Schumla - - June 11, 1829 

Adrianople is entered by the Russian 
troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829 

Armistice between the Russian and 
Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1849 

Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1822 

Treaty with the U. States - May 7, 18:30 

St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- 
cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 

He defeats the army of tl. e sultan in Sy- 
ria, with great loss - - July 30. 1832 

A series of successes brings the ar. ny ot 
Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues 
of Constantinople, and the sultan has 
recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 

A Russian force. enters the Turkish ca- 
pital ... - April 3, 1833 

Treaty with Russia, offensiv c -».nd de- 
fensive - - ■ July S, 1833 

Office of grand vizier abolished by the 
sultan - - - March 30, 1838 

Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 

Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 



1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 
1325 Orcham, his youngest son. 
1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. 
1388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. 
1397 Isa Belis ; killed by his brother. 
1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 
1410 Mu'sa ; strangled by his brother. 
1413 Mahomet I. ; succeeded by his son. 
1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 
1451 Mahomet II. ; left the empire to his 

two sons. 
1481 Co 'tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by 

his father. 
1481 Xemin ; obliged to abdicate in favor of 

his brother. 
1481 Bajazet II. ; deposed by his son. 
1520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 
1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 
1512 Selim ; succeeded by his son. 
1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 
1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 
1604 Achmet ; succeeded by his brother. 
1617 MustaphaL; succeeded by his nephew, 
16i7 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, 



TURKISH EMPERORS. 

and his uncle restored. 

1622 Mustapha I. ; again deposed and suc- 
ceeded by his grandson. 

1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 
1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, 

succeeded by his son. 

1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by 
his brother. 

1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bro- 
ther. 

1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 

1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet 
IV., deposed and succeeded by his 
brother. 

1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 

1730 Mahomet V.; succeeded by his brother. 

1754 Osmanll. ; succeeded by his brother. 

1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro- 
ther. 

1774 Abelhamst, or Achmet IV. 

1789 Selim III. 

1807 Mustapha IV. 

1808 Mah. Khan II. 
1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. 



TURKEYS and GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a d. 1524, and 
to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- 
ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- 
ous particulars in the history of these birds ; evincing that they are natives 
neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond 
controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met 
with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- 
ing larger do not differ from ours. — Smyth. 

TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom 
articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious Tasea 



628 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f TYR 

enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of 
the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for 
turnery in England are, many of them, wonderful in their machinery ; and 
in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war 
are now produced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces oi 
oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. 

TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- 
wise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II., 1663.-- 
Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. 

TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came 
into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 
1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his 
dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with the title of king 
of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- 
wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy ; 
but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grana luke Leopold IT 
(cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. 



Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 
began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 

Grand-duke grants a national militia. 

The grand-duke granted a liberal con- 
stitution - Feb. 1848 

Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 

The grand-duke flees from Florence 



The chambers meet. 

Provisional government proclaimed, 

Feb. 9, 1849 

Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- 
can troops - - - May 10, 1841 

The grand-duke re-enters Florence and 
resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 



TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation 
of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king 
and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on 
the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece 
of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as 
king. 

TYLER, WAT, his Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to 
the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of 
one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- 
cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), 
the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 
men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where 
the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and 
again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the 
mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of 
the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader 
awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- 
persed, 1381. 

TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 b. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from 
before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 572 b. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed 
to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island 
to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. g. 
— Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes 
were the uege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by 
Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the . 
flames. — Phillips. 

TYRE, Era op. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- 
perberetseus. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub 



FKI J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 629 



tract 124 ; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

U. 

UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- 
many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to 
be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540. 

UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and 
Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- 
ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the 
treaty of Partition in 1795. 

ULM, Peace op, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from 
it previously), July 3. 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1776. Great 
battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under gen- 
eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- 
tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower 
of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the 
confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. 

UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to 
carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- 
las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- 
las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who 
visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince 
of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ot 
soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- 
tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said 
that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was 
the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* 

UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their 
feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole 
body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high 
priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels 
of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were 
anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme 
unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received 
unction from the-pope, 590. — Bayle. It is administered in dying cases as 
extreme unction. See Anointing. 

UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- 

* For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- 
minacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary 
occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. 
The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in 
fear of rain, borrowed the umbrdlafrom- Willis's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to 
the maid's pattens" As late as 1778. one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, 
informs us, that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain ; but he could not 
with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman ! why doir't you get a 
coach ■?' " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, 
were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther 
information. ''At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and 
gentlemen's Louses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold over a lady if it rained, 
between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit 1 is arm one day 
from the abuse he drew down on himself and his umbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted 
for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners began to use theirs, and then 
the English. Now it is become a great trade in London."— A ew Monthly Magazine. 



630 the world's PROGRESS. [ JNi 

ner," by Louis XIV., 1688. In England the uniform was soon afterwards 
adopted. 

UNIFORMITY, Act op. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But 
the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles 
[I., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all 
clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of 
worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 
2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their 
lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their 
numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. 

UNION op the CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united 
by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 
24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, 
but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In 
the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- 
cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- 
standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union 
was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- 
terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- 
ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year, 

UNION with IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- 
ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British 
parliament, July 2, 1800. 

UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in and 
worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the 
Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned 
man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- 
tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a 
tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1533, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to 
arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract 
his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- 
tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation 
of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, 
especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- 
fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and 
eloquent writer, Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. . 

UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British 
realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new 
imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dub- 
lin. See Union. 

UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- 
ish yoke, a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, 
at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- 
cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- 
therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
Friesland. Groningen. Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 
1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of 
Orange as their stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as 
the " Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by 
the appellation of the <: Seven United Provinces." Their independence was 
acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte waa 
crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated 



*mi J 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



63] 



July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed 
Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- 
Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium. 

UNITED STATES of AMER CA. See America; and the separate States. 
Maine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con- 
sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, J nne 7, 
1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration of 
Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775 
See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4 
1776. The title of " United States" adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776., 
Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris. 
Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great 
Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at 
Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty 
of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &c. ; also 
Naval Battles ; also Administrations, Exports. National Debt, Treaties, Po- 
pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States 
are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this 
vol., page 122, et. seq.] 

UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects 
of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and 
celebrated Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted 
the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, 
he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon 
which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity 
of hell torments, involved this doctrine. 

UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from 
the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. The most ancient uni- 
versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and 
Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- 
lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- 
lowing are the principal universities in Europe : 



Aberdeen founded ... 1494 

Abo, Finland - - • - 1640 

Aix, 1409 ; re-established - - 1603 

Alba Julia, Transylvania - - - 1629 

Altorf, Franconia - - - 1581 

Andrew's. St., Scotland - - -1411 

Angers, chiefly law ... 139S 
Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged • - - 1364 

Avignon. France ... 1388 

Bamberg - ... 15S5 

Baale, Switzerland - - ' - 1458 

Berlin 1812 

Besancon, Burgundy - - - 1540 

Bologna, Italy - - - - 423 

Bruges, French Flanders - - 1665 

Caen, Normandy - - - - 1417 

Cambridge, began, 626 — according to 

others, 900. See Cambridge. 
Cambridge, New England, projected - 1630 
Cologne, in Germany, re-founded - 1389 
Compostella, Spain - - - 1517 

Coimbra, Portugal - - - 1301 

Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged - - 1539 

Cordova, Spain .... 963 
Cracow, Poland, 700; enlarged - -1402 
Dijon, France - - - - 1722 

Dillinsin, Swabia - - - 1565 

Dole, Bursundy - 1426 

Douay, French Flanders - - - 1562 

a, S">.xony - • • 1694 



Dublin .... 

Edinburgh, founded by James VI 

Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged 

Florence, Italy ; enlarged 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder 

Fribourg, Germany 

Geneva 

Glasgow - 

Gottmgen 

Granada, Spain - 

Gripswald - 

Groningen, Friesland 

Halle, Saxony 

Heidelberg 

Ingoldstadt, Bavaria 

Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 

Kiel, Holstein 

King's College, London 

Konigsberg, Prussia 

Leipsic, Saxony - 

Leyden, Holland 

Lima, in Peru 

Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbra 

London University 

Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; enlarged 

Lyons, France 

Mechlin, Flanders - 

Mentz 

Montpelier - 

Moscow - 



- 159i 

- 1582 

- 1390 
-143S 
-1505 
-1460 
- 1365 

- 1450 
-1734 
-1537 
-1547 
-1614 
-1694 
. 1346 
. 1573 

- L543 

- 1665 
-1829 

• 1544 
-1408 

- 1575 

- 1614 

- 1391 

- 1326 
■ 1427 

- 830 

- 1440 

• 1482 
-1196 

• 1754 



632 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[ DTK 



UNIVERSITIES, continued. 

Munster 1491 

Naples 1216 

Orleans, France 1312 

Oxford (see Oxford) - ■ - - 886 

Paderborn 1592 

Padua, Italy 1179 

Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 
Paris, 792 ; renovated - - - -1100 

Parma 1599 

Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 

Perpignan 1349 

Perugia, Italy 1307 

Petersburgh 1747 

Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged .... 1552 

Poictiera 1430 

Prague 1348 

Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - ■ -1560 

Rome Sapienza 1303 

Rostock, Mecklenburgh - - - - 1419 

Salamanca 1240 

Salerno 1233 



Saltzburg - iSffl 

Saragossa, Arragon = • ■ 1474 

Seville - ■ 1531 

Sienna •■ • 1387 

Siguenza, Spain 1517 

Sorbonne, Paris - - - ■ ■ 1253 

Strasburg 1538 

Toledo, Spain - . . . - - 1518 
Treves, Germany .... 1473 

Tubingen, Wirtemberg - - - - 1477 

Turin 1403 

Upsal, Sweden - - - N - 1477 

Utrecht, Holland 1636 

Valence, Dauphine 1475 

Valencia in the thirteenth century, 

Valladolid 134« 

Venice 1592 

Vienna 1236 

Wirtemberg - - ... 1502 

Wittenberg ... - la02 

Wurtzburg • - - 1403 



UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. 

UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving "s chapel, in 
London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, 
by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue." She 
was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and 
commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the 
same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the 
whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females 
screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to 
the ravings of the inspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, 
much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- 
sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, bivj; 
as early as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- 
fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — 
Ann. Register. 

IK ANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by 
whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. 
The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious 
discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is 
asually called Uranus. It is about twice as distant from the sun as the 
planet Saturn; and was discovered on the 13th March. 1781. 

USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given 
for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 42>l. 6s. 8d. per 
annum for 100Z., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews. 
Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest 
of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, therefore, often banished 
and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII. . the rate of interest 
was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- 
beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word in- 
terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 
1714. See Interest. 

U i'RECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began 
here (see United Provinces), a. d. 1579. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, 
which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of 
Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- 
ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were 
iJixc security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the 



-al] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 633 



French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement 
of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction 
for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to-, the 
Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. 



VACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner. He 
made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring- the pus from 
the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, ta 
% healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. .Tenner subsequently published the result 
to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- 
duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of 
vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,00QZ. for the dis- 
covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the 
promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded 
Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously 
to 1816. 

VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return 
to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry 
VIII. , 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of 
the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII.. 1535 ; and a third time convicted, 
death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a 
slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring 
the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571 . The milder 
statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws 
against vagrancy are still very severe in Englaad, and operate unequally as 
respects the character of the offender. 

VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and 
was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 
1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the 
French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- 
mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. 

VALENCIENNES, Siege op. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, 
when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 
1793. It was retaken, together with Conde", by the French, on capitulation, 
the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. 
— 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions 
of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast 
quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30. 1794. 

VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VII. 
of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, oq 
agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- 
cember 8, 1813. 

VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of " choosing a Valentine," as it it 
called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of 
the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient 
date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered martyr- 
dom under Claudius IT. at Rome, a.d. 271. It is said that on this day 
the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the custom of 
young psaople choosing Valentines or particular friends on the" feast of 
Valentine. 

VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opinions 
of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishopria 



634 the world's PROGRESS. [ VEH 

forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and 
goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called JEones, or Ages. He 
taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms : to 
these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- 
ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others 
practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- 
tiousness. 

VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman 
under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North 
Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command 
it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an 
account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and 
died in 1798. 

VaNDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gem any and Gaul, 
a. d 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded 
and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took 
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the 
Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread 
devastation wherever they appeared. 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. 
It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was 
deemed the south extremity of New Holland until 1799. A British settle- 
ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- 
went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. 

VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced 
by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- 
man piinces there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold 
with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day 
the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where 
the vassal boors are divided into classes ; as boors belonging to the sover- 
eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private boors, who 
belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England, 
a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c, held of him in fee. 
Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 
1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. 

VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St. Peter's, 
said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, 
is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- 
tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," 
was first used by Voltaire, 1748. 

VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some 
huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to 
give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a 
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- 
arated from the federal union and "declared itself sole and independent in 
1830. See Colombia. 

VENI, VIDI, VICI. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- 
tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when he 
vanquished Pharnaces. king of Cimmerian Bosphorus. 47 b. c. See Zela 
Battle of. 

VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made 
a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 b. c. Marcellus con- 



y«3> | 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



635 



qw.ered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 u. c. The 
islands on \rhich the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- 
ians, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- 
ous nations, when they ravaged Italy. The first house was erected on the 
morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- 
ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was 
first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was 
not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The 
ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by 
pope Alexander III. in 1178. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the 
discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave 
it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- 
ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the 
rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 
1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the 
whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned 
under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan. 24, 
1830. 



Venice declares herself an independent 
republic - - Aug. 18, 1848 

Provisional government decrees an as- 
sembly with lull powers to be elected 
by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 
inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 



Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- 
tulates to Marshal Radetzlcy, and is 
again in the power of Austria, 

Aug. 22, 1849 



VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- 
triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of 
their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- 
nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various 
ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the 
last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have, been the first man whose 
experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 
1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever 
appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. 

VENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 
1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or 
rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- 
vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 
1761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, 
to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. 
The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This 
planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. 

VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- 
setts, 1728. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 
1764 : claimed also by New-York, and granted to that colony by parliament 
in 1664. Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into 
the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in 
that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. 
Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The state 
admitted into the Union. 1791. Population in 1790, was 85.589 ; in 1810. 
217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679 ; in 1840, 291,948. 

VERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a 
small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built a 
hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kings 
of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it 
to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 



636 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ VE8 

to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated A- tons 1f% 
gloires de France; and freely opened to the public. 

VERSAILLES, Peace of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive 
treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain. France, and Spain 
Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondiche-rry and 
Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. 
Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. 

VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for 
grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey 
translated part of Virgil's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first composi- 
tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the 
other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse 
previously used in our grave compositions was the staDza of eight lines, the 
Ottawa rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
Faery Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian 
language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into 
Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French 
chansons. — Metropolitan. Triasino is said to have been the first introducer of 
blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (ths ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- 
men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.— - 
Annual Register. 

VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual 
fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother 
of Romulus was one of the vestals. iEneas is supposed to have first chosen 
the Vestals. Numa. in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- 
quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarch's ; but after the 
expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care 
of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from 
the age of six to ten ; and if there was not a sufficient number that 
presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were 
selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. 
The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. 
The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- 
tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Bibliobheque Uni- 
verselle. 

VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it 
emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and 
the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the burning 
lava, a. d. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of 
those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout 
Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not 
only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were 
suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished 
in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it : this 
eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered 
in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that 
time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by 
fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and 
loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and 
a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most 
dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The 
violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, whea 



he] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. G3\ 



Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed 
over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town of 
Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, 
and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been 
several eruptions since. 

VETOES of the PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can 
celling acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows: — by 
Washington, twice ; Madison, four times ; Monroe, once ; Jackson, five 
times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the 
navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds 
of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Februarj 
20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846 
French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. 

VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- 
pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city 
in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. 
of England. 40,000Z., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the 
Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the 
siege with the loss of 70000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 
1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who 
totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the 
city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by 
the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, 
following. They again captured it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once 
more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries. Oct. 14, same 
year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 
1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Austria and Hungary. 
See next articles. 

VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the 
emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to 
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively 
possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force 
to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing 
the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- 
matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. 

VIENNA, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king 
of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was gua- 
ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain 
acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. 

VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the 
emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed 
to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; 
signed Nov. 18, 1738. 

VIENNA, Peace of, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) 
I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol. Dalmatia, 
and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging tc adhere 
to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia, 
October 14, 1809. 

VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia^ confirming the principles on which they had acted by 
the treaty of Chautaont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. Th<s 
treaty of Vienna beWeen the king of the Low Countries on the one part, 
and Great Britain, RriVsia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 



638 the world's progress. [ VIS 

the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in tha 
house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes 
Swedish Pomerania and Rngen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, 
June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, 
June 8, 1815. 
VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his haj-d labor 
being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to 
the vill or lordship; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat- 
tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this 
kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties 
to be made free at easy rates, a. d. 1574. — Stowe's Chron. 

V1MEIRA, Battle of,, between the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, and 
the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal 
Junot, duke of Abrantes. whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 
1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under 
his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- 
milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- 
ant career. 

VINCENT'S, St. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, 
the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs. on the windward 
side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this 
was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island 
by the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French 
landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which 
was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffriei 
mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 

VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, 
in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, 
vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are 
aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- 
neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The 
vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The 
vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in 
England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and 
celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Ghrapes, 
and Wine* 

VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds 
of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- 
tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- 
tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they 
might dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their 
repast : hence we may infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of 
this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 
It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our 
Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. 



* The following is a tradition in relation to the vine :— When Adam planted the first vine, and 
isft it, Satan approached it, and said, " Lovely plant ! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking 
three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood has 
been imbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheered by its 
influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you becoT.e furious, and 
rave and bellow like the lion; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reason sinks, and, like ths 
hog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe. 



tna j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 639 

There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not proper for 
drinking till diluted. 
VIOL and VIOLIN. As the tyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, 
so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The 
viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very 
much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- 
duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin 
was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe Lenglet. The 
fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of 
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II, 

VIRGIN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according 
to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a 
•feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the 
Greeks in the eleventh century ; its institution in the West is ascribed to 
Gregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says : ' ; The Indian incarnate 
god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, 
and was sought to be destroyed in his infancj'', about 900 years b. c. It 
appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and 
was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising 
from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. 
The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William 
Jones. 

\1RGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the 
decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the 
place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the 
daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of 
judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
friend, when Virginius, informed of his Violent proceedings, arrived from 
the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- 
quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, 
exclaiming, "This is all, my daughter ! lean give thee, to preserve thee 
from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius 
ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- 
tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they 
immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- 
self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, 
another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed 
himself also; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to 
death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. 

VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," 
having been settled, April, 1607. at Jamestown, on James river — the first 
white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen 
Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- 
ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his 
attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- 
nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and 
named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the 
Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- 
tion ; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration ; established 
the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in 
the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- 
wallis, at Yorktown, October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States 
adopted June 25. 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- 
dents of the United States, viz : Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 



640 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ WAG 

Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, and many 
distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974,622; 
in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. 

VTSIER or VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed 
in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately 
under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- 
tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into 
his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he placos in 
his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. 

VTTTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the 
annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813. Mar- 
shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his 
baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal . of 
France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington to^k Jourd&n's 
only remaining gun ! 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 
volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of 
Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b, o. by authentic historians. See 
Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. 
The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- 
count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783. see Iceland. In Mexico, 
a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height 
by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro 
broke out, Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red 
water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared 
in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808. 

VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of 
the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large 
army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40,000 Germans, 
raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. 
Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, 
it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- 
teers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804. In the 
United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war, Congress authorized 
the enlistment of 50.000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, 
but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled. 

VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order 
of Necho, pharoah of Egjpt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from 
Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good 
Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along 
the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the 
world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Is- 
land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery wag 
the end of the eighteenth century. See Circumnavigators, and ISorth- West 
Passage. 

W. 

IVAGES in ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen in England were first 
fixed by act of parliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers had but one 
penny a clay. Master carpenters, masons, tylera, and other coverers ot 
houses, had not more than 3d. per day (about 9d. of our money) ; and their 



s. 


a 


Year. 




s. d. 


Year. 




3. 


■ i 







In 1688 


per diem. 


8 


In 178S 


per diem. 


1 


4 





u. 


In 1716 


ditto 


9 


In 1794 


ditto 


1 


6 





4 


In 1740 


ditto 


10 


In 1800 


ditto 


2 





') 


6 


In 1760 


ditto 


1 


In 1840 


ditto 


3 






WAL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 641 

servants l^d. — Vine's Statutes. By the the 23d Henry VI., 144-1, the wages 
of a bailiff of husbandry was 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of the price 
of 55. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothii.g 
4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 40d. ; woman-servant, 10s., 
clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII., 1495, there was a like rate of wages, 
only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter. 
rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, 
was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a day, without meat and 
drink ; or with meat and drink Ad. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The 
following were the 

WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 

Year. 

In 1350 per diem. 
In 1460 ditto 

In 1568 ditto 

In 1632 ditto 

WAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in whidi the 
latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the 
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This 
battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty 
of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the 
kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- 
peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia 
to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
Spain. 

WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry 
VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists 
fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, 
seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick es- 
poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV.., and 
the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. 
This battle was fought December 31, 1460. 

WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- 
ticular saint ; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and 
was continued among the Saxons. — Whitaker. Women were hired among 
the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carina. The 
Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their 
friends. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might 
lie inactive. 

WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth 
century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Tope 
Innocent III. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies 
of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence; but the Catholic bishops 
were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and 
the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. 
One of the monks the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been as- 
sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to 
ma -ch into the heretical distric;. All obstinate heretics were placed at 
the disposal of Simon de Montfort. commander of this crusade, and the 
whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued 
with fire and sword. Neither sex. age, nor condition was spared ; the coun- 
try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was 
the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman wa- constituted first inqui- 
sitor-general, 1208. 



642 the world's PROGRESS [ WAH 

WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was 
elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his 
country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for 
reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they 
made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons 
retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- 
cessible mountains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
quered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. 
entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by 
the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not 
entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought 
to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him 
prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has 
borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England 
by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. See Britain. 

WALES, PRINCE op. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of 
Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284. Im- 
mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief 
tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his 
arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich Dyn," literally in English, 
" This is your man," but signifying, " This is your countryman and king." 
These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians 
assert, to'" icA Dien" which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince 
of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this 
prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 
1307. — Myvyrian Archceology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different 
account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien" see the article under that 
head. 

WALLOON'S. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the 
cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of 
Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries 
revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were 
well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by 
queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in 
this part of England. — Pardon. 

IVALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, 
and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, 
on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill 
on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on 
the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 
1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors 
for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. 

WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- 
sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When 
they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck 
him on the back, saying, " Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- 
ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, " I am in- 
deed going; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, 
and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every 
hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he 
returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, 
being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity 
of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the 
death and resurrection of Christ. — Calmet's Hist, of the Bible. 



WAR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



643 



WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural wri- 
ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain 
S563 b. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed 
into Asia, and conquered JBactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed 
by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded 
in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The longest 
siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the 
Platseans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning 
of the' world to the present time, no less than 6,860.000.000 of men have 
perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- 
man species as now inhabit our whole earth. 

WARS, Civil, op Great Britain. The most remarkable civil wars of Great 
Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons 
against Henry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of thp 
White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. 
The war between Richard III. and Henry VII., 1485. The war against 
Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 
1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty 
rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 
1798. 

WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England 
was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy 
being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of 
France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English 
province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with 
France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, 
Poictiers, and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the 
reign of Henry VI. , and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It 
was to the English people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests 
of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years 
of war as peace. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. 



FOREIGN WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. 

War with Scotland, 1068 Peace 1092 War with Scotland, 1542 



Scotland, 1547 

France, 1549 

France, 1557 

Scotland, 1557 

France, 1562 

Spain, 1588 

Spain, 1624 

France, 1627 

Holland, 1651 

Spain, 1655 

France, 1666 
Denmark, 1666 

Holland, 1666 

Algiers, 1669 

Holland, 1672 

France, 1689 

The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, Fiance, 
and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of 
Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded this last war. 

THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OP GREAT BRITAIN. 



France, 


1116 


" 1118 


Scotland, 


1138 


" 1139 


France, 


1161 


" 1186 


France, 


1194 


" 1195 


France, 


1201 


" 1216 


France, 


1224 


" 1234 


France, 


1294 


" 1299 


Scotland, 


1296 


" 1323 


Scotland, 


1327 


" 1328 


France, 


1339 


" 1360 


France, 


1368 


" 1420 


France, 


1422 


" 1471 


France, 


1492 


" same year 


France, 


1512 


" 1514 


France, 


1522 


" 1527 


Scotland, 


1522 


" 1542 



Peace. 



1546 
1550 
1550 
1559 
1560 
1564 
1604 
1629 
1629 
1654 
1660 
1668 
1668 
1668 
1671 
1674 
1697 



War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 
1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 

War with Spain Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- 
cluded 1721. 

War; the Spanish War. Oct. 23, 1739. 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 30, 1748. 



War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed 

also on April 30, 1748. 
War ; the Seven years' icar, June 9, 1756. 

Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. Geusra. 

peace of Feb. 10, J 7^ 



644 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[ww» 



WARS, Foreign, of Great Britain — continued. 



War with the United States, July 14, 1774. 

Peace of Paris, Nov. 30. 1782. 
War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of 

Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. 
War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed 

same time, Jan 20, 1783. 
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peaca 

signed Sept. 2, 1783. 



War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peace 
of Amiens, March 27, 1802. 

War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- 
nally closed, June 18, 1815. 

War with the United States, June 18, 1812. 
Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 

For the wars with India and China, see thcee 
countries respectively. 



In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes 
with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, 
and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 
1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the 
Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the 
Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the 
war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the war against Bona- 
parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years 
(from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 
millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained 
by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six 
hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their 
allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin- 
sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the 
inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. 
The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted 
to one million two hundred thousand. 

WAR, Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com- 
menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended 
by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135,193,700. 

WAR, The, of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain : 



First difficulty respecting the search of 
American vessels - - - 1S06 

Chesapeake United States frigate fired 
on 1807 

Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809 

United States frigate President, engag- 
ed the British slbop-of-war Little Belt 

May 16, 1811 

President Madison's war message to 
congress - - - June 1, 1812 



War declared - - - June 19, 1812 

Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman- 
der-in-chief. 
[See Battles and Naval Battles.'] 
The war opposed in New England, and 
levies of troops refused by Mass., 
Conn., and R. I. 
Treaty of peace ratified - Feb. 17, 1815 



VAR against Algiers, to punish piracies, &c, declared by the United States, 
1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels 
and " conquered a peace," July 4, 

WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of 
Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate 
of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] 



American army of occupation, (3500) 
under Gen. Taylor took post on the 
Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, 

March 28, 1846 

First collision — a reconnoitring party 
of 70 from American army under Col. 
Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- 
soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 

Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at 
Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 
wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and 
355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846 

Bill passed both houses of Congress U. 
S- declaring that war with Mexico 



already existed, by act of that power, 
and authorizing 50,000 volunteers 

May 12, 1846 
Monterey taken by Com. Sloat, July 6, i.847 
Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney 

Aug. 18, 1816 
Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded 

by Com. Stockton - - Aug. 19, 1846 

Battle of Monterey, 4700 Americans 
under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under 
Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A- 
merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, 
Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 184* 



WAR ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



645 



WAR with MEXICO, continued. 

Stevenson's California regiment sailed 
from New-York - - Sept. 26, 1846 

Tobasco bombarded by com. Perry, 

Oct. 25, 1846 

Tampico occupied by com. Connor, 

Nov. 14, 1846 

Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- 
teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari- 
to, the'latter losing 63 killed and 150 
wounded. American loss 6 wounded. 

Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted " 
Californians, at San Gabriel, &c. 

Jan. 8, 1847 

Majoi Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major 
Gaines, and SO men, taken prisoners 
by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, 

Jan. 23, 1847 

Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- 
ico, American governor Bent and five 
others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847 

1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans 
defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847 

Battle of Buena Vista : Americans 4759 
mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor 
and gen. Wool ; and Mexicans 22,000 
under Santa Anna; latter defeated and 
loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri- 
can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded, 

Feb. 22-23, 1847 

Battle of Sacramento ; American col. 
Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 
Mexicans under Herridea, latter loss 
300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri- 
soners ; American loss, 1 killed and 8 
woundtd - - - Feb. 28, 1847 

Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott 
and com. Perry; American loss 65 
killed and wounded - March 29, 1847 

Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, 

April 2, 1847 

Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500 
under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- 
icans under Santa Anna; 5 generals 
and 3000 men, taken prisoners by 
Scott: American loss 250, Mexican 
350. 

Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847 

WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this 
city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. 
It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the 
empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles 
to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex- 
pelled by the citizens, with the loss of '2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 
pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in 
July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year, 
It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article, 
Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony 
in August. 1807 ; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813. 
and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice- 
roy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See 
Poland. 

WARSAW, Battles of. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with 
the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow, the Russian general, after 
the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all 
ages and conditions, in cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the 



Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, 
American gen. Smith drives the Mexi- 
cans from these fortified posts towards 
Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound- 
ed ; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 184. 

Armistice agreed upon ; broken by the 
Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced 

Sept. 7, 1843 

Battle of Molino del Rey ; American 
gen. Worth carried the fortifications 
defended by 14,000 Mexicans under 
Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil- 
led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000, 

Sept. 8, i847 

Battle of Chepultepec, a height near 
Mexico, carried by American gene- 
rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow, 
(under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862 

Sept. 12-13, 1847 

This was followed by the surrender of 
the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847 

Col. Childs with 400 men and 1800 
sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at 
Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans 
to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847 

Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex- 
ico for protecting public property in 
the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 

City of Huamantla captured by Ame- 
rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa 
Anna. American loss, 24 killed and 
wounded ; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 

Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap- 
tured by American frigate Congress, 
and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847 

A tax levied upon the states of Mexico, 
and duties &c. laid to the amount of 
about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 

Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, 

Feb. 18, 1848 

Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, 
by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. 
Clifford, for the United States, and 
the-foreign Mexican minister, Signor 
De la Rosa - - - May 30, 1848 

American troops finally withdrawn 
from the city of Mexico, - June 12, 1848 



646 the world's PROGRESS. [ WAX 

surrender was very bloody ; of 26.000 men, more than 10,000 were killed, 
nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the 
merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated, and forcer) to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb. 
20, 1831. Battle ef Warsaw, when, after two days' hard lighting-, the city 
capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of 
the Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was 
fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. 

W AESAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria 
and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted 
in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed 
March 31, 1683. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 
24, 1768. 

WASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first 
made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was 
opened for the first time, May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late 
war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the 
President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the troops not 
sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon 
afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow- 
ing. See United States. 

WASHINGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 1732 ; in the expedition of Brad- 
dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the 
American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti- 
tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ; 
died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19, 
1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848 \ 
oration by Robt. C. Wiuthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner- 
stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. 

WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a. d. 
1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch 
about a. d. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by 
Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first 
who had any thing that might be called a watch, though some call it a small 
table-clock, 1530. Watches were first brought to England from Germany in 
1577. — Hume. Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so called) have 
had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy- 
gens by the Dutc^, Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that Dr : 
Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have produced what 
is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ; 
as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the 
double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., " Rob. Hooke in- 
ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented 
by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved 
1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him 
the reward of 20,0002., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches 
and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See 
Clocks. 

V f ATSR. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water 
(as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the 
original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — Stanley. It is the 
universal drink of man. The ancients usually diluted their wines with 
much water ; and Hesiod prescribes three measures of water to one of wine 
in summer. — Madame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed 



WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 647 

with the sacramental wine. a. d. 122.— Lenglet. " Honest water is too weak 
to be a sinner; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare. 

WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time 
independently of the sunshine, were clepsydra or water-clocks. These were 
most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom 
through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour , 
after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in- 
vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi- 
cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the 
year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used ; and 
Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning 
of a taper as a measure of time. 

WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general 
of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients 
parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in- 
vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet 
Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 

WATER TOFANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poison so 
freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aqua tofana, from 
the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. 
She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on 
being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. 
Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly 
executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared 
to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their hus- 
bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, 
and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists 
have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamation of the pope de- 
scribed it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a 
solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed 
to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two 
brothers ; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt 
alive. — Phillips. 

WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won by British arms, and 
the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the 
French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the 
British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon 
attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num- 
bers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about 
nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. 
The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu- 
cher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. 
On both sides the carnage was immense ; but that of the French was double 
the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army, 
and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three 
great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication 
followed. See Bonaparte and France. 

WATER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, 
the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl- 
winds over the land. — Dr. Franklin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glata 
mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and 
many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and 
many persons perished. July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanflesk »?ar Kil- 



G4S the world's PROGRESS. [ WEB 

iarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macsrthy, and destroyed 
his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves- 
tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4, 
1831. 
WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and 
wax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, 
candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candleberry. 
Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu- 
lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing 
wax was not brought into use in England until about 1556. The wax-tree. 
Ligusirum lucidum, was brought from China before 1794. 

WE. The common language of kings is we, which plural style was begun with 
king John, a. d. 1199. — Coke's Inslit. Before this time sovereigns used the 
singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French 
kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — Henault. It is now the style royal 
of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu- 
ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens. 

WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of 
property in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the 
poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the 
country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances 
of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mighti- 
est conflagration of wealth on record is that of Sardanapalus, where riches 
amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed. 
• — Athenmus. Caecilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 
oxen, 200.000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 
8 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 

WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from 
the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in 
Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally 
spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient 
nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to 
Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca- 
pac. In most easteri countries, the employment of weaving is still per- 
formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd- 
ridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious 
women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke 
viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmet's 
Dictionary, under the word Vestments. 

WEAVING in ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where 
they manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove of 
great benefit to us and our" subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers, 
linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colches- 
ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse- 
cution, 1567. 

WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced b5* 
Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this 
ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the 
superii r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. 

WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call- 
ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given 
to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards 
corrupted to Wednesday. See next article. 



Latin. 


English. 


Dies Saturni, 


Saturday, 


Dies Solis,. 


Sunday, 


Dies Lunee, 


Monday, 


Dies Martis, 


Tuesday, 


Dies Mercurii, 


Wednesday, 


Dies Jovis, 


Thursday, 


Dies Veneris, 


Friday, 



WES ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 649 

WEEK. The space of seven clays, supposed to be first used among the Jews, 
who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks, 
the first the common one of seven days, the second of years, which was 
seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the e«d of which was 
the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon: — 

Saxon. Presided over by 

Saterne's day, Saturn. 

Sun's day, The sun. 

Moon's day, The moon. 

Tiw's day, Mars. 

Woden's day, Mercury. - 

Trior's day, Jupiter. 

Friga's day, Venus. 

WEIGHTS and MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver 
money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et seq. — Arunde- 
lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the 
lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was 
originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, ^ d. 972. Stand- 
ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng- 
land by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighing- 
machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed 
by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between 
buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward II.. 1309. — Stowe. The first statute, 
directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIII., 1532. — 
Philosophical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of 
3.28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa- 
tor, as the standard of measure ; and the kilogramme, equal to 2.255 pounds 
avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. 

WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was 
founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his 
brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an 
association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed 
upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley 
went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. 
On his return to England, he commenced itinerant, preacher, and gathered 
many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious 
meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he 
was united with Mr. Whitefield; but differences arising on account of the 
doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated 
according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his 
labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, 
Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his 
influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. 

WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th 
and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively. 

WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western 
portion, 'or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer. a chief of the 
Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed 
Augustulus, and assumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended 
the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d. 476. See 
Eastern Empire. 

WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the mir;ic» 
lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been qua* 
28 



650 the world's PROGRESS. [ WHJ 

tioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present 
edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found nothing to countenance 
the general belief that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His- 
torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the 
sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church 
becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be- 
tween a. d. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Tope 
Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of 
the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent 
and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., 
and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo- 
nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles 
were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. The 
west front and the great window were built by those rival princes, Richard 
III. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the 
magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was 
laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ; 
and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. 

ft 6STMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar- 
chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and 
here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of Whit- 
suntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when 
the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Slowe. 
The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idem. Westmin- 
ater-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a 
general repair in 1802. 

WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax- 
ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; 
and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of 
Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of 
conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed 
king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned 
in 1813. 

WESTPHALIA, Peace of, signed at Minister and at Osnaburgh, between 
France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against 
France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was 
first rec ignised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some 
other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala- 
tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and 
the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc- 
tober 24, 1648. 

WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 
650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons,— cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by 
17,500 officers and seamen. " Commercial history furnishes no parallel to 
this whaling fleet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — 
Speech of Mr. Grinnell. 

$ HEAT and FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 
1790 to 1838, was 10,283,471 bushels,— average, 209,666 bushels per annum. 
In 1845 the amount exported was valued at $5,785,372 ; in 1846, $13,350 644. 
This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased 
by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. 

WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took 



Wlh ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 651 

their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, in the 
Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of 
their order, and that Fythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of 
it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was 
moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following 
and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen 
They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in 
London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriws to 
this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. 

WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, 
before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch- 
bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the 
court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, 
Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
written : — 

" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 

At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 

More clung about the barge ; fish under water 

Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 

I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 

Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes; 

For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 

She had come by water, had she come by land." 

In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet- 
ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., 
according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619.- In the front of Whitehall 
Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a 
chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 
and 1833. 

WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to 
commemorate the descent of the Holy Ghoat upon the apostles : in the pri- 
mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear 
white garments on Whi 'Sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls 
in May and sometimes ±n June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after 
Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday ; it is said to 
have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called 
Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- 
paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing 
on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and 
other evils. 

WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John WicklifFe, a professor of divinity 
in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the 
English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho- 
rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of 
the church, in 1377. WicklifFe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's 
son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res- 
cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death. Dec. 
31, 1384, in his 60th year.— Mortimer. 

WILDFIRE. An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it 
feu Grecquois. because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was 
first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Helio- 
polis. — Nouv. Diet. See article Greek Fire. 



652 the world's progress. [ wm 

WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper 
styled the North Briton, published by John Wilkes, an alderman of London. 
He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis- 
tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a 
use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the 
earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower. 
His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; 
but he obtained j£l,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure 
of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's 
Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene 
poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out- 
lawed; he was. however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October 
1774, and the same year served the office of lord mayor ; but was over- 
looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. 

WILLS, LAST, and TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See 
Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There are 
many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this 
power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in 
three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person 
who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath- 
ing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to En- 
glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry 
VIII. , 1541. — Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on 
record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II., 1399. Edward the 
Confessor made a will. 1066. 

WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to 
be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to 
the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe 
by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in 
the crusades. — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and 
Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch- 
man, in 1633. when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi- 
dent from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
so early as the third century, if 5©ot before, though the fashion was not in- 
troduced until it was done by Bennet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were 
used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In 
England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ; 
about 275,000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win- 
dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to 
defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William 
III., 1695. 

WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally 
built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs 
who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was bora 
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the 
west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di- 
rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. 
Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed 
every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen- 
ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to 
this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV. 

WINES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abbe Lcnglct. Ihe art of 



wit] dictionary of dates. 653 

making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching 
Noung, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought 
from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the 
wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour 
changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — John ii. 8, 10. 
" The conscious waters saw their God, and blush'd." — Addison. 

No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet. 
Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists. — Idem. Concerning the ac- 
quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured 
that the Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; 
but this liquor was very little known in our island before it was conquered 
by the Romans. Wine was sold in Eaglaud by apothecaries as a cordial in 
a. d. 1300, and so continued for some time after, although there is mention 
of ' wine for the king " so early as 1249 ; and we are even sent to a much 
earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. In 1400 the price 
was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes con- 
demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels 
of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427. 
— Stowe's Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on 
June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed 
April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons of all kinds of 
wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4,806,528 gallons. In 3S?0 
were imported 6.879,558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, we-<3 
imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home consumption. 
—Pari. Ret. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, 
a. d. 1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1568. 
The first wire-mill in England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Mortimer. 
The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of 
gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces 
of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually 
drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 
yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of 
gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above 
one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy- 
linder of silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13.000 feet long ; yet so 
perfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover 
any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle. 

WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu- 
lous for its extent. The dukes were Protestant until 1772, when the reign- 
ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed 
by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau 
made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg mar- 
ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. 
This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The 
elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, 
1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus- 
sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king 
granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848. 

WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the 
North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30.945: 
chiefly emigrants from the northe-n and middle states. 

WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced by the 



654 the world's PROGRESS. [ WIT 

church of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected 
to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands of 
cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were 
drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did 
not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re 
served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene- 
va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of 
Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one 
sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in 
Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt 
at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629. old and young, clerical, learned, and 
ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.<ttioB 
of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. 
Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be- 
witched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women 
were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges 
of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully 
in Pennsylvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bewitched, 
and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — Ann. Reg. Five women were condemned to death by 
the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem. 

WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked 
laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which 
death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the 
public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted 
declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
33 Henry VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James, 1603. Bar- 
rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years 
at 30.000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan 
of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc. 
Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand 
were executed in England xmcler the long parliament. Northamptonshire 
and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any 
other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 
1705, while *he Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five 
others sever, years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged 
nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were 
burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per- 
sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. 
even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub- 
lished his Dialogues of Dcsmonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in 
London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws 



* All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his Dmmonologie ; and parlia- 
ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death wa« 
inflicted on sorcerers in these words : " If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any 
evil or wicked spirit — shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up 
any dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor- 
cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c. whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed, 
pined, or lamed." This being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence of 
witchcraft ; hence Shakspeave gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions 
a place where, he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evfl 
spirits, and abjuring witches became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employment to the 
clerf y of all denominations. Witch-finders existed, too, as public, officers; and, besides the publU 
executions, which disgraced every assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular re 
sentment. — Phillips. 



woo ] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 655 



against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person, 
attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Sur- 
rey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George II., 1736. — > 

Viner's Abridgment. 

W1TENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was 
the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- 
nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A 
witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means 
to repel the Danes. This name was dropped about the period of the Norman 
conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. 

WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were 
demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 
a. d. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward I. 
issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- 
land, a. d. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many centuries after 
their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found 
there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was 
made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 
834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they 
follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first 
in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure 
was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of 
twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that 
is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche. 

WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been 
considered merely as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and 
were coninionly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the 
northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- 
pire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought 
with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards 
females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the 
polished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution oi 
chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ; 
and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's 
f.rst sight of Eve : 

" He laid him down and slept — and from his side 
A woman in her magic beauty rose ; 
Dazzled a.id charmed, he called that woman ' bride.' 
And his first sleep became his last repose." — Besser, trans'ated by Bowring. 

The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that 
state : Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus, Periander, Euripides, and Aristophanes. 
Among the moderns : Boccaccio, Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, 
Moliere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman; as she is, ana 
as she should be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- 
lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : 

" Die when you will, you need not wear, 
At heaven's court, a form more fair 

Than beauty at your birth has given ; 
Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, 
The voice we hear, and you will be 

An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. 

WOOD-CUTS, or WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. 
The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to 
Reuss, a German, a. d. 1460 ; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the 
article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought 



656 the world's PROGRESS. [ WOE 

to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c, in 1789-1799; and 
more recently by Cruikshank, and otbers. 

WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the Com- 
mittee of the Highland Society," proves, from indisputable records, that 
from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of 
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the 
finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- 
facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the 
emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- 
tioned in a. d. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of 
it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This 
was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331.— 
.Rymer's Fosdera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of 
English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England, prohibited, 
1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in 
all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. 
Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- 
sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- 
fore a. d. 1200. and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward 
III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See 
preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — 
Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 
1463. The art of dyeing brought into England, 1608. See article Dyeing. 
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth 
begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. 
British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged 
to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
feit 51., 29 Charles II., 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved 
in England by Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 
11 William III., 1698. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- 
cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged 
by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, 
than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers. 

QUANTITY AND DECLARED VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE POL- 
LOWING YEARS : — 



Quantity. 


1800. 


Pieces - 


1,022,838 


Yards - - 


4,213,677 


Declared value 


£3,914,661 



1825. 

1,741,983 

7,798,610 

£6,194:926 



1830. 

1,747,036 

5,561,877 

£4,608,592 



1840. 

2,143,796 

8,170,642 

£5,921,116 



WORCESTER, Battle of, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army 
and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A 
large body of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate 
Charles II., but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city 
were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed 
or taken prisoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his 
crowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- 
soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 
3, 1651. 

WORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was 
created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention tho 
jear 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate the 
19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was 
created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- 
tus, about 640 b. c. The first geographical table and map of the world was 



WOB. J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 657 

made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras 
and bis system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. The magnitude of the earth cal- 
culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated, 
a. d. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth 
is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started 
by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. 

WORMS, Diet op. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther 
was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther 
was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a 
league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, 
that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- 
ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, 
six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- 
lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, 
April 17th. in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, 
and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him 
to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and 
his triumph was afterwards complete. 

WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been 
the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Copt of the 
Egyptians, and the Tolh or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury of the 
Latins, and the Teidates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Religious 
worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the 
causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and 
evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by 
dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, 
and by illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, 
and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations, 
whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant 
states. — Sherlock. 

WORSHIP in ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the 
period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- 
dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and 
there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- 
ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after 
Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. 
Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their 
great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola. was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- 
lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was 
afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly 
superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our 
present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence 
of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- 
markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood, 
Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places 
of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation :'— 



" To out traistfriendis, the Lairds of Am- 
iilly and Kinvaid. 
" Traist friends, after maist harty com- 
mendation, we pray you faill not to pans 
incontinent to the kyrk of Dimkeld , andtak 
doun the haill images thereof, and bring 
furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- 
pinly. And siclyk cast down the altaris, 
and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- 
ments of idolctrye. And this ye faill not to 
do, as ze will io us sutgular empleseur ; 

28* 



and so committis vow to the protection of 
God. From Edinburgh, the xii of August 
1560. 

" Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei 
ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris, be ony 

ways hurt or broken either glassin wart 

or iron wark. 

" Ae. Erbyia, 
"James Steward 
" Ruthven." 



C58 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[WR; 



WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, wbich obtained its 
name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, ir 
which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- 
sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking 
knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. 

WRECKS of SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a 
few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. 
When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- 
bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, 
utterly regardless of the sufferers. — Phillips. The loss of merchant audi 
other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, 
was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a 
year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were 
totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss 
varies ; but it is always many hundreds. 

SOME OP THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. 



Of the Thunderer, 74 guns; Stirling 
Castle, 64 ; Phcenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 
42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; 
Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; 
Barbadoes, 14 ; Cameleon, 14 ; En- 
deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ; 
British vessels of war, all lost in the 
same storm, in the West Indies, in 

October, 1780 

Of the Royal George, capsized in Ports- 
mouth harbor, England, when 1,000 
persons perished - June 23, 1782 

Of the steamer Home, from New York 
to Charleston; 100 lives lost, Oct. 9, 1837 

Of the Forfarshire steamer, from Hull 
to Dundee ; 38 persons drowned. 
Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- 
ling and her father, 15 persons were 
saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 

Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, and St. 
Andrew, packet ships, in a great gale 
off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 

Of the Poland from New York to 
Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840 

Of the President steamer, from New 
York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- 
sengers on board ; sailed on March 



days afterwards, and has never since 
been heard of - March 13, 1841 

Of the Peacock, one of the United States 
exploring expedition, at the mouth 
of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- 
day and smooth water - July 18, 1841 

Of the Missouri United Slates steam- 
frigate, by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 

Of the United States schooner Shark, 
wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, 1846 

Of the Great Britain iron steam-ship. 
This stupendous vessel grounded in 
Dundrum bay, on the east coast of 
Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1816 

Of the United States sloop of war Bos- 
ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 1846 

Of the United States brig Somers, cap- 
sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 
drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 

Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; 
about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 

Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston, 
burnt near Liverpool ; 170 lives lost, 

Aug. 24, 1848 

Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run 
down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 
lives lost - - June 27, 1849 

See Fires, and Steam Vessels. 



11, encountered a terrific storm two 
It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- 
ally lost ; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience 
serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary 
wear and tear. 

WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The 
most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
and matters of public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- 
ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- 
phics, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins 
by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — Thucydides. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters 
into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on two tables of 
stone, 1491 b. c— Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, 
and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- 
rus, Parchment, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who 
slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding 



iSR.] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 659 

them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr 
professor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by 
the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed." — Dh, 
Parr. 



XANTHUS, Siege of, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, 
and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able 
to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the 
loss of their liberty, set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- 
dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror 
wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they 
brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, 
much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch 

XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the 
memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in 
ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after 
whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat; 
but Xenopbon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia 
into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous 
nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, 
and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over 
toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- 
ducted exploit on record; 401 b. c. — Vossius 

XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the spring 
of 480 b. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of 
s'ervants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some 
historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have 
consisted of 8000 sail, conveying 1.700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the 
mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at 
Thermopylse, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- 
ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some 
of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- 
sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the 
courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base 
Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the 
mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- 
mopylae {which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 
480 b. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. 
His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and he hastened back to 
Persia, leaving Mardonius. the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 
300.000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and 
pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. 

&ERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, 
the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It waff 
formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of 
fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side 
towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were 
placed tiansversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in 
the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great 
strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast- 
bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter 
was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 



660 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. I YE* 

beasts of burthen from being terrified by tbe sea, in the passage from shors 
to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 
b. c. 



FEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the 
year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c. ; and it was 
corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius Ctesar, 45 b. c. See Calen- 
dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours. 
48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return 
of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- 
erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and stiM 
partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews 
dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe- 
nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept. ; the Chris- 
tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians 
and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the 
Christian world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. 
of France, in 1654, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the 
year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written 
on and from January 1. See New Style, &c. 

YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar 
months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and Avas in use among the Chal- 
deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added 
another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. 
But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first 
month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; 
and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews 
afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. 

FEAR of OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was 
Charles III., emperor of Germany : he added •' In the year of our Lord " to 
his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by 
the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the 
Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. 

FEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the 
Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end 
whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they 
set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. 
Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The 
ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the 
world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies, 
and go through a second course of being. 

FEAR, Sabbatical. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this 
year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and 
have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-ninth year was 
called the Jubilee Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven, 
and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original familieu 
*1I estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. 

FEAR, Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia 

and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent 
traveller :— 

June 23, Snow melts. | .July 25, Plants ■«! flower. 

July 1, Snow gone. i Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. 

July 9, Field quite green. I Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed. 

July 17 Plants at full growth. j Aug. 18, Snow. 



for] 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 661 



The snow the J continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au- 
gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out 
of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are 
together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' 
duration in these countries. 

FEAR and A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes 
ana fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner 
does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the 
Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- 
ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise & 
legal space of time. 

YELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 
1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that 
disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 
670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the 
inhabitants (out of 76,000, the whole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 
40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia 
was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 
1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- 
lity was great, and 50.000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand 
died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore 
suffered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- 
vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 
1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was 
very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at 
Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, 
and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less 
every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of 
the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it 
proved fatal to many thousands. 

YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised 
by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards 
inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglet, 
Dufresnoy. 

YORK. The Eboracwm of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of 
England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also 
Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 
274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York 
received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the 
British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix 
of lord has been granted. 

I"ORK, Archbishopric op, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, 
it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity 
was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment 
was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former 
were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should 1>® 
restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. d. 
622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for 
a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and 
Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- 
tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew 
their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose 
between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope Gre- 
gory's institutions, it was thought he meant, that which ever of them was 



662 THE world's pr.ogr.ess. [ ZAK 

first confirmed, should be superior ; appeal was made to the court of Rome 
by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York 
was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury style3 
himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome 
eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve 
lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. 
It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIII., 1546, at 1609£. 19s. 2d. per 
annum. — Beatson. 

YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric was erected at different 
periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again 
been destroyed by fire. The first Christian church erected here, which ap- 
pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, king 
of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in 
1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch- 
bishop Roger began to build the choir in 11.71, but it was by many hands, 
and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were 
promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was 
completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, 
and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; 
the damage estimated at 60.000/., was repaired in 1832. 

YORK and LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES of. The first battle be- 
tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22. 1455. The last 
was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, 
or While Ruses, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red 
Roses. But in the sixteen years between these two dates, more than thirty 
great battles were fought with different success, and half the country was 
depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See 
Roses. 

YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri- 
tish army under lord Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans 
and their allies under Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. 

YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- 
dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. 



ZAMA, Battljc of, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the 
time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- 
sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which was 
granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost 
but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed 
and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; 
b. c. 202. 

EANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- 
public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole 
group were ceded to France by the treaty of Cainpo Formio {which see), 
October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and 
were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, 
in 1799. They fell into different hands in the course of the succeeding 
.year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with 
Ragusa, August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 
1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were 
put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratified at 



XIW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 663 

Paris for that purpose, between Great Britain and Russia, November 5> 
1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 
22, 1817. 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a. d. 535 ; he taught 
that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be 
baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at 
one time very numerous. — Ashe. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in 
Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of 
queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were 
printed in Edinburgh with these words, a. d. 1543. 

ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- 
versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the 
natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time 
of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was 
seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to 
make part of a southern continent, till 1770, when it was circumnavigated 
by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by 
the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many 
lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, 
under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of 
the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted 
several spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 
1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. 

ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
son of Mithridates. Ca3sar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous 
dispatch to the senate of Rome, in three words: " Veni, vidi, vici" — "I 
came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. 
This battle concluded the war ; Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where 
he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a province 
of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. a— 
Sue. Cas. 

ZELTCHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the 
most desperate and bloody battles lought by the Poles in their late struggle 
for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by 
general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12.000 men in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his 
flying army, April 6, 1831. 

ZENO, Sect or, founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from 
a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- 
rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way 
of eminence, Uroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school 
of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended 
the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a 
disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I am 
no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design ia 
to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 
312 b. c. 

ZINC. The discovery Of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the 
moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- 
ticed by European writers as early as a. d. 1231 ; though the method of 
extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years 
after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate, Craven, 
Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 



664 the world's PROGRESS. {" ZUB 

the invention of lithography hecame known in England, in 1817- See Li- 
thography 

ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, 
and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 
560 b. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from tbe Hindoos 
to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones, 
The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- 
imander. — Pliny. 

,ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- 
stantine IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to the 
throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- 
phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, 
and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the 
name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, 
the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname 
of Calaphates. 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em- 
presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty 
years of age, took for her third husband Constantine X., who succeeded to 
the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. 

ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes, 
viz : — Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves, 
or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Insecta, or 
insects; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of ; 
zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom 
was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris. May 13, 1832. The Zoological 
Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was chartered! 
March 27, 1829. 

ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, 
while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and 
its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the 
papal dominion, which Luther had for Saxony. He procured two assem- 
blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the 
second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin- 
glius, who began as a j)reacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a 
skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. 
The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name 
and also Sacramentarians. 

ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which 
this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This 
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, 
in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk 
sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger 
of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French 
were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4. 1799. The Imperialists were 
defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 
Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. 

[ Prom the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.] 

The following Chronological List of Authors is in extension of the Catalogue 
ftimished in the Companion of 1831, differing from it by adding to the name 
of each author the title of his most important production, or some word 
expressive of the nature of his works. 

In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is 
divided into thi-ee columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn 
chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists; the second those who 
treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- 
sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, 
his tame will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- 
ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated 
on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. 

The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could 
be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the 
time when each author has flourished. 



HEBREW. 

[The words in italics oetween parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons* 
they are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, th» 
Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben 
Maimon. J m Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar 
Abraham.] 



1500 Moses, 1572—1452. 

Phinehas, supposed author of the book 
Joshua. 
1100 David, 1085—10815. 
1000 Solomon, 1033—975. 
800 Jonah, d. 761. 
Amos. 
Hosea. 
Joel. 
Obadiah. 
Micah. 

Isaiah, d. 681. 
Nahum. 
700 Habakkuk. 
Zephaniah. 
Jeremiah. 
630 Barucb. 
Ezekiel. 
Daniel. 
Zechariah. 
Haggai. 
600 Ezra. 

Nehemtah, d. 430 
Malachi. 
300 Jesus, son of Sirach. 



100 Nechoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab- 
bahir,' the illustrious book. The most 
ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. 

Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase 
of the Bible. 
i. D. 

Onkelos, 'Targum.' 

Josephus, b. 35. 
100 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in. 
correctly attributed to him. 

Shimeon ben Jochai (Rashbi). The.' Zohar,' 
a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary 
on the Pentateuch is usually attributed 
to him, but was composed by his dis- 
ciples. 

Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the 
World.' 

Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- 
ings of the fathers. Ethics. 

Eliesor, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings of 
Eliezer, a History of the World. 

Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna,' the oral tradi- 
tions of the Jews, which, with the 
Gemara or Commentary, constitutes tht 
Babylonian Talmud. 



666 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphra,' a 
commentary on Leviticus, and of the 
'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers 
and Deuteronomy. 
21X) Ushaya, ' Bereshith Rabba,' a Commentary 
on the Mishna. 

Author of the 'Mechilta,' a Commentary 
on Exodus. 

Jochanan, 'Talmud of Jerusalem.' 
300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen- 
taries on the Bible. 
40C Rabasha, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen- 
tary on the Mishna. 

Martemar, continued the '• Gemara.' 
500 Abina, completed the ' Gemara.' 
bOO Simeon Hi]ara, ' Great decisions,' jurid. 

Judah bar Nachman (Riban), Compendium 
of the preceding. 
980 Saadia Gaon, ' Philosopher's Sione,' ' Book 
of Faith,' 'Grammar,' &c. 

Sherira, 'The Book of Answers,' history. 
1000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. 

Joseph Ching, Grammarian. 

Judah Baizelloni, ' Rights of Women,' ju- 
ridic. 

Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium 
of Hebrew History.' 

Moses Aben Ezra, d. 1080. Grammarian. 

Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 
1100 Alphes, d. 1103. 'Compendium of the 
Talmud.' 

Nathan, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee 
Lexicon.' 

Solomon Jarchi (Rashi), Grammarian, d. 
1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' 

Joseph ben Meir (Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- 
mentary on Talmud.' 

Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- 
phical. 

Abraham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 
mentaries on the Bible. 

Tam. d 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book 
of Righteousness. 

Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam), d. 1171. 
1 Commentary on the Talmud.' 

Benjamin of Tudela, d. 1173. 'Travels.' 

Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- 
logy. 

Isaac bar Abba, Grammarian. 

Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. 

David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. 

Abraham bar Dior (Rabad), d. 1 199. Cab- 
balist. 

Abraham ben David (Rabad), Jurist. 

Moses ben Maimon (Rambam), 1131-1205. 
Yad Hazaka,' the ~*rong hand, a very 
celebrated Commentary on the Talmud, 
&c. (This author is better known by 
his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 
13GO Abraham bar Chasdai, Ethics. 

Eliakim, Ceremonies. 

Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. 

Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. 

Asher, Compendia of Talmud. 

Perez Haccohen (Harapfi), Cabbalist 

Moses ben Nachman (Ramban), d. 1260. 
• Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 
Ceremoi ties, &c. 



Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piucepus, 
' Compendium of Talmud.' 

Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs aim 
Fables.' 

Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' 

Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.- 

Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- 
matical and Philosophical works fron 
the Greek and Arabic. 

Solomon ben Adras (Rashba)., Theology. 

Meir, Meditations, on 'Maimonides.' 

Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason foi 
the enactment of the Laws of Moses.' 

Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 
1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' 

Isaac Israeli, ' Foundation of the World, 1 
History. 

Judah, son of Benjamin, Riu al. 

Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' 

Isaac Dura, ' On Forbidden and Permitted 
Food.' 

Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' 

Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' 

Jacob ben Asher, 'The Four Orders,' a 
Ritual of much authority. 

David Abudraham, astronomy. 

Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag), d. 1370. ' Com- 
mentary on the Law.' 

Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. 

Isaac ben Sheshat (Ribash), 'Questions 
and Answers on Various Subjects.' 

Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.' 

Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work 
against Christianity. 

Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritbd), Commen- 
tary on Maimonides.' 

Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' 
Ethics and Theology. 

Simeon bar Zemach, ' Shield of the Fathers.' 
1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. 

Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher, — 
' Foundation of Faith.' 

Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answer* 
on the Law.' 

Joshua Levita, ' Introd. to the Talmud.' 

David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' 

Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. 

Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' 

Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. 

Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' 

Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 
1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle of Myrrh,' a Com- 
mentary. 

Isaac Varro, ' Explanations of the Bible.' 

Elias Levi, Grammar. 

Solomon ben Virga, 'History of the Jews.' 

Benjamin Zeef, 'Questions and Answers.' 

Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juehasin,' Sacred an! 
Jewish History. 

Moses Iserle, Astrology. 

Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' 

Azarias Edomasus, History and Philology. 

Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and 
Chronology. 

Leo, d. 1592. ' Lion's Whelp,' Grammar. 

David Gans, History. 
1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 
1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-17S5, Philosophy 



AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. 

. D. 

St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. 
St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 



667 



GREEK. 



IMAGINATION 



B.C. 

900 Homer, ' Iliad,-' ' Odyssey,' 
&c. 
Hesiod, ' Works and Days,' 
<fcc. 



700 Tyrtaeus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 
Archilochus, Satires, Ele- 
gies (fragments). 



600 Aicaeus, Lyrics (fragments). 
Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). 
Solon, d. 558. 
Epimenides. 
Stesichorus, 033-553 Lyrics 

(fragments). 
Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- 
ments.) 
" • Anacreon, Lyrics. 



500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics. 
iEschylus, 525-456, Trage- 
dies. 
Pindar, 518-439, Odes. 
Bacchylides, Lyrics. 



Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- 
dies. 

Euripides, 480-486, Trage- 
dies. 

Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- 
dies. 



430 



Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) 
Menander, 242-291, Come, 
dies (fragments.) 



300 Bion, Idyls. 



Moschus, Idyls. 

Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' 

Callimachus, Hymns and 
Epigrams. 

Theocritus, Idyls. 

Aratus, Poem on Astrono- 
my. 

Cleanthes, Hymns. 



Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- 
nautics.' 



B.C. 

900 



700 



Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) 



Hecataeus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) 
""Herodotus, d. 484, History. 
Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- 
ry of Peloponnesian War. 
Antiphon, Orations. 
Andorides, Orations. 
Lysias, 458-378, Orations. 



400 Ctesias. History (fragm'ts.) 
Xenophon, 444-359, History, 

Philosophy, &c. 
Isaeus, Orations. 

Isocrates, 536-338, Orations. 
Dinarchus, Orations. 
Lycurgus, Orations. 
Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora 

tions. 
iEschines, 389-314, Orations 



300 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 



000 



"Pythagoras, Philosophy. 



500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. 
Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso- 
phy- 



Anaxagoras, 500-428, Phil>> 
sophy. 



Socrates, 468-399, Philoso. 
phy. 



Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 



100 



Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- 
cine. 

Democritus, 450-357, Philo- 
sophy.. 

Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. 

Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- 
phy, Criticism. 

Theouhrastus,d. 288, Ethics. 

Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- 

phy^. 

300 Euclid, Geometry. 

Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- 
losophy. 



Apollonius, Conic Section* 



Archimedes, d. 212, ' Sphere 

and Cylinder,' &c. 
Eratosthenes, Philosophy. 



668 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND BCIBNTIVIIX 


200 Nicander, Theriaca. 


200 Polybius, 206-121, Universal 
History. 
Apollodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' 
Mythology. 


200 


100 Meleager, Epigrams. 


100 Conon, Mythology. 

Scymnus, Poetical Geogr. 
" Dionysius Halicarnassus, 
; Roman Antiquities.' 
Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- 
ography 1 
Diodorus Siculus, General 
History. 


100 





Strabo, Geography. 

Pausanias, Description of 

Greece. 
Plutarch, Biography, Morals 

&c. 
Dion Chrysostom, Orations. 



Dioscorides, Botany and Me- 
dicine. 

Epictetus, ' Enchiridion,' 
Philosophy. 


A. D. 

100 

Iamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- 
nonides, a novel. 

Lacian, Dialogues. 
Oppian, Poems on Hunting 

and Fishing. 
Atheneeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- 

sophists, anecdotes. 


A. D. 

100 Julian, d. 140. Varieties. 
Appian, History. 
Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. 

Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- 
ander.' 


A. D. 
100 

Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- 
logy. 
Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. 
Galen, .103-193, Medicine. 

Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the 
Resurrection.' 

Phavorinus, Lexicon. 

Hermogenes, d. 161, Rhe- 
toric. 

Polyasnus, Strategy. 

M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- 
losophy. 

Nephffistion, ' On Metres.' 

Max. Tyrius, Philosophy. 

Julius Pollux, ' Onomasti- 
con,' Rhetoric. 


200 


200 Diogenes Laertius, d. 222, 
' Lives of Philosophers.' 

Philostratus, d. 244, Life of 
Apollonius. 

Dion Cassius, History of 
Rome. 

Herodian, History of Rome. 

Porphyrius, 233-304, Life of 
Pythagoras, Philosophy. 


200 

Ammonius, Philosophy. 
Origen, d. 254, Theology 
Hesychius, Lexicon. 
Iamblichus, Philosophy, 
Longinus, d. 273, 'On tht 
Sublime.' 


no 

Achilles Tatius, ' Clitophon 
and Leucippe,' novel. 

Xenophon. 'Anthea and Ab- 
rocome,' novel. 


300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Liabanius, Orations and 
Epistles. 


300 

Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. 
Athanasius, 298-371, The* 

logy. 
Greg. Nazianzen, 318-38% 

Theology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. GREEK. 



669 



IMAGINATION 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC! 


300 


300 

Eunapius, 'Lives of Philo- 
sophers.' 


Gregory Nyssaeus, d. 396 

Theology. 
Cyril, 315-386, Theology. 
Diophantus, Mathematics. 






3UC Aristaenetus, 'Erotic Let- 


300 


300 


ters.' 




Chrysostom 354-40", Thee 
ology. 


Heliodorus, ' Theagenes & 






Chariclaea,' novel. 






Chariton, ' Chasreus and 






Calirrhoe,' novel. 






400 Longus, 'Daphnis and 


400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- 


400 Nemesius, ' Nature of 


Chloe,' novel. 


tles. 


Man,' Philosophy. 


Nonnus, ' Conquest of India 






by Bacchus.' 






Stobjeus, ' Literary Collec- 






tions.' 






Quintus Smyrnaeus (com- 


Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman 




monly called) Calabar, 


Emperors.' 


Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. 


'Contin. of Homer.' 


Socrates, 389-446, Ecclesi- 


Proclus, d. 445, Theology. 


Musseus, Poem of Hero and 


astical History. 




Leander? 


Sozomen, d. 450, Ecclesias- 
tical History. 
Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- 




Eumathius, 'Ismenaeus & 


astical History. 




Ismenaea,' novel. 




Proclus, d. 500, Platonist 


Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape 






of Helen.' 






Tryphindorus, Poem on 






'Destruction of Troy.' 






500 


50D Stephanus, Geography. 

Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign 
of Justinian.' 

Olympiodorus, ' Hist, of 
Honorius.' 

Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- 
graphy. 

Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist 


500 Simplicius, ' Comments on 
Aristotle.' 
Tribonianus, Jurist. 




Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 




600 


600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 
Theophanes, Byzant.Hisc. 

Theophylactus Simocatta, 
Byzantine History. 


600 

Philoponus, Grammarian. 


700 


700 


700 Damascenus, d 750, The- 
ology. 


600 


800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 


800 Theodorus Studites, 759- 




Syncellus, History. 


826, Sermons. 
Photius, d. 891, 'BiWio- 
theca.' 




John Malalas, History. 




900 


900 

Leontius, History. 
Genesius, History. 


900 Leo VI., d. 911, ' On Chris 
tian Faith.' 



G70 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTI»ICb 


900 


900 Const. Porphyrogenneta, 
905-959, Hist. Selections. 
Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives 
of Saints. 


900 


1000 


1000 George Cedrenus, History.' 1000 
John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, 
Abridg. of Dion Cassius.l Theophylactus, Theology. 
Michael Psellus, Mathema. 
John Scylitza, History. tics. 


1100 

C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- 
danthe and Dosicles,' 
novel. 


1100 

Nicephorus Bryennius, i. 

1137, Byzant. Affairs. 
Anna Comnena, Reign of 

her father Alexius. 

Const. Manasses, History. 
Zonaras, History of Ro- 
mans, History of Jews. 

Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, 

History. 
John Tzetzes, History in 

Verse. 
Cinnamus, History. 


1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, 
Theology. 

Suidas, Lexicon. 
Eustathias, Commentaries 
on Homer. 

Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary 
on Lycophron. 


law 


1200 Joel, History. 

Michael Glycas, History. 
George Acropolita, Hist. 
Nicetas Acominatus, Hist. 
George Pachymer, Hist. 


1200 

Nicephorus Blemmidas, 
Theology. 


1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, 
Poems. 

Maximus Planudes, Anth- 
ology. 
Leo Pilatus, Literature. 


1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 
History. 

Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

Niceph. Gregoras, History. 

John Cantacuzenus, Hist. 
George Codinus, Hist. 
Michael Ducas, History. 


1300 


1400 

Deniet. Pamperes, Tales. 
Marullus Tarchoniota d. 
1500, Poems. 


1400 

Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. 

Origin of Turks. 
Laonicus Chalcondyles, 

History of Turks. 
George Phranza, History. 


1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 

1415, Grammar. 
Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, 

d. 1450, Philosophy. 
Eman. Moscopulus, Notes 

on Hesiod. 
Bessarion, 1395-1472, The- 

ology. 
Geo. of Trebizond, 1395- 

1468, Aristotelian. 

John Argyrophilus, Arist* 
telian. 


IBM) 


1500 


1500 Demetrius Chalcondylee, 
1453-1513, Philology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 



G71 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


IfiOO 


1600 


1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- 
ology. 


1700 Kallinikus, Poems. 

Nicholas Caradza, Trans- 
lation of Voltaire. 


1700 

Alexander Maurocordato, 

History of the Jews. 
Meletius, Geography. 


1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. 

Marcus Tharboures, Me- 
chanics. 


1700 

Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics. Nat- 
ural Philosophy. 


1700 

Ducas, Translation of Thu- 
cydides. 


1700 Bulgaris, Mathematics. 


1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 

Christopulus, Anacreon- 
tics, Opera. 

Calvos, Lyrics. 

Ilarion, Translation of So- 
phocles. 


1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 
Hist, of Wallachia, <fcc. 
Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. 
Perrevos, History of Suli 

and Parga. 
Gr. Demetrius, Geography. 


1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics. 

Coray, Commentaries, Lex- 
icon. 
Cumas, Dictionary. 
Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. 



LATIN AND ITALIAN. 

[The iL,atin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal 
use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the 
modern languages began to appear. 

As long as the literature of the West, was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged 
all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head; but about the sixth century they will be 
found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which 
they wrote.] 



IMAGINATION. 




FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 


B.C. 


b. r 




B. C. 


200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 


J HI 




200 


Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). 








P. Terentius, Comedies. 






M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 


100 


100 T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 


100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rusti- 






33, Letters. 


ca Lingua Latina. 
Vitruvius, Architecture. 
Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, Faali 

Capitolini. 


T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- 




M. T Cicero, 107-13, Orator 




rum Natura. 




and Philosopher. 




Catullus, 86-10, Lyrics. 




Julius Caesar, 98-16, Com- 
mentaries. 

Hirtius Parisa, Gallic War. 

C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur- 
thine War. 

Corn. Nepos, Biography. 




P. Virgilius, 70-19, Eneid. 








Q,. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Sat- 








ires. 








Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. 




T. Livius, 59 b. c. — 19 a. d., 




A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17 




History of Rome. 




A. d., Elegies. 








Ovid, 43 b c— 17 a. d., Me- 








tamorph. Fasti. &c. 








Hyginus,' Poeticon Astro- 








nomicon. 









672 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 



Pheedrus, Fables. 



Persius, 34-62, Satires. 
Lucan, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.' 
Petronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- 

tyricon. 
Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- 

tics. 
Silius Italicus, ' Punic 

War.' 
Sulpicia, Satires, <fcc. 
Statius, d. 99, 'Thebais,' 

' Achilleis.' 
Martial, 29-104. Epigrams. 
Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. 
■ Pliny the Younger, 61-113, 

Epistles- 



100 



L. Apuleuis, Golden Ass. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENT3?J« 



Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 
a. d., Hist, of Rome. 

Pomp. Mela, Geography. 

Valerius Maximus, Anec- 
dotes of Great Men. 

Quintus Curtius, History of 
Alexander. 



100 Tacitus, History. 

Suetonius, Biography. 
Florus, History of Rome. 



Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- 
tics. 
C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor, 
Justin, History. 



200 



200 



Nemesianus, Cynegetica. 
Jul. Calpurnius, Eclogues. 



300 



Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel 
in Verse. 

M. Victorhrus, Hymns. 



Festus Avienus, Geographi- 
cal Poem. 
D. M. Ausonius, Idyls. 



A. T. Macrobius, Satur- 
nalia. 
Bymmachus, Epistle3. 



300 El Spartianus, History. 

Jul. Capitolinus, History. 

JE\. Lampridus, History. 

Vul. Galllcanus, History. 

Trebellius, Pollio, History. 

F. Vopiscus, History. 

Aurelius Victor, History. 



F. Eutropius, History of 

Rome. 
Amm. Marcellinus, History 

of Rome. 



C. Celsus, De Medicina. 

Columella, Agriculture. 

L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philos 
opher, Tragic Poet. 

Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat 
ral History. 

Quintilian Criticism. 



100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. 
Frontinus, Strategy. 



Terentianus Maurus, De Ar- 
te Metrica. 



Pompei. Festus, Grammar. 



200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. 

Tert ullian, d. 220, ' Apology 

for Christianity.' 
Minutius Felix, Dialogue in 

favor of Christianity. 
Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- 

digiis.' 
Censorinus, 'De Die Na 

tali.' 
Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. 



300 Arnobius, ' Adversus gen- 
tes.' 
Lactantius, d. 325, Defenc* 
of Christianity.' 

Ml. Donatus, Grammar. 
F. Maternus, Astronomy 
Theology. 

Ambrosius, Theology. 



Jerom. 329-420, Version of 
Bible. 

Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti- 
cal History. 

T. Vegetius Renatus. De Ra 
Militari. , 

Augustin, 354^30, Theol- 
ogy- 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 



673 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENT1W3 


300 C. Claudianus, Poems. 


300 


300 


A. Prudentius Clemens, 






Christian Poems. 






406 


400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 
Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, 
Sacred History. 


400 


Sedulms, Poetical Life of 


Orosius, Hist, ol World 




Christ. 






Martianus Capella, De Nup- 






tius Phil, et Merc. 






BSiulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on 






Martin of Tours. 






Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, 






Poems. 


Victorius, History of Church 
in Africa. 




Ennodius, d. 521, Christian 


Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 




Poems. 






500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 


500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 


500 Priscianus, Grantfnar. 


sopher. 


tory. 


Fulgentius, 468-533, The- 
ology. 

Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, 
Christian Era. 

Non. Marcellus, Grammar. 


Arator, 490-556, Acts of 






Apostles in Verse. 


Jornandes, Hist, of Goths. 
Evagrius, Eccl. History. 




600 


600 Secundus, d. 615, History 
of Lombards. 


600 


700 


700 


700 Cresconius, Collection 




Paul Warnefrid. History 


Canons, Verses. 




of Lombards. 




800 


800 Erchempert, History of 
Lombards. 
Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 


800 


900 


900 Luitprand, History of his 
Times. 


900 


1000 


1000 


1000 Papias, Grammar. 

Lanfranc, d. 1089, i'heol. 


1100 Donizo, Latin Pot^.ry. 


1100 


1100 




Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 


Gratian, Canonist. 
Campanus, Mathematics. 


Ciullod' Alcamo, Sicilian 






Poetry. 






1200 


1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, 


1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law 


Guido of Colonna, Poetry, 


History. 


Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 


History. 




1274, Theolosy. 


Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, 




Bonaventura. Scholastic. 


'11 Tesora.' 






Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, 






Poems. 


Marco Polo, Travels. 




John XXII.. Poem on Me- 






dicine. 




G. Durand, Law. 




G. de Voragine, d. 1298, 


Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1? \ 




Legends of Saints. 


Astrology, Physics. 






Torregiano Rustechelh, 
Commentaries. 



29 



674 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 



1300 Dante, 1205-1321, La Di- 
vina Commedia, Vita 
Nova, Convito, &c. 

F. Barberino, 1264-1348, 
Poems. 

Petrarca, 1304-13T4, Son- 
nets, Epic, Literature. 

Bocoaoio, 1313-1375, ' II- 
Decamerone,' Poems and 
various works in Latin 
and Italian. 



1300 Dino Oompagni, 1265-1323, 
Chronicles. 
Giovanni and M. Villani, 
Chronicles. 



Ferreti, 1356-1420, History 
of his Times. 



SPECULATIVE AND BCIKSTISlfli 



1300 Mon. de Luzzi, Anatomy. 

Arn. Villanovan, d. 1313, 
Alchemy. 

Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, 
Astronomy. 

G. Andreas, d. 134S, Ca- 
nons. 

Bartolus, Law. 

Domenico Cavalca,Ascetio 
and Translat. of Lives 
of Saints. 



uoo 



A. Beccadelli, 13T4-14T1, 
' Hermaphroditus.' 

Poggio, 1380-1459, Litera- 
ture. 

Lorenzo Valla, 1407-1457, 
Literature. 

D. Burchiello, Sonnets. 



Pulci, 1432-1187, 'Mor- 

ganto Maggiore.' 
Franc. Phfleiphus, 1393- 

1481, Poetry and Ethics. 
Loren. de Medici, d. 1492, 

Poetry, Literature. 
Angelo Poliziano, 1454- 

1494, Poetry, Drama. 
Marsilius Ficinus, 1433- 

1499, Translat. Plato. 



1400 Leonardo Bruni, History 
of Florence. 



Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans- 
lation of Plutarch. 



B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- 
tory of Holy War. 

Flav. Blondus, 13S8-1463, 
History of Venice, &c. 

JS,a. Sylvius, 1400-1464, 
History, Poetry, &c. 

Beccat, Panormita, 1393- 
1471, Biography. 

Bart. Platina, 1421-14S1, 
Lives of Popes. 

F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, 
Biography. 

Pomp. Leetus, 1425-1495, 
Lives of Caesars, &c. 

Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- 
graphy. 

G. Pontano, 1426-1563 
Wars of Fordinand I. 

Bonlinius, d. 1502, History 
of Hungary. 



1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. 
Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. 



Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, 

Medicine. 
Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460. 
Baraterius, Law. 
Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396- 

1479, Orientalist. 
Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, 

Astronomy. 



Pico de Mirandola, 1463- 

1494, Metaphysics. 
Luca di Burgo, Mathem. 



1500 



G. Euccellai, 1475-1526 
'Le Api.' 

Alexander ab Alexandro, 
1461-1523, Dies Geui 
tales. 

M. Boiardo, 'Orlando In- 
namorato. 1 

Sanazaro, 1458-1530, Ar- 
cadia. 

Beni, d. 1530, Satires, 
Burlesque, and Orlando 
Innamorato. 

Ariosto, 1474-1533, 'Or- 
lando Furioso,' Satires, 
Comedies. 

F. M. Molza, d. 1544, Po 
ems. 

Trissino, 1478-1550, ' Italy 
Delivered Epic, Trage- 
dy. 



K. Accolti, 1455-1532, His 
tory. 



Giambullari, 1495 - 1555 
History of Europe. 



Machiavelli, 14S2-1528,His- 
tory of Florence, &c. 



Guicciardini, 1482 - 1540, 

History of Italy. 
Bembo, 1470-1547, History 

of Venice. 
L. Alberti, d. 1552, History 

of Bologna. 



1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, 
Anatomy. 
L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, 
'Treatise on Painting,' 
&c. 
G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 

A. Acchillini, 1472-1512, 
Medicine. 

B. Castiglione, 1478-1529, 
'The Courtier.' 



G. Fracastoro, 1483-1533, 
Medicine and Latin 
Poems. 

And. Alciato, 1492-1550, 
Law. 

Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 



675 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 


1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 


1500 


1500 F. Commandido,1509-1575, 


Poetry. 


B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- 


Mathematics. 


Mio. Angelo Buonaroti, d. 


biography. 


Angelo Caninio, d. 1567 


1564, Poems. 


B. Varolii, 1503-1566, His- 


Orientalist. 


Giovanni della Casa, 1503- 


tory of bis Times. 




1556. 11 G-aiateo, &a. 


Segne, 1499-1559, History 




G. Anguillara, b. 1517, Tra- 


of Homer. 




gedy. 






L. DoIcp, 1503-1568, Trage- 






dy, Ep>c, History. 




And. Vesalio, 1514-1564, 


Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, 




Anatomy. 


'Amadis,' Sonnets, and 


G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives 


Falopius, 1523-1563,Medi- 


Letters. 


of Painters, &c. 


cine. 


Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, 


Sperone Speroni,1500-1588, 


Eustachi, d. 1576, Do, 


Tragedy. 


Orations. 


P. Manut Aldus, 1512-1574, 




S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, 


Commentaries. 




History of Florence. 


Cardano, 1501-1576, Ma- 


A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, 


G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- 


thematics. 


Comedies. 


tory of his Times. 


P. Lancelloti, 1511-1591, 


Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, 


B. Davanzati. 1529-1606, 


Law. 


' Gerusalemme Liberata,' 


Hist. Eng. Reformation. 




Sonnets, Drama, &c. 


C. Baronius, 153S-1607, Ec- 




G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- 


clesiastical Annals. 




gedy. 


P. Paruta, 1540-1598, His- 




Guarini, 153S - 1613, '11 


tory of Venice. 




Pastor Fido.' 


Possevini, 1533-1611, De- 






scription of Muscovy, 


Andrea Caesalpino, 1519- 




Ac. 


1603, Botany. 


Ottavio Binuccini, Opera, 


P. E. Sarpi, 1552-1633, His- 


U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605, 


F. Braceilolini, 1566-1605, 


tory of Coun. of Trent. 


Natural History. 


'La Croce Racquistata.' 




Orazio Torsellino, 1545- 


Oraz Vecchi, Comic Opera 




1609, Grammar. 


G. B. Marini, 1569-1625, 






Poems. 






C. Achillini, 1577-1640, 


E. C. Davila, 1576-1631, 




Poems. 


Hist Civil Wars France. 




A. Tassoni, 1561-1635, 






'Sechchia Rapita. 1 






1600 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 


1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 


1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, 


Pooms, Epie, Lyric, &c. 


History Civil Wars of 


Comparative Anatomy. 




Flanders, and Letters. 


Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po- 
lemics. 

Galileo.1564-1642, Astron. 

T. A. Campanella, 1568- 
1693, Philosophy. 


Zappi, 1667-1719, Poems. 


D. Bartoli, History of the 


L. Vanini, 15S5-16 19, The- 




Jesuits in the East In- 


ology. 




dies, &c, 1608-1685. 


B. Castelli, d. 1644, Ma- 
thematics. 

B. Cavalie.ri, d. 1647, Do. 

Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647, 
Botany, &c. 


Laur.Lippi, 1606-1664, Co- 






mic Poems. 




Forricelli, 1608-1647. 


Salvator Rosa, 1615-1673, 


P. della Valle, 1586-1652, 




Satires. 


Travels. 




C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699, 


F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist 




Poems. 


of Wars of Flanders. 




Francisco de Lemene, 1639 


G. B. Nani, 1615-1671, His- 


F. Redi, 1626-1697, Nat 


-1704, Poems. 


tory of Venice. 


ural Hist. & Literaiura 


A. Guidi, 1050-1712, Lyric 


Oderic Eainaldi, Ecclesias- 


M. Malpigbi, 1628-1694, 


Poems. 


tical Annals. 


Anatomy. 



676 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTlFtQ 


1600 Ben. Menzini, 1646-1704, 


1600 Sforza Pallevicino, 1607- 


1600 V. Viviani,1621-1703, Ma- 


Art of Poetry, Satires. 


1667, History of Coun- 


thematics. 


V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po- 


cil o/ Trent, && 


A.Magliabecchi,1633-1714, 


ems. 




Literature. 
P. Segner, 1624-1694, As- 
cetic and Sermons. 


A. Marchetti, 1633-1714, 




G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, 


Poems, Philosophy. 




Mathematics, Astron. 
D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, 
Mathematics. 


1700 N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, 


1700 


1700 G. Baglivi, 1668-1706, Me- 


Ricciardetto. 




dicine. 


G. M. Crescembini, 1663- 




G. V. Gravina, 1664-1718, 


1728, Poetry. 




Law. 


Apostolo Zeno, 1669-1750, 




G. B. Vico, 1670-1744, 


Operas. 


L. Muratori, 1672-1750, 


Philosophy of History. 


8. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- 


Annals of'Itality. 




gedy, Comedy, and An- 


B. Giannone, 1680-1748, 




tiquities. 


History of Naples. 


G. Cassini, 1677-1756, As- 
tronomy. 

G. Morgagni, 16S1-1771, 
Anatomy. 






M. Metastasio, 1693-1782, 


F. X. Quadrio, 1695-1756, 


Dramas, Operas. 


History of the Valteline. 


A. Genovesi, 1712-1769, 

Metaphysics. 
F. Algarotti, 1712-1764, 

' Newtonianism.' 


G. Baretti, 1716-1789, Mis- 


B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, 


G.R.Boscowi«h,mi-1787, 


cellaneous. 


History. 


Mathematics, Philology. 


C. Gozzi, Dramas, &c. 


A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- 


F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, 

Philosophy. 
C. Beccaria, 1720-1795, 

'Crimes i&Punishments.' 


0. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- 


graphy. 
G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, 




medies. 


L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799, 


C. I. Frugoni, 1692-1768, 


Hist, of Italian Litera- 


Natural History. 


Poems. 


ture. 




G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- 






tires, Odes, but chiefly 




L. Galvani, 1737-1798, 


prose — L'Osservatore, 
V enito, &c. 


Denina, History of Italian 


Galvanism. 


Revolutions, and many 


Volta, 1745-1827, Do. 


V. Alfleri, 1749-1803, Tra- 


other works, chiefly his- 


G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, 


gedies, &C. 


oricaL 


Legislation. 


1S0C Pindemonte, Poems. 


1800 


1800 


Monti, Poems. 






Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- 






ems. 


Botta, History of Italy,&c. 


Scarpa, Anatomy. 


I. da Ponto,Poems, Operas. 




M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli- 


Manzoni, Tragedies, Po- 




tical Economy. 


ems, and one novel— I 




Romagnosi.Polit. Science. 


Promissi Sposi. 




Galluppi, Metaphysics. 


Silvio Pellico, Tragedies, 


Colletta, History of Na- 


Rosmini, Do. 


&0. 


ples. 


Costa, Metaphysics, hi» 


G. B. Niccolo, Tragedies, 


Conti, Universal History, 


torical and critical. 


&c. 


&0. 


Cesari, Philology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 



677 



BRITISH, &c. 



IMAGINATION. 



A. D 

SOU 



600 Casdmon, Saxon Poems. 

Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po- 
ems. 



A. D. 

500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 



600 Nennius, Origin of Britons, 



700 



700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo- 
ry of England. 



SPECULATIVE AND SOI6JSTIP20. 



A. D. 

500 



GOO 



700 



Alcuin, d. 804, Theology, 
History, Poetry. 



SCO Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po 
ems, Translations, &c. 



500 



Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, 
History of England. 



J. Scot Erigena, d. 883, ' CM 
the Nature of Things.' 



900 Ethelwerd, History of Great 
Britain. 



900 



1000 Ingulphus, 1030—1109, His- 
tory of Croyland. 
Eadmer, Chronicle. 



1000 



Layamon, Saxon Poetry. 
Nigellus, Speculum Stulto 

rum. 
Walter Mapes, Satires, 

So,.^. 
Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War. 

War of Antioch, Epics. 



BOG 



1100 Order. Vitalis, 1075-1132, 
History of England. 

Florence of Worcester, d. 
1118, Chron. of England. 

Geoffry of Monmouth, His- 
tory of Britain. 

William of IMahnsbury, d. 
1143, Hist, of Britain. 

Henry of Huntingdon, 
Chronicles of England. 

Simeon of Durham, Chron- 
icles of England. 

John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 
' Life of Becket,' &c. 



G. Cambrensis, Conq. of 
Ireland, Itin. of Wales. 

Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, 
Chron. of England. 



Robert Pulleyn, 
Theology. 



d 1150, 



Richard of St. Victor, d. 
1173, Theology. 



Ralph Glanville, Collection 
of Laws. 



1200 Roger Hoveden. Chron. of 
England. 
Gervase of Canterbury, 
History of England. 

Roger of Wendover, Hist, 
of England. 



Matthew Paris, d. 1259, 
History of England. 



1200 



Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, 
Theology. 



Robert Grosteste, Natural 

Philosophy. 
Alexander Hales, d. 1245, 

Aristotelian. 
John Peckham, Theology. 
John Holiwood, d. 12591 

Astron., Mathematics. 



678 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


Robert of Glocester, Chron- 


William Rishanger, His- 


Roger Bacon, 1214—1292. 


icle in verse. 


tory of England. 


Chemistry, Optics, <fcc. 


T. Lermont, the Rhymer, 




Rich. Middleton, Theology, 


Sir Tristem, Romance. 






1300 


1300 


1300 Albricns, Theology. 

Duns Scotus, d. 1308, Phil- 
osophy. 
Walter Burleigh, Philoso- 
phy. 
Gilb. AngUcus, Medicine. 


Adam Davie, Metr. Ro- 


Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328, 


R. Aungervile, 1281—1345, 


mance, Life of Alex. 


Hist. Physic, Theology. 
Richard of Chichester, 


Philobiblion. 


Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, 


Chron. of England. 


J. Wicliffe, 1324—1384, 


Historical Poems. 


Ralph Higden, d. 1360, 


Theology, Translation of 




Chron. of England. 


Bible. 




Henry Knighton, d. 1370, 






Chron. of England. 






Matthew of Westminster, 




John Barbour, 1326-1396, 


'Flowers of History.' 




' The Bruce.' 


John Maundeville, d. 1372, 


H. de Bracton, Law. 


R. Langlande, ' Pierce 


Travels. 




Plowman,' a Satire. 


John Fordun, Chron. of 




Geof. Chaucer, 1328-1400, 


Scotland. 




' Canterbury Tales,' &c. 






John Gower, d. 1402, Ele- 






gies, Romances, &c. 






1400 


1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 
Chron. of Scotland. 


1400 


John Lydgate, 1380-1440, 






Poems. 


T. Walsingham, d. 1440, 
History of Normandy. 




James I. of Scotland, 1395- 




John Fortescue, Laws of 


1437, 'King's Quhair,' 




England. 


&c. 






Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir 






W. Wallace.' 


John Hardyng, Chron. of 


Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, 




England. 


Law. 




Lord Berners, Trans, of 






Froissart. 




Stephen Hawes, ' Passe- 


W. Caxton, Translations. 




tyme of Pleasure.' 






John Skelton, d. 1529, 


Douglas of Glastonbury, 




Satires, Odes. 


Chron. of England. 




1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 


1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron. 


1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524, 


' Thistle and Rose.' 


of England and France. 


Philology, Medicine. 


Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, 






Trans. Virgil. 






Thomas More, 1480-1535, 




Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- 


'Utopia.' 




bandry. 


Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, 






Sonnets. 


T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of 




John Heywood, d. 1565, 


Houses of York and Lan- 


Thomas Elyot, Philology. 


Drama. 


caster. 


H. Latimer, 1475—1555, 


Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, 


John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- 


Sermons. 


Poems. 


lish Antiquities. 




Geo. Gascoigne, d. 1577, 


W. Cavendish, 1505—1557, 




Drama. 


'Life of Wolsey.' 






J. Ball, 1495—1563, 'Lives 


Roger Ascham, 1515 — 156S. 




of British Writers.' 


' The Schoolmaster.' 




Ralph Hollingshed, d. 1581, 


Thomas Wilson, d. 1581 




Chronicles. 


Logic and Rhetoric. 




Geo. Buchanan, 1506-15S2, 


Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, 




History of Scotland. 


Husbandry. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 



679 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND 3CIEWTIFI0 


Philip Sidney, 1554—1586, 


J. Fox, 1517—1587, Book 




' Arcadia.' 


of Martyrs. 




Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, 






Drama. 






Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598, 






' Faery Queen." 




J. Jewel, 1522-1570, Di- 


W. Shakspeare, 1564 — 




vinity. 


1616, Drama. 


N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612, 


R. Hooker, 1553—1600, E> 


John Lylie, 1550—1600, 


Biography. 


clesiastical Polity. 


'Euphues.' 


John Stowe, 1527—1605, 


W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, 




Chronicles, Topography. 


' On the Loadstone,' 




Sir T. North, Translations 


L. Andrews, 1565—1626, 


John Fletcher, 1576—1625, 


of Plutarch. 


Sermons. 


Drama. 






F. Beaumont, 1586—1615, 






Drama. 






600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 


1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. 


1600 Edward Coke, .< 550- 1634, 


Epigrams. 


of Kings, Bishops, &c. 


Law. 


Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639, 


Richard Knolles, d. 1610, 


John Napier, 1550—1617, 


Poet. 


History of the Turks. 
Wm. Camden, 1551—1623, 

Antiquities. 
R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, 

Naval Histories. 
W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, 

History of the World. 
Samuel Daniel, 1567— 1619, 

History of England. 
John Hay ward, d. 1627, 


Logarithms. 


J. Ford, b. 1586, Drama. 


English History. 




Ben Jonson, 1574—1637, 


J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist. 




Drama. 


of Great Britain. 


Robert Buncr., 1576—1639, 


P. Massenger, 1585—1639, 


Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, 


' Anat. of Melancholy.' 


Drama. 


Antiquities. 


Francis Bacon, 1560—1626, 


J. Harrington, 1561—1612, 


R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, 


Philosophy, History. 


Trans. Ariosto. 


Antiquities. 


Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, 


E. Fairfax, d. 1632, Trans. 


S. Purchas, 1577—1628, 


Circulation of Blood- 


Tasso. 


Collection of Voyages. 




M. Drayton, 1563—1631, 






Poems. 






G. Sandys, 1577—1643, 


Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, 


John Selden, 1584—1654, 


Translations, Poems. 


Travels in the East. 


Antiquities, Law, Hist. 


J. Daniel, 1562—1619, 


E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581 — 


J. Harrington, 1611—1677, 


Poems. 


1648, History of Henry 


' Oceana.' 


W. Drummond, 1585-1649, 


VIII. 


James Usher, 1580 — 1656, 


Poems. 


R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. 


Divinity, Sermons, Hist. 


John Donne, 1573—1662, 


of England. 


Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679, 


Satires, Essays. 




Metaphysics 


Geo. Wither, 1588—1667, 




W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, 


Satires. 


Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, 


Antiquities, History. 


James Shirley, 1594—1666, 


History, Biography. 
Clarendon, 1608-1673, His- 


W. Chillingworth, 1602— 


Drama. 


1644, Theology. 


Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1641, 


tory of Rebellion. 


Isaac Barrow," 1630—1677, 


Poems. 


Thomas May, d. 1650, His- 


Divinity, Mathematics. 


John Denham, 1615—1668, 


tory of Parliament. 


J. Pearson, 1612—1686, 


Tragedies, Cooper's Hill. 


Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, 


Divinity. 


Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, 


Biozraphy. 
3. Whitlocke, 1605—1676, 


Brian Walton. 1600—166). 


Hudibras. 


Polyglot Bible 


John Milton, 160S— 1674, 


History. 


Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, 


' Paradise Lost.' 


Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- 


Divinity. 


Edm. Waller, 1605— 16S7, 


phy. 


Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, 


Poems. 


W. Prynne, 1660—1667, 


; Discourse on Govern- 


A. Cowley, 1618—1667, 


History, Politics. 


ment.' 


Poems. 




Thos. Browne, 1605—1682, 


A. Maxwell 1620—1678, 




' On Vulgar Errors.' 


Poems. 




Edmund Castell, d. 1685. 

Lexicon Heptag'otlon. 
R. Cudworth, 1617- l&B, 
Metaphysics.' 



680 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC!. 


1600 


1600 


1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, 

' Sylva.' 
H. More, 1614—1687, The- 

ology. 
T. Sydenham, 1624—1689, 


Rochester, 1648—1680, 


Wm. Temple, 1629—1710, 


Satires. 


Memoirs, &c. 


Medicine. 


Roscommon, 1633 — 1684, 




W. Sherlock, d 1689, Di- 


Poems. 




vinity. 


N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. 




J. Tillotson, 1630—1694. 


John Bunyan, 162S— 1688, 




Sermons. 


Pilgrim's Progress.' 




Archbishop Leight.'n, 


John Dryden, 1631—1701, 




1613—1684, Divinity. 


Tragedy, Satire, 'Virgil.' 




R. Baxter, 1615—1691, 


Thos."Otvvay, 1651— 168b, 




'Saint's Everlasting 


Tragedy. 


R. Brady, d. 1700, History 


Rest.' 




of England. 


R. Boyle, 1627—1691, 
Theology, Chemistry. 


4509 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 


1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 


1700 


1 The Choice.' 


Foedera. 


John Ray, 162b— 1705, Bot- 
any, Natural History. 

John Locke, 1632—1704, 
Metaphysics. 

R. South, 1633—1716, Di- 
vinity. 


lohn Philips, 1676-F08, 




'Splendid Shilling.' 






Thos. Pamell, 1679-1718, 


S. Ockley, 1678—1720, 




'The Hermit.' 


Oriental History. 


Isaac Newton. 1642—1719 


Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, 


Thos. Hearne, 1678—1735, 


' Principia.' 


Comedies. 


History and Antiquities. 


J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, 




John Strype, 1643—1737, 


Astronomy. 




Eccl. History, Biog. 


R. Hooke, 1635—1702, Ph ■ 




Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, 


osophy. 




'History of his Times.' 


B. de Mandeville, 1670— 


Matthew Prior, 1664—1721, 


L. Echard, 1671—1730, 


1733, ' Fab. of the Bcea.' 


Poems. 


History of England. 


Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, 


K. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, 


Thos. Carte, 1686—1754, 


Astronomy. 


Essays. Politics. 


History of England. 


Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, 


Daniel Defoe, 1660-1731, 


John Potter, 1674—1747, 


Natural History. 


' Robinson Crusoe.' &c. 


Antiquities. 




Jos. Addison, 1672—1719, 


Sir W. Petty, 1623-1682, 




'Spectator,' 'Cato.' &c. 


Statistics. 




Nich. Rowe, 1673—1718, 






Tragedy. 






J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- 






edy. 




A. Clark, 1696—1742, Di. 


W. Congreve, 1672—1728, 




vinity, Philosophy. 


Comedy. 




D. Waterland, 1683—1740, 


lohn Gay, 1688-1732, 




Divinity. 


' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. 


Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, 


R. Bentley, 1661—1740. 


M. W. Montague, 1690 — 


History of Rome. 


Divinity, Philology. ' 


1762. Letters. 


C. Middleton, 16S3— 1750, 


A. Baxter, 1687—1750, Met- 


Robert Blair, 1699—1746, 


Life of Cicero, &c. 


aphysics. 


' The Grave.' 




Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— 


S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 




1751, Politics, Literature 


4 Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. 




G. Berkeley, 16*1—1753, ' 

Metaphysics, Ethics. 
P. Doddridge, 1701—1751 

Divinity. 
Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762, 

Astronomy. 
F. Hutcheson, 1694—1747, 

Mcral Phil (sophy. 


D. Garrick, 1716-1779, 




T. Sherlock, 1078—1761, 


Drama. 




Divinity. 


8. Foote, 1720—1771, 




C. Maclaurin, 1696— 174&, 


Drama. 




Mathematics. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY BRITISH, 



681 



IMAGINATION. 



i7U0 R. Rodsley, 1703— 1764, 

Drama. 
Jona. Swift, 1667—1745, 

Satires, Tales, <fec. 
1. Watts, 1674—1748, 

Hymns. 
Edw. Young, 1681— 1765, 

' Night Thoughts.' 
Alex. Pope, 1688—1744, 

Poetry. 
W. Somerville, 1692—1743, 

' The Chase.' 
Allan Ramsay, 1696 -1758, 

' The Ger.tle Shepherd.' 
Rich'd Savage, 1698—1743, 

Poems. 
Jas. Thomson, 1700-1748, 

'Seasons.' 
John Dyer, 1700—1758, 

Poems. 
H. Fielding, 1707—1754, 

1 Tom Jones,' &c. 
James Hammond, 1710— 

1742, Elegies. 
Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768, 

1 Tristram Shandy.' 
W. Shenstone, 1714—1763, 

Pastorals, &c. 
W. Collins, 1720—1756, 

Odes. 
H. Brooke, 1706—1783, 

' Fool of Quality.' 
M. Akenside, 1721—1770, 

'Pleasures of Imagina- 
tion.' 
Thos. Gray, 1716—1771, 

Odes, Elegies. 
T. Smollet, 1720—1771, 

Novels. 
R. Glover, 1712—1789, ' Le- 

onidas. ' 
O. Goldsmith, 1731—1774, 

' Traveller,' ' Vicar of 

Wakefield.' 
W. Mason, 1725—1797, Po- 
ems, Biography. 
T. Chatterton, 1752—1770, 

Poems. 
Ar. Murphy, 1727—1805, 

Drama. 
Wm. Cowper, 1731—1800, 

Poems. 
R.Cumberland, 1732—1811, 

Drama. 
Eras. Darwin, 1732—1802, 

'Botanic Garden.' 
James Beattie, 1735—1803, 

Poems. 
R Ferguson, 1750—1774, 

Poems. 
Geo. Colman, 1733—1794, 

Comedies. 
J, Wolcot (Peter Pindar), 

1738—1819, Com. Po- 
ems. 
Jas. Macpherson. 1738— 

1796, ' Ossian's Poems.' 
Robert Bums, 1759—1796, 

Poems. 
7. Home. d. 1808, Drama 

29* 



1700 John Swinton, 1703—1767, 
History, Antiquity. 



Lord Lyttleton, 1709—1778, 
History, Poems, Divin- 
ity. 

James Granger, d. 1776, 
Biog. Hist, of England. 



Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784, 
Lives of Poets, Diet., <fec. 

Jonas Han way, 1712—1786, 
Travels in the East. 

John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- 
nology. 

DavirT'Hume, 1711—1776, 
History of England, 
Essays, &c. 

W. Robertson, 1721—1793. 

Hist, of Charles V., &c. 
Thomas Warton, 1 728 — 

1790, History of England. 

Poetry, Poems. 



T-I. Walpole, d. 1797, 'His- 
toric Doubts,' ' Royal 
and Noble Authors.' 

i. Moore, 1730—1802, 
'Views of Society and 
Manners.' 

James Bruce, 1730—1794, 
Trnvels. 

W. Gilpin, 1724—1804, Bio- 
graphy, Divinity. 

E. Gibbon, 1737—1794, 
Decline and Fall of Ro- 
man Empire. 

J. Whitaker, 1735—1808, 
Hist, of Manchester. &c. 

Edmd. Burke, 1730—1797, 
Oratory. 

J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio- 
graphy. 

J. Milner 1744—1797, 
Church History. 

Joseph Strutt, 174S— 1802, 
Chronology, Antiquities. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694— 

1773, Letters. 
Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, 

Cyclopaedia. 
B. Hoadley, 1676—1761, 

Polemics 
Bishop Butler, 1692-1752, 

Divinitv. 



J. Vv esley, *703— 1791, 1 i- 
vinity. 

D. Hartley, 1704—1757, 
' Observations on Man ' 

Soatne Jenyns, 1704—1 .'87, 
Theology. 

W. Warburton, 1709—1779, 
Theology, Criticwn. 

J. Jortin, 1698—17(0, Di- 
vinity, Criticism. 

LordKairries, I696--1782, 
Elements or Criticism. 

R. Lowth. 1710—1787, Di- 
vinity, Philology. 

W. Blackslone, 17:!3— 1780, 
Laws of England. 
"Junius." 



Adam Smith, 1723—1790, 
'Wealth of Nations.' 

J. Harris, 1709—1780, Phi- 
lology. 

John Hunter, 1728—1793, 
Medicine. 

F. Balguy, 1716—1795 Di- 
vinity. 



T. Reid, 1710—1796, Meta- 
physics. 
Sir J. Reynolds, 1723—1792, 

S. Ho'rsley, d. 1806, Theo- 
logy. 

Jos. Priestley, 1733—1804, 
Metaphysics, Chemistry 

Hugh Blair, 1719—1800, 
Sermons. 

J. Home Tooke, 1736—1812 
Philology. 

Wm. Jones, 1747—1794, 
Orientalist. 

R. Price, 1723—1791, Meta- 
physics, Divinity. 

Wm. Paley, 1743—1805, 
Theoloey. 

Ricd. Poison, 1759—1808, 
Philology. 

Ths. Beddoes, 1760— 180a 
Medicine 



682 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 



1700 



Riccl. B. Sheridan, 1751— 
18T.6, Drama. 

Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823, 
Novels. 



1S0L' Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 
' Farmer's Boy.' 
Mrs. Barbauld, Poems, 
Tales. 



Lord Byron, 17S8— 1824, 

Poems. 
John Keats, Poems. 
P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, 

Poems. 
R.i C. Maturin, d. 1824, 

Drama. 
Miss Austin, Novels. 
Wm. Godwin, 1755—1836, 

Novels, Metaphysics. 
Walter Scott, 1771—1832, 

Novels, Poems. 



Robt. Pollok, 1798—1827 

' Course of Time.' 
Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, ' The 

Borough,' &c. 
Fanny Burney, — 1840, 

Novels. 
Wm. Beckford, 1760— 1844 

Novels. 
Thos. Haines Baily, 1797— 

1839. Lyrics. 
Thos. Hamilton, 1789— 

1842, Novels, Travels. 
Felicia Hemans, 1794 — 

1835, Poems. 
Barbara Holland, Novels. 
Jas. Hogg, —1835, Po- 
ems and Tales. 
Theo. E. Hook, 1788—1841, 

Novels. 
Thos. Hood, Poems, No- 
Hannah More, 1744—1833, 

Poems, Tales. 
Jane Porter, —1849, 

Novels. 
S. T. Coleridge, —1834, 

Poems. 
Wm. Wordsworth, — 

1850, Poems. 
Robt. Southey, —1843, 

Poems. 
Marg. Blessington — 

1849, NovelsT 
Chas. Lamb, 1775—1834, 

Poems, Essays. 
Thos. H. Lister, 1801—1842, 

Noi els. 



1700 



Charles Burney, d. 
' History of Music. 



1841, 



SPECULATIVE -~Nr> SIlEHTIPItt 



N. Maskelyne d. 1811 

Astronomy. 
G. L. Staunton, d. 1801 

Chinese Code. 
W. Hersr.hell, 1738—1822, 

Astronomy. 



1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808, 
Biography. 



E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, 

1 ravels. 
C. J. Fox, d. 1806, History. 



W. Mitford, History 
Greece. 



R. Heber, Travels, &c. 
Major Rennel, Geography. 
Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831, 

Life of Leo X., &c. 
Walter Scott, —1832, 

History, Biography. 



Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766— 

1832. Hist, of England. 
Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825 

Political Annals. 
Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori 

ental Hist, and Travels. 
Jas. Mill, —1836, Hist. 

British India. 
Robt. Morrison, —1834, 

Travels, Philology. 
Jas. Grahame, History of 

United States. 
John Gillies, 1747—1836 

History of Greece. 
Basil Hall, 1788—1844, 

Travels and Voyages. 



Wm. Hone. —1842, 

Every Day Book. 



R. <fe J. Lander, 1834. 
Travels in Africa, 



Arthur Young, 1741 -1820, 
Agriculture. 

A. Rees, 1743— 1825, Cyclo- 
pedia. 

Joseph Banks, 1743—1820, 
Natural History. 

Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo- 
logy. 

D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi- 
cal Economy. 

C. Button, d. 1823, Mathe- 
matics. 

John Play fair, d. 1S19. 
P. Elmsley, Philology. 
T. Wollasion, Chemistry. 
Thomas Young, Hierogly- 
phics, &c. 
T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity. 

D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta- 
physics. 

Vicessimus Knox, 1752— 

1821, Essays. 
Malihus, Polit. Economy. 
Wm. Hazlit, Critic and 

Essayist. 
Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849, 

Essays, Criticism. 
Archbish. Magee, d. 1831, 

Divinity. 
Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, 

Chemistry. 
Jer. Bentham, a". 1832, 

' Principles of Legisla- 
tion.' 
Adam Clarke, 1763—1832, 

Divinity, Criticism. 
Arch. Alison, 1757—1839, 

Essays on Taste. 
Francis Baily, 1774—1844, 

Astronomy, &c. 
Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837, 

Theology. 
Herbert Marsh, 1750—1839 

Theology. 
Thos. Mitchell, 1783—1845, 

Classic. Critic. 
Robert Mudie, 1777—1842, 

Scient. Miscellanies. 
Sir E. Brydges, 1762—1837, 

Miscellanies. 
Wm. Cobbett, —1835, 

Politics, &c. 
J. Dalton, - 1844, Che- 
mist. 
J. F. Daniel], —1845, 

Chemist. 
Sydney Smith, — 1845, 

Theology, Essays. 
Chas. Bonnycastle, — 

1840, Mathematics. 
Thos. Chalmers, Theology 

and Pi itical Economy 



LITER ARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 



683 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1800 S. T. Coleridge, 1773—1834, 


1800 


1800 John Leslie, —1832, 


Ethics. 




Mathematician. 


L. E. Landon Maclean, 


Southey, 1774—1843, Bio- 


J. C. Loudon,, 1783—1843, 


1804-1838, Novels and 


graphy. 


Botany, Agncul., Archit. 


Poems. 


Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844, 


John Bell, 1763—1825, 


Wm. Maginn, 1793—1842, 


Travels. 


Anatomy & Physiology. 


Poems, 


Arch. Alison, History of 


Olinthus Gregory, 1774 — 


Marryatt, —1847, Nov- 


Europe. 


1841, Mathematics and 


els. 


Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842, 


Religion. 


John Gait, 1779—1839. 


History of Rome. 


Robert Hall, 1764—1831, 


Novels. 


Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770— 


Sermons. 


Wm. H. Ireland, Shaks. 


1842, Archaeology. 


Sir Chas. Bell. 1781—1824, 


Forgeries. 


Thos. McCrie, 1772— 1S35, 


Anatomy and Physio- 


Lady Morgan, — 184-, 


Life of Knox. 


i gy- ' 


Novels. 


Sir John Malcolm, History 




Jas. Morier, 1780— , 


Persia and India. 




Novels. 


I. D'Israeli, 1766—1848, Cu- 




Thos. Campbell, 1777— 


riosities of Literature. 




1844, Poems. 


Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Voy- 




Thos. Banim, 1800—1842, 


ages and Travels. 




Novels. 






Henry F. Cary, 1772—1844, 






Trans. Dante. &c. 







GERMAN. 



IMAGINATION. 



800 



Walafrid Strabo, c 
Poems, Theology. 



Otfried, Harmony of Gos- 
pels in rhyme. 



910 



Hroswitha, Let. Comedies. 
Notger, Trans, of Psalms. 



1000 



Witpo, 'Praise of Henry 
III.,' Biography. 



V} illeram, Francic Poems. 



800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life oil 800 
Charlemagne, Annals. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



Nithard, d 853, History 
Wars of France. 



Rabanus Maurus, 776—856, 
Theology. 



Gottschalk, d. 869, 'Or. 
Predestination.' 



900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 
Witikind, Hist, of Saxons. 



1100 



Hemy of Veldeck, Minne- 
singer. 



1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 
of Saxon Emperors. 



Hermannus Contractus 

Universal History. 
Mar. Scotus, 1028—1 

Chronicles. 
Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi 

astical History. 
Lambert, General History, 
Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron. 
Kosmas, 1045—1 126, Histo 

ry of Bohemia. 



1100 Berthold Cnnstantiensis, 
Universal History. 
Otto, d. 1158, Chronicle. 
Helmold, d.,1170, Chron. 
of Slavi. 



Batherius, d. 974, Theolo 
gy, Grammar. 



1100 Mangold, Theology. 



684 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SOIEHTIPIO» 


1300 Giinther, Poems. 


1200 

Arnold of Lubeck, Chro- 
nicle of Slavi. 


1200 




Frederic II., 1196—1254, 






Epko of Repgow, ' Saxon 


' De Arte Venandi.' 






Mirror,' (Law). 
John Semeca, Law. 
Alb. Magnus, 1193—1280, 

Natural Philosophy. 


Freydank, Poems. 








1300 Riidger of Manesse, Collec- 


1300 


1300 




tion of Ballads. 








Henry Frauenlob, Songs. 








Boner, Fables. 


Henrich von Rebdorf, 

Chronicle. 
Heinrich von Hervorden, 

Chronicle. 
Jacob von Konigshofen, 

Chronicle. 




John Tauler, Sermons. 




John Schildberger, History 




Jonn Husfi, 138fo— 1416- 




of Timour. 




Theology. 


1400 


1400 Gobelin Persona, General 


1400 




Felix Hammerlein, Satires. 


History. 








Windeck, Life of Sigts- 




John von Gmiinden, Astro* 




mund. 




nomy. 




John Stadweg, Chronicle. 






Hans von Rosenplut, 


Peter von A'ndlo, de lm- 




Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423- 


Poems. 


perio Romano. 




1461, Theory of Planets. 
Regiomontanus, 1436 — 1476 

Astron., Mathemat. 
Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat 
Thomas a Kempis, 1380— 


Eleinrich von Alkmaar. 






1471, Theology. 


4 Reinke de Voss.' 


Mar. Behhaim. Geography. 




Gabriel Brie, d. 1495 The- 




Breydenbach, Topogy. 




ology. 




Conrad Botho, Chronicle. 




John Geyler, 1445—1510, 


Conrad Celtes, 1459—1508. 






Theology. 


Latin Poems, History of 






John Trithemius, 1462 — 


Nuremburg. 






1516, Nat. Philosophy. 


Thos. Murner, 1475—1536, 






Reuchlin, 1454—1522, Phil- 


'Rogues' Guild.' 






ology. # 


1500 


1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 


1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452— 




biography. 




1528, Theol., Poems. 




Griinbeck, Lives of Em- 








perors. 






Melc. Pflnzing, 1481—1535, 


Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His- 




Holoander, d. 1531, Law. 


' Theuerdank.' 


tory of Saxons, &c. 




Corn. Agrippa, 1486—1535, 




B. Pirkheimer, 1480—1530, 




Physics, Theology. 




History, Poetry. 




M. Luther, 1483-1546, 




John Aventin, 1466—1534, 




Theology. 




Anals of Bavaria. 




Zwingle, 1484—1531, The- 
ology. 


Glareanus, (H. L.) 1488— 


Con. Peutinger, 1465 — 1547, 




Melancthon, 1497—1560, 


1563, Classics. 


History and Geoeraphv. 




Theology. 




John Carion, 1499—1538, 




Paracelsus, 1493—1541, 




Comp. of History. 




Chemistry. 
Joac. Camerarius, 1500— 
1574, Philology. 




John Sleidan, 1506—1556, 




Conrad Gesner, 1516 — 1565^ 




Universal History. 




Natural History. 


Hane Sachs, 1494—1574, 


G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- 




Basil Faber, 1520-1576, 


Poems. 


vetic Chronicle. 




Thes. Erud. Schol. 


John Fischart, 1511—1581, 


Gerard Mercator, 1512 — 




Mar. Chemnitz, 2522-158& 


Satires. 


1594, Geography. 




Theology. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 



685 



IMAGINATION. 



1600 G. Fabricius, 1516—1571. 
Lat. Pms. Topography. 



Rollenhagen, 1542—1609, 

Froschmiiusler. 
Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613, 

Latin Poems. 



1600 



Martin Opitz, 1597—1639, 

Poems. 
James Balde, 1603—1668, 

Poems. 
A. Gryphius, 1616—1664, 

Tragedies. 

Paul Fleming, 1609—1640, 
Poems. 



Lobenstein, 1638—1683, 
Poems. 



1500 Simon Schard, 1535—1573. 
Collec. German Hist. 



John Pistorius, 1544—1607. 

Collec. German Hist. 
Marq. Freher, 1565—1614, 

Hist. Germy. & France. 



1600 



P. Cluvier, 1580—1623, 

Geography. 
M. Goldast, 1576—1635, 

History. 



G. Calixtus, 1586—1656 
Ecclesiastical History. 

Olearius, 1604—1685, 
Travels. 



S. von Puffendorf, 1631— 

1694, History, Law. 
D. G. Morhoff, 1639—1691 
Biography, History. 



SPECULATIVE ANB SCIENTIFIC. 



15CO Wm.Xylander, 1532—1576, 

Philology. 
Wesenbeck, 1531— 15S6, 

Law. 
Fred. Sylterg, 1531—1596 

Philology. 
Theod. Beza, 1519—1609, 

Theology, Philology. 

$ 

C. Rittevhuis, 1560—1618, 
Law. 



1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, 
Natural History. 

J. Buxtorf, 1555—1621, 
Philology. 

John Kepler, 157i— lo3i, 
Astronomy. 

B. von Helmont, 1577 — 
1644, Chemistry. 

V, Scioppius, 1576—1649, 
Ars Critica. 

John Bayer, Uranometria. 

G. Barth, 1587-1658, Phil- 
ology. 

Sol. "Glass, 1593—1656, 
Philol. Sacra. 

Otto Guerike, 1602—1686, 
Air-Pump, &c. 

Her. Conring, 1606—1681, 
Antiquities. 

Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702, 
Numismatology. 

John Schilter, d. 1705, An- 
tiquities. 



1*00 C. Gryphius, 1649-1706. 
Poems, Hist., Philology. 



Von Canitz, 1654—1699, 
Poems. 



Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems. 



Liscov, Satires. 

J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766, 

Poems, Trag., Criticism. 
Hagedorn. 1708—1754, 

Fables. 
Haller, 1708—1777, 'The 

Alps.' 
J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759 

Drama. 
E. C. Kleist. 1715—1759, 

Idylls. 
Gellert, 1715—1769, Fables 
Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir 



1700 H. Meibomius, 1638— 1700, 1700 Ludolph, 1649—1711, Phil- 



History 

C. Cellarius, 1638—1707, 
Geography, Antiq. 

C. Frankenstein, 1661 — 
1717, History, Biog. 

J. Arnold, 1665—1714, Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

J. G. von Eccard, 1670— 
1730, General History. 

J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736, 
Bibliography. 



H. Freyer, Gen. History. 
B. G. Strove, 1671— 173S, 

History of Germany. 
J. L. Mosheim, 1695—1755, 

Ecclesiastical History, 



A. F. Buschi..g, 1724—1793 
Geography. 



olo?y. 

Leibnitz, 1646—1716, Ma- 
thematics, Metaphysics. 

C. Thomasius, 1655—1728, 
Law. 

F. Budasus, 1667—1729, 
Divinity. 

G. E. Stahl, 1660—1734, 
Chemistry. 

F. Hoffman, 1660—1742, 
Medicine. 
J. Bernouilli, 1667—1747, 

Mathematics. 
B. Hederick, 1675—1748, 
Philology. 



J. M. Gessner, 1691—1761 

Philology. 
A. G. Bau'mgarten, 1714— 

1751, Ethics, Metanh. 
J. J. Gessner, 170T— 1787, 

Numismatology. 
G. F. Meyer, 1711-1777, 

Philosophy. 
F. W. von Gleicken, 1714- 

1783, Nat. History. 
J. Winkelmar.n, 1718—1768 

Antiquity. 
Leon. Eu'ler, 1707—1783, 
Mathematics 



686 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AMD SCIBHTIPIO 


I7O0 Gleim, d. 1803, Songs. 


1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 


1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730-. 




Walch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 


1780, Sermons. 




tical History. 


J. A. E. Gotze, 1731—1786, 


Klopstock, 1724—1803, 




Entomology. 
Im. Kant, 1724—1304. 


'The Messiah.' 




Zachariae, 1727—1777, 




Metaphysics. 


Comic Poems. 






C. F. Weisse, Drama. 






t. G. Zimmerman, 1728— 






1795, ' On Solitude.' 






Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. 






Ramler, 1725—1798. Odes. 






Dusch, 1727—1788, Poems. 






G. E. Lessing, 1729—1781, 






Drama, Fables. 






S. Gessner, 1730—1788, 






'Death of Abel.' 






Wieland, 1733—1813, Ro- 


C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. 




mances, Poems. 






Pfeffel, 1736—1809, Fables. 




Semler, d. 1791, Theology 


G. A. Burger, 1748-1794, 


J. W. von Archenholz, 




Poems. 


1745-1812, 'Seven Years' 




I. H. Voss, 1751—1826, 


War.' 


Piitter, Law of Nations. 


Novels. 






F. Schiller, 1750—1805, 






Drama. 


Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle- 


Adelung, d. 1807, Phil- 


Kotzebue, 1761—1819, 


siastical History. 


ology. 


Drama. 


Forster, d. 1798, Geogra- 


Lavater 1741—1801, Phy 


Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama, 


phy. 


siognomy. 


Tales, Poems. 


A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1809, 
History. 


Werner, Geology. 


1B00 F. Schlegel, 1773—1829, 


1800 J. von Muller, d. 1809, Uni- 


1800 Herder, 1741—1803, Phllo- 


Novels, Poetry, Hist..&c. 


versal History. 


sophv of History. 


Ernst Schultze, 1787—1817, 


J. G. Eichhorn, d. 1827, 


Fichte, d. 1819, Metaphy- 


Elegies. 


History. 


sics. 


E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822, 




F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, Me- 


Tales. 




taphysics. 


A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760 — 


Heeren, History. 


Blumenbach, Physiology. 


1831, Tales. 




Schelling, Metaphysics. 


Korner, Poems. 




Thaer, —1828, Agri- 
culture. 

Rosenmuller, — 1855, 
Theology, Criticism. 




Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. 


Gail, —1829, Philology. 




B. G. Niebuhr, History. 


Griesbach, —181?:, Phi 

lology. 
Grotelend, —1836, Phi. 


L. von Arnim, — 1831, 




lology. 


Poems, Novels 


Scholl, —1833, History. 


H.J. Klaproth, 1784—1835, 

Philology. 
F. Passow, —1833, Phi- 

lology. 




C. O. Muller, —1840, 


Hegel, —1831, Meta- 




History, Archaeology. 


physics. 

F.Accum, —1838, Che- 
mistry. 

Mohs, —1839, Minera- 


Schcoenhauer, — 1838, 




logy. 


N:vels. 








F. Rotteck, —1849, His- 


G. A. Fa«t, —1841, Phi- 




tory. 


lolo?y 




H. Hase, —1812, His- 


E. Bekker, Philology. 




tory, Antiquities. 


Buttmann, —1841, Phi 

lology. 
C. T."Follen, -1848 

Theology, Essays. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FREN :,'H. 



08^ 



IMAGINATION. 



1800 



Tieck, Poems, Novels. 



1800 Augt. Neander, 1850, 

Ecclesiastical History. 

J. L. C. Heereru —1842. 
History. 

H. Berghaus, Geography. 

A. von Humboldt, Travels. 
History. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 



1800 Olbers, 
nomy. 



-1840, As-.ro- 



Hahnemann, 
Homceopathy. 

A. W. Schlegel, 
Criticism, Essays, 



Humboldt, Science. 
Liebig, Chemistry. 



—1843, 



FRENCH. 



" IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


500 Venan. Fortunatus, Latin 
Poetry. 


500 

Gregory of Tours, 554 — 595. 
History. 


500 • 


600 


600 Marculfe, ' Chartse Re- 
gales,' &c. 


600 


700 


700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 
800 

Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 


700 


800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns, 
Theology. 

Servatus Lupus, d. 862, 
Epistles. 

Hincmar, d. 8827Epistles. 
Abbon, 'Siege of Paris.' 


800 

Agobard, d. 840, Theology 

Paschasius Radbert, 'Traa- 
substantiation.' 


SOO 

Adalberon,.d. 1030, Poetry. 


900 Flodoawl, 896—966, Chron. 
Dudon, History of Norman 
Conquest in France. 


900 


1000 

Fulbert, d. 1029, Epistles. 


1000 Aimoin, d. 1008, History of 
France. 


1000 Gerbert,d. 1003, Geometry, 
Mathematics, &c. 
Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, 
and Astronomy. 

Berengarius, d. 1088, Theo- 
logy. 


noo 

Wm. of Poictiers, 1071— 
1126, First Troubadour. 

Hildebert, 1067—1133, Po- 
etry. 

Bechada, Norman Poetry, 
' Gestes de Godefroi.' 


1100 Guibert, 1058—1124, Histo- 
ry of First Crusade. 

Pierre Theutbode, History 
of Crusades. 

Marbodfeus, d. 1123, Bio- 
graphy. 

Suger, 10S2— 1152, Life of 
Louis le Gros. 


1000 Anselm, 1033—1109, Scho- 
lastic. 

Pierre Abelard, 1079—1142, 
Theology. 

Bernard of Claimux, 
1091— 1153.. Mystic. 



688 



che world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1100 



Geoffroi Gaimar, Anglo- 
Norm. Chron. in verse. 

Rob. Wace, 'Roman de 
Rou.' 



Fouque, a Troubadour. 
Alexander of Bernai, Poet- 
ry, Fables. 



1200 



John iEgidius, Poem on 

Medicine. 
William le Breton, 'Deeds 

of Philip,' in verse. 
P. Gautier, 'Alexandrieda.' 

William de Lorris, 'Roman 

de la Rose.' 
Jean de Meun, Contin. of 

' Roman de la Rose.' 
Estsve de Bezier, Last 

Troubadour. 



1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 
man Chronicles. 



Philippe of Vitri, Transla- 
tion of Ovid. 



1400 



1100 Hugh de St. Victoire, 1097— 
1140, Geography, Histo- 
ry, and Theology. 



1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 
History. 
Geoffrey de Villehardouin, 
Conq. of Constantinople. 



Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- 
tory of France in verse. 
W. Rubruquis, Traveller. 

Jean de Joinville, 1260 — 
1313, Hist, of Louis IX. 



1300 



John Froissart, 1337—1402, 
Chronicles. 



1400 



Alain Chartier, d. 1458, 
Poetry. 

Corbeil, Satire. 

D'Auvergne, d. 1458, Po- 
ems. 

Clement Marot, 1463—1525, 
Poems. 



SPE3ULATIVE AND SCIEHTIPItt 



1100 



Peter Lombardus, d. 1164, 
Theology. 



Alain de l'Isle, d„ 180ft 
Theology, Ethics. 



1200 



Vincentius of Bwuvaia, 

Encyclopasdia. 
Rob. o'f Sorbonne, d. 1271, 

Theology. 



1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. 
John of Paris, d. 1306, The- 
ology. 
W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. 
W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. 



1600 



F. Rabelais, 1483—1553 

Satires. 
J. du Bellay, -.492—1560, 

Poems. 

Steph. JodA>., 1532—1573, 
Odes, Trage ies, &c. 



Philip de Comines, 1445 — 
1509, Hist, of his Times. 



1500 



1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425, 

Astronomy. 
John Gerson, 1363—1429, 

Scholastic. 
Raymund de Sebunda, d. 

1432, Theology. 
Henry of Balma, d 1439, 

Mystic. 



James Lefevie, 1436 — i537, 

Theology. 
Wm. Budaeus, 1467—1540, 

Jurist. 



Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543, 
History of his Times. 



Jaques Amyot, 1514—1593, 
Translations. 



150f J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558, 
Philologv. 
Du Bois, 1478—1555, Aiat. 



Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559, 

Philology. 
P.Ramu3,)515— 1572, Logic 
Seb. Castellio, 1515- 1563^ 

Philology. 
Jas. Cujacius, 1520—1590 

Law. 
Lambinus, 1516-1572, 

Commentaries. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — FRENCH. 



089 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585, 


1500 


1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528—1590, 


Poems, Criticisms. 




Philology. 


Mich, de Montaigne, 1533— 


J. .1. Scaliger, 1540—1609, 


F. Vieta," 1540—1603, Al- 


1592, Essays. 


History, Criticism, &c. 


gebra. 
Pierre Charon, 1543—1603, 

Theology. 
Isaac Casaubon, 1559 — 

1604, Philology. 


Fran. Malherbe, 1556— 1628, 


J. A. ae Thou, 1553—1617, 




Odes. 


History of France. 




IfiflO M. Reignier, 1573—1613, 


1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, 


1600 


Satires. 


History of France. 






An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, 


C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, 




Collections of Histories. 


History and Criticism. 
Dennis Petau, 1583— 1652, 

Ch..nology. 
P. Gassendi, 1592 — 1655, 


J. Chapelain, 1595—1674, 


Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo- 


Philosophy. 


La Pucelle.' 


graphia Sacra.' 


Des Cartes, 1596 1650, 




Henry Spondanus, 1568 — 


Metaphysics. Ma.;hem. 




1643, History. 




P. Comeilie, 1606—1684, 


S. Guicheron. 1607—1664, 




Drama. 


Hist, of House of Savoy. 

Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, 

Ecclesiastical History. 




St. Evremond, 1613—1703, 






Literature. 




B. Pascal, 1623—1662, 

Miscellaneous. 
D'Herbelot, 1626—1695, 


Roche foucault, 1603— 16S0, 


Adr. Valesius, 1607— "if-92, 


Orientalist. 


Reflections. Memoirs. 


' Deeds of the Frames ' 


Cassini, 1625-1712, Astroa 


Moliere, 1620-1673, Drama. 






La Fontaine, 1621 — 1695, 






Fables, Tales. 






Segrais, 1624— 1701. Idyls. 
T. Comeilie, 1625—1709, 










Drama. 






M. de Sevigne, 1626—1694, 

Letters. 
J. Racine, 1639—1699, 






L. Moreri, 1643— 16S0, 


Huet, 1630-1721, Philos'phy 


Drama. 


Historical Dictionary. 


Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, 




TilK=mont, 1637— 169S, Ec- 


Sermons. 




clesiastical History. 


La Bruyere, 1636-1696, 

' Characters.' 
Malbranche, 1633-1715, 


Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. 




'Search after Truth.' 


17)0 Regnard, 1«7— 1709, 


1700 


1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, 


Comedies. 




Dictionary. 


Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. 




Hardouin, 1646-1729, 


of Arabian Nights. 




Criticism, 
ind. Dacier, 1651-1722. 

Philology. 
Anne Dacier, 1651-1720, 

Philology. 


Fenelon, 1651— 1715, 'Tele- 






machus,' &c. 






Deshoulierea, 1638—1694, 
Elegiis. 








Tonrnefort, 1656-1708, 




J. Marsollier, 1647—1724, 


Botany. 




History, various. 
Fleury, 1653-1723, Eccle- 


Fontenelle, 1657-1756, 




' Plurality of Worlds, 




siastical History. 


&c. 




G. Daniel, 1649—1728, His- 1 


Montfaucon 1655-1741, 




tory of France. 


Antiquities. 




Vatincourt, lOSS^-mO, 


Massillon, 1663-1742. 




Biography. 


Sermons. 



(190 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND 8CIENTIFI9 


1700 


1700 Vertot, 1655—1735. History. 
Paul Rapin, 1661—1725, 

History of England. 
Bossuet, 1662—1704, His- 


1700 


J. B. Rousseau, 1671 — 1741, 


tory, Sermons. 




Odes. 


C. Ro'llin, 1661—1741, 




Crebillon, 1674—1762, 


Ancient History, Educa- 


Folard, 1669-1752, Sua 


Tragedies. 


tion. 


tegy. 


Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747, 




Saurin, 1677-1730. Ser- 


' Gil Bias.' 




mons. 


P. N. Destouches, 1680 — 






1754, Comedies. 






J. B. Grecourt, 1683—1743, 






Odes, Tales, &c. 






Marivaux, 1688—1763, 




Montesquieu, 1698—1755, 


Novels. 


C. I. F. Henault, 1685-1770, 


' Esprit des Loix.' 


Voltaire, 1695—1773, Tra- 


History. 


Reaumur, 1683—1757 


gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. 




Natural History. 
Houbigant, 1686—1783, 
Criticism, Philology. 




C. Villaret, 1715—1766, 


Girard, d. 1748, 'Synony- 




History of France. 


mes.' 




L. P. Anquetil, 1723— 180S, 

History. 
Mart. Bouquet, d. 1754, 




J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778, 


Buffon, 1707-1783, Natural 


' Emile,' 'Heloise,' &c. 


Recueil d'Historiens. 


History. 


Diderot, 1713-1784, 'En- 


A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origin 


De Brosses, 1709-1777, 


cyclopedic,' Novels. 


of Laws, Arts, &c.' 


Philology, History. 


Bernis, 1715—1794, Poems. 


Larcher, 1726-1812, Trans. 




Favart, d. 1762, Comic 


of Herodotus. 




Operas. 


Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient 




Louis Racine, d. 1763, 


History. 

Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- 




Poems. 


Helvetius, 1715—1771, 


J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795, 


tical History. 


'De 1' Esprit.' 


' Anacharsis.' 


D'Aubenton, 1716—1799, 


Marmontel, 1719—1799, 




Natural History. 


Tales. 




N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law 


Cresset, d. 1777, Elegies. 




of Nations.' 


Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. 


J. De Guignes, 1721—1800, 


D'AIembert, d. 1783, ' En- 




History of the Huns. 


cyclopedic.' 




D Anville, 1702—1782, 


La Grange, Mathematics. 




Geography. 






G. Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist, 
of East and West Indies. 
C. F. X. Millot, 1726—1785, 
History. 


Bailly, 1736—1793, Hist. 

Astronomy. 
Lavoisier, 1743—1794, 

Chemistry. 
Montucla, 1725—1799, 

Mathematics. 
Turgot, Polit. Economy. 


F '.orian, 1755 -1794, Tales. 




Mirabeau, Politics. 


Beaumarchais, d. 1799, 




Fourcroi, d. 1S09, Chem. 


Comedies. 




J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astrou. 


180U B. St. Pierre, 'Paul and 


1800 Sismondi, History and 


1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels, 


Virginia. 1 


Political Science. 


Philology, &c. 


Madme. de Genlis, Novels. 


Barante, History. 


Hauy, d. 1822, Cr^stallo 




Augustin Thierry, History 


graphy. 


Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, 


Amedei Thierry, History. 


La Place.^. 1827, Maine- 


Tales. 


Guizot, History. 


matics 


Delille, d. 1813, 'L'Homme 


Thiers, History. 


Guvton Morveau. Chem. 


des Champs.' &c. 




Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hist 


Madame de Stael, 1768— 


Denon, d. 1825, Travels in 


Dumont, Legislation. 


1817, ' Corinne,' &c. 


Egypt. 


P. L. Courier, Politics. 


H. de Balzac, 1799-1S50, 


J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767— 


J. F. Audoin, 1797—1841, 


Novels. 


1837, History. 


Zoology. 


J J. Boissiid, 1743-1831, 


Louis E. Bigaon, — 1841, 


J. E. D". Esquirol, 1772— 


Fa'sles. 


History. 


1840, on Insanity. 




J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840. 


Chas. Fourier, 1772—1837 




Edtr uion. 


Socialism. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 



691 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1800 C. Delavigna, Tragedies, 


1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 


1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796—1842, 


and Poems. 


Biography. 


Metaphysics 


Victor Hugo, Tragedies, 


A. L. G. Laborde, —1842, 


A. L. de Jussinu, 1748-1836, 


Poems, and Romances. 


Travels. 


Botany. 


A. de Lamartine, Poems, 


Las Cases, — 1842, Biog- 


S. F. Lacroix, 1765— 1843, 


History, and Travels. 


raphy. 


Mathematics. 


Mad. Dudevant (George 


J. Michaud, —183.9, His- 


Lamarck, — 1829, Natural 


Sand), Novels. 


tory. 


History. 


A. Dumas, Poems, Plays, 


Bourrienne, — 1834 ' Life 


Legendre, 1753—1833, Ma 




of Napoleon.' 


thematics. 




A. Coille, —1838, Voyage 


Louis, — 1837, Surgery. 




a Tembuctou, &c. 


Broussais, — 1838, Mecli- 




Champollion le Jeune, 


zine, Physiol. 




1832, Antiq. Egypt. 


Chaptal, — 1S32, Chem- 




J. P. A. Remusat, —1832, 


istry. 


- 


Philology, Antiquities. 


Say, Polit. Economy. 



SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 

P. is prefixed for Portuguese. 



IMAGINATION. 



500 



600 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



600 John of Biclair, d. 620 
Chronicle. 
Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de 
Goth. 



Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 

ology. 
Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. 



500 Anian, Law. 

Fulgentius Ferrandus, 

Canon Law. 
Martin, d. 580, Ethics. 



600 



Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics. 



P. iioO Egaz Monez, Songs. 

P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, 

Songs. 



1100 



1100 



1200 



1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245. 
History of Spain. 



Gonzalo Berceo, Rhymes. 



R. de Penafort, 1175—1275, 

Decretals. 

Alphonso X., d. 1284, 
Astronomy, Alchemy, 

Raimund Lullo, 1236— 
1315, Theology, Chem- 
istry, &c. 



1300 Juan Manuel, d. 1362, Ro- 
mances. 



1300 



1400 Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 

Virgil and Dante. 
E. de Villena, 1434, Moral 

Drama. 
Juan de Mena, 1412—1456 

Poems. 
L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458, 

Poems. 



1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 1400 



J. de Torquemada, d. 1468^ 
Sermons, Criticism. 



692 



the world's progress. 



IMAGINATION. 



1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. 

Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral 
Drama. 



1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 
Torres Naharro, Comedy. 
Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- 
nets. 
P. B«r. Ribeyro, Eclogues. 
Garcilaso de la Vega, 
1503—1536, Poems. 
P. San de Miranda, 1495—1558, 
Lyrics. 
Juan de la Cueva, Art of 
Poetry. 
P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, 
Comedy. 
J. de Montemayor, 1520— 

1561, Romance. 
Ant. Ferreira, 1528—1569, 
Elegies. 



Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575, 

Poems, History. 
P. Camoens, 1524-1579, 'The 

Lusiad.' 
Luis de Leon, 1527—1591, 

Lyric Poems. 
Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578, 

Classical Poems. 
P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- 
mances. Pastorals, &c. 
P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, 

Epigrams, Pastorals. 
C. de Castillejo, d. 1596, 

Romantic Poems. 
A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600, 

' Araucana.' 
Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589, 

Tragedy. 
L. de Argensola, 1565— 

1613, Tragedy, History. 
P. Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. 
Cervantes, 1549—1616, 

' Don Quixote.' 



1600 



Bart, de Argensola, 1566 — 

1631, Tragedy, History. 
F. Quevedo, 1570—1645, 

Tales, Satires. 
L. Congora, 1585—1633, 

Poems. 
Lope de Vega, 1562—1635, 

Drama. 
J. P. deMontalvan. d. 1639, 
Tragedy. 
M. de Madrigal, Romances. 
P. Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. 

1649, Pastoral Poems. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1400 R. de Zamora. 1407—1470, 
History of Spain. 
Fern, del Pulgas, Biog. of 
Ferdinand and Isabeua. 



1500 



P. Damian Goez, History, 
Travels. 



P. Joao de Barros, d. 1570, 

' Hist. Portugu. in India.' 

A. Zarate, 'Discov. of 
Peru.' 

A. de Morales, 1513—1590, 
History of Spain. 



J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist. 

of the West Indies. 
Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1580, 

Lives of the Popes. 
Luis Marmol, Description 

of Africa • 
Jeron. Zurita, 1513— 15S0, 

History of Arragon. 
Estevan Garibay, History 

of Spain.' 



Juan Mariana, 1537—1624, 

Hist., Chronology, &c. 
Blanca, History of Spain. 



J. G. de Mendoza, Hist, of 
China. 



1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565— 

162o, History of Spain. 
P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617, 

History of Augustines. 
P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of 

John III. 
P. B. de Brito, 1570—1617, 

History of Portugal. 



P. A. de Andrada, d. 1633, 

Travels in Thibet and 
Cathay. 
Pru. de Sandoval, History 
Jayme Bleda, History of i 
Moors in Spain. I 



1400 



Fras. Ximenez, 1437— 151f, 
Polyglot Bible. 



1500 Perez de Oiiva, d. 1533, 
Ethics. 
J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540, 
Philosophy, Theology. 



Ant. de Guevara, d. 1541, 
Ethics, Epistles. 
P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law. 



Ant. Agostino, 1516—1586, 
Theology, Law. 

S. des Brosses, 1523—1600, 

Grammar. 
P. D. de Andrada, 1528—1535 

Theology. 
Luis Molina, 1535—1600, 

Metaphysics. 



J. Guevara, 1541—1622, 
Publicist. 



J. Va verda, Anatomy, 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 



693 





IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND 8CIBMTW1S. 


'600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 


1600 


1600 




'El Diablo Coxuelo.' 










Vic. Espinel, 1545—1634, 










Elegies. 


P. 


C. Acuna, 1597— 1641, < De- 
scrip, of River Amazon. 

E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, 
History of Ethiopia. 






Calderon, i601— 1667, 


P. 


J. F. de Andrada, 1597— 






Drama, 




1657, Life of John de 






L. Ulloa, d. 1660, Poems. 




Castro, Comic Poetry. 




P 


A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, 
Sonnets. 








?. 


Matheo Ribeiro, Romance. 

M. de Villegas, 1595—1669, 
Anacreontics. 


P. 


Nic. Antonio. 1617—1672, 
Biblictheca Hispanica. 

Alb. Coelho, '/. 1658, 
' Wars of Brazil.' 




P. 


F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. 








P. 


R. de Macedo, d. 1682, 
Poems. 








P. 


Viol, do Ceo, 1601—1693, 
Poems. 




Ant. de Solis, 1611—1686, 
Hist, of Conq. Mexico. 




P. 


F. da Castanheira, Novel. 








P. 


A. Nunhes da Sylva, Son- 
nets. 








1700 Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 


1700 J. Fr-rrevas, 1652—1735, 


1700 




Drama. 




tiistory of Spain. 






Ant. de Zamora. Comedy. 








P. 


Xav. de Meneses, 1673 — 
1743, ' Henriqueide,' 
Epic Poem. 

Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, 






Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Critj. 

cism. 
A. Ulioa, 1716—1795, Math. 




Art of Poetry. 


P. 
P. 


Barbosa Maehado, Diction- 
ary of Learned Men. 

Velasquez, d. 1772, Hist. 
of Castilian Poetry. 

Figoeireda, Eccl. History. 


ematician. 




Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, 










Fables, &c. 








P. 


A. de Barros Pereira, 
Poems. 








P 


Manoel da Coste, Poems. 
V. Garcia de la Huerta, 
Tragedy. 




Munoz, Hist, of America. 




P. 


P. Correo Garcao Lyric 

Poems. 






Ruiz, Botany. 

Pa von, Flora Peruvians. 




Leon de Arroyal, Odes. 




Cavanilles, Annals. 


P. J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, 


P. 


Paulino de Vasconcellos, 
Sonnets. 






Natural Philosophy. 
Felix de Azara, Zoology. 
J. N. de Azara, 1731— 1804s 




Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. 






P. 


Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. 
D G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811, 






Antiquity. 


ISO 


1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 


1800 




' Agrarian Law.' 
Tol. da Almeida, Satires. 




Inquisition. 




r. 










Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828, 




Jose Antonio Conde, His- 






Comedies. 




tory of Moors in Spain. 






M. Garcia de Villanueva, 










' On the Theatre.' 










J. H. Davila, General Li'- 










•ratuie. 









694 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



DUTCH. 



IMAGINATION. 



1200 J. Van Maerlajat, 1235— 
1300, Poems, ' Rymby- 
bel.' 
Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 



1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 
Chronicles. 
Heij. van Holland, Poems. 
Cla'es Willems, Poems. 



1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. 



Dirk van Minister, ' Chris- 
tian Mirror.' 



Lambert, Goetman, ' Mir- 
ror of Youth.' 



1500 



A. Byns, Religious Poems. 
Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and 

J. Secundus, 1511—1536, 
Amatory Poems. 

Dirk Koomhert. 1522— 
1590, Transl. Homer. 

P. van Marnix, Odes, 
Songs. 

R. Visscher, Epigrams. 

Hendrick Spieghel, Didac- 
tic Poems. 




SPECULATIVE AND BCIEKTI&'fS 



1300 



Gerard Groot, Theology. 



1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448. 1400 
Chronicles of Brabant. 
P. vander Heyden, 1393 — ■ 
1473, Chronicles. 



S. Pighius, 1520—1604, 
'Roman Annals.' 



600 G. Brederode, 1585—1637. 

Comedies, &c. 
D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586— 

1626, Religious Poems. 
Daniel Heins, 1580—1655, 

Poems, Philology. 
J. Cats, 1577— 1660,' Drama. 
P. C. Hooft, 1587—1647, 

Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of 

the Netherlands. 
G. van Baerle (Barla?us), 

1584—1648, Latin Poems. 
Just van Vondel, 1587 — 

1679, Tragedies. 
M. Visscher, Trans. Tasso. 
Jan van Heern^kerk, ' Ar- 
cadia.' 
J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, 

Epigrams. 



A. Schott, 1552—1629, His- 
tory of Spain. 



1600 



H. de Groot (Grotius), 
1583—1645, Hist., Theol- 
ogy, Poetry, &c. 



J. W. Gransfoet, Theo. 



Rud. Agricola, 1442— 14S5, 
Philosophy, Hist., &c. 



1500 Erasmus, 1467—1536, The- 
ology, Literature, &.<• 



J. Heurnius, 1543—1601, 
Medicine. 

C. Kiliaan, d, 1607, Dic- 
tionary. 

Justus Lipsius, 154-7 — 1606, 
Philology. 

Sim. tttevinus, d. 1633, 
Hydrostatics, Mathsm. 

H. Erpenius, 1584—1624, 
O-rientalist. 



J. Golius, 1596-1667, Or* 

entalist. 
Voetius, 1589—1676. 

Polemics. 
Beverwyk, 1594—1647, 

Medicine. 
Diemerbroek, 1609— ?674, 

Anatomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 



695 



IMAGINATION. 



Cons. Huygens, 1596—1687, 
Epigrams. 

Jer. Decker, 1610—1666, 
Elegies. 

D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Ama- 
tory Poems. 

Nicholas Hems, 1620— 16S1, 
Poems, Philology. 

Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone 
of Wit.' 

Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- 
grams. 

Reinier Anslo, 1622—1669, 
' Plague of Naples.' 



Ger. Brandt, 1626— 16S5, 

Hist, of Reformation. 
Cau, Collect, of Batavian 

History. 
J. G. Grasvius, 1632—1703, 

Roman Antiquities. 
J. Perizonius, 1631 — 1715, 

History. 



700 P. Francius, 1645—1704, 
Latin Poetrv. 
J. A. Vander "Goes, 1647— 
1648, Drama. 



Eliz. Wolff, Novels. 
Loosjes, Novels. 

Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes. 
Klein, Lyrics. 
Van Alphen, Odes. 



1600 



Hincopen, Odes. 
Helmers, d. 1831, Poems 
Nieuwland, Poems. 
Borger, Odes. 

Bilderdyk. Dramas, Odes, 
tfcc. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



.1. F. Gronovius, 1611 — 

1671, Philology. 
J. Leusden, 1614—1699, 

Philology. 



F. Burman, 1028—1679, 

Theology. 
Chr. Huygens, 1629— 169S, 

Mathem., Mechanics. 
B. Spinoza, 1632—1677, 

Theology. 



Swammerdam, 1637— 16SO, 

Natural History. 
A. Leuwenhoek, 1632 — 

1723, Natural History. 



J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, 
Greek Antiquities. 

P. Bondam, Collection of 
Batavian History. 

Simon Styl, History of 
Netherlands. 



1800 



Te Water, History. 
Engelberts, Ancient Hist, 
of Netherlands, 



1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731, 
Anat. 



G. Bidloo, 1649—1713, 
Anat. 

C. Vitringa. 1659—1722, 
Theology. 

Binkerschoek, 1663—1743, 

Law. 
H. Boerhaave, 166S— 1733, 

Medicine. 
Hemsterhuis, 1685 — 1766, 

Philology. 

A. Schultens, 1686—1750, 
Philology. 

Gravesancie, 1688—1742, 

Mathematics. 
Chr. Hecht, 1696—1748, 

Philology. 

B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771, 
Anatomy. 

Oudendorp, 1696—1761, 

Philology. 
W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768, 

Law. 

D. Gaubius, 1705—1780. 
Medicine. 

Hoogeveen, 1712—1794, 

Philology. 
G. van Swieten, 1700— 

1772, Medicine. 
P. Camper, 1722—1789, 

Anatomy. 
D. Ruhnken, 1723—1798, 

Philology. 
Valckenaer, Philology. 



1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808, 
Philology. 



Van Kamj ^ Statistics 



696 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 



Tollens, Poems. 

Da Costa, Sacred Poems. 

Wilderbosch, Odes. 



Kluits, Hist, of Holland. 
Westendorp, History. 
Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 



De Jonge, Antiquities. 
Hamaker, Orientalist. 
Vander Palm, Literature. 



SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. 

S., Sweden; D., Denmark ; Ic, Iceland. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1c. 900 Hjald, Poems. 


900 


900 


Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 

Ic. Saemund, b. 1156, The 
Elder Edda. 


1100 

Ic. Arc d. 1148, Annals of Ice- 
land. 

D. Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 

1204, Hist, of Northern 
Nations. 

D. Sueno, Hist, of Denmark. 


1100 

D. Sunesen, Jurist. 
D. Axel, Theology. 


Ic. 1200 Snor. Sturleson, d. 1241, 

Younger Edda, Hist, 
of Norway. 
Ic. Suerron, Tales. 


1200 

D. Sturla Thoridsen, History 
of Norway. 


1200 


1400 


1400 

S. Eric Olai, History of Goths 
and Swedes. 


1400 

S. Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, 

Instruction to Kings and 
Princes. 


1500 


1500 

S. John Magnus, d. 1544, 

Hist, of Sweden. 
S. Olaus Magnus, Customs of 

Northern Nations. 
S. P. Lagerloof, 1538—1599, 

History North of Europe. 
Ic. Am. Jonas, 1545—1640, 

Hist, of Iceland, &c. 


1500 

D. TychoBrahe, 1546— 1601,; 

Astronomy. 
D. Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 


1600 

&. Andsrs Arrebo, b. 1587, 
Religious Poetry. 

D. Anders Bording, b. 1619, 

Poems. 
S. Stiernhjelm, Epic Poem, 

'Hercules.' 


1600 

D. J. J. Pontanus, 1591—1640, 
Danish Hist. 


1600 

S. P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, 

Orientalist. 
D. G. Bartholine, 1585—1629 

Anatomy, Theology. 
D. Ole Worm, 1588—1654, At* 

tiquities, Philo. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICELAND. C97 



IMAGINATION. 



Ic. Torfeus, 1639—1720, Hist. 
of Norway. 



D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634- 
Hymns.^ 



L. Holberg, 1684—1754. 

Drama, Satire, Hist. 
Ch. Falster, 1690— 

1752, Satirist. 



OlofDalin, 1708— 1763 
Poetry, History. 



Sneedorf, 1724—1764, 
Poems. 



Tullin, Lyrics. 

John Ewald, 1743— 
1781, Tragedy, Lyrics. 

J. H. Wessel, Humor- 
ous Poems. 

Bellerman, 1741—1796. 
Lvrics. 

H. Tode, 1736—1806, 
Dramas, Fables. 

Samsoe, 1759—1796, 
Tragedies. 

P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758, 
Drama. 

S. Elgstrom, d. 1810 
Poems. 



D. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 



S. 01. Rudbeck, 1630—1702, 
Botany, Anat., <fcc. 



John Penngskiold, 1654— 
1720, History. 

Arne Magnussen, b. 1663, 
Collec. Hist. 

Albert Thura, Hist. 

Hans Gram, d. 1748, His- 
tory. 



Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. 
Danish History. 

Pontoppidan, d. 1764, Ori- 
gines Havnienses. 

Lagerbring, d. 1781, His- 
tory. 



P. T. Suhm, 1720—1798, 
Hist, ot' Denmark. 



1700 

D. J. C. Sturmius, 1635— 17C 
Phys., Mathem. - 



Linnseus, 1707—1778, 
Botany. 



Wallerius, d. 1785, 
Mineralogy. 
D. Oeder, Flora Danica. 
S. Ihre, Dictionary. 



1800 Thorlacksen. d. 1819 
Transl. Milton 
C. L. Sander, Dramas. 



D. Jens. Baggesen, d. 

1826, Lyrics. 
D. Oehlenschlager, 

Poems. 
D. B. S. Ingermann, 

Lyrics. 
S Atterbone, Poems. 

S. Tegner, Romances, &c. 

fc. F. Bremer Norels, 

30 



1800 

D. Make Brun, d. 1826, Geog- 
raphy, in French. 



Thorild Travels. 



S. Afzelius, Iceland Records. 

S. Hallenberg, History. 

S. Granberg, Statistics. 

S. Blexell, Topography. 



1800 



S. Berzelius, Chemistry. 

D. Rask, Orientalist. 

S. Wodderstadt, ' On Yellon 
Fever.' 

S. Liliegren. Northern An- 
tiquities. 

S. Norberg, Orientalist. 
J. F. Blumenbach, 
1840, Naturalist. 



698 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



POLISH. 



IMAGINATION. 


PACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND 8CIK3JTIWO 


15500 


1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 

History of Poland. 
Bosuphalus, d. 1253, 

Chronicle of Poland. 
Martin Polonus, d. 1278, 

Chronicle of Popes and 

Emperors. 


1200 

Vitellio, Optics. 


1400 


1400 Dluglossus, 1415—1480, 
History of Poland. 


1400 


5500 

Kochanowski, 1530—1584, 


1500 

Cawalezewski, Chronicles. 
Bielski, Chronicles. 

Stryjkowski, Chron. of Po- 
land and Russia. 


1500 

N. Copernicus, 1472 — 1543, 

Astronomy. 
Lucas Gomicki, Ethics. 
Rev of Naslowic, 1515 — 
1568, Ethics. 


1600 

Sarbiewski, 1595—1640, 
Latin Poetry. 


1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637, 
Ecclesiastical Annals. 

Lubienetski, 1623—1675, 
History of Reformation. 


1600 

John Maccov, d. 1644, The- 

oloev. 
Przipcov, 1590—1670, The. 

ology. 


1700 

Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po- 
etry and History. 


1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland. 
Mizler, Do. 


1700 


1S00 Krasicki, Poems, Roman- 
ces. 
Boeuslawski, Drama. 
Br5nikowski, Novels. 
Bernaiowicz, Novels. 
Bulgarin, Novels. 
Mickiewicz, Poems. 
Odyniec, Drama. 


1800 

Lach Szmyrna, Travels. 
Potocki, Travels. 


1800 

Linde, Lexicon. 



RUSSIAN". 

[The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. A lmo« 
rll books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly 
differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the 
other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established 
In 1553.] 



IMAGINATION. 



1000 



Nestorof Kiew, 1050—1115, 
C ronicles of Russia. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFW 



1000 Yaroslaf, Code of Laws. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY — RUSSIAN. 



699 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 


1100 

The Expedition of Ighor, a 
celebrated Poem, author 
Unknown. 


1100 Theodosius, d.\ 120, Annals. 
Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro- 
nicles of Russia. 

Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, 
Chronicles of Russia. 


1100 


12(10 


1200 John of Novgorod, History 
dt Russia. 


1200 



[The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia 
from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit ol 
knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 



1500 



1600 



Simeon of Polotsk, Poems 
Spiritual Dramas. 




1700 



Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- 
rical Poems. 

Lomonosoff, 1711—1765, 
Poetry, History, Science. 

Tredianoffski, Poems. 

Popofski, Transl. Pope. 

Sumarokoff, 1718—1777, 
Drama. 

Kheraskoff, 1733—1807. 
'The Russiad.' 

Kostroff, d. 1796, Transl. 
the Iliad. 

Petroff. 1736—1799, Transl. 
the Eneid. 

Kniajnin, 1742—1794, 
Drama. 

J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784, 
Fables. 

Klushin, Comedies. 

Ephimieff. Comedies. 

Ablesimoff, Operas. 

G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816, 
Lyric Poetry. 

H. "Bogdanovitch, 1743— 
1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. 

Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- 
dies, Tales. 

Nicoleff. Tragedies. 



1930 Maikoff, Comic Poems. 
Dmitrieff, Lyrics, Fables. 
Ozeroff. d. 1816, Tragedies 
P. Sumarokoff, Poems, 

Tales. 
V. A. Jukofski, b. 1783 

Poems. 
Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. 
Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- 

lus. 
Gneditch, Transl. Iliad 

Odes. 
Kryloff, Fables. 



1500 



1500 Sudebuek, Code *>f Laws. 



1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. 
V. Tatischeff, d. 1750, 
Chronicles of Russia. 



Cherbatoff, History. 
Golikoff, History. 



Muravieff, 1757—1816, His- 
tory, Didactics. 
Eugenius, History. 



1800 Karamsin, b, 1765, History 
of Russia. 
Kachenofski, History. 
G. Glinka, History. 



Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis 

covery. 
Gretch, History of Russian 

Literature. 
Timkowski, Journey 

China. 



1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The- 
ology, Spiritual Dramas. 



1700 Theophanes, Se:mons. 



Plato, 1737—1812, Sermon* 

P. S. Pallas, 1741—1811. 
Natural History. 



1S00 Shishkoff, CriticiBm. 



Augustin, Sermons. 



700 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 
P. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. 



IMAGINATION 



SPECULATIVE AND 8CiBKIfW 3 




60C Mahomet, Koran. 

Lebid, 622— 757, Poems. 
Zohair, Poems 



Abtm Massab, Poems. 
Abunowas,762— 810, Poems. 
Hehashi, Poems. 
A.u Obeid, d. 838, Fables. 



Muham. ben Omar, History, 



700 Jafar. Chemistry. 

Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The- 
ology. 



800 



800 



Asmai, 740—830, Theology. 
Kendi, Philosophy. 
J. ben Serapion, Medicine. 
Almamon, Astronomical 

Tables. 
Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. 
Alfragan, Astronomy. 
Nasir Kliosru, Metaphys. 



A.Temain, 80 1—815, Poems. 




Albumazar, 805—885, Ma- 
thematics, Astronomy. 




Wahab, Travels. 


Bochari, 810—870, ' The 




Abuzeid, Travels. 


Sahih,' Traditions. 




I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. 






Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. 




Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. 


Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, 
Translations from Greek. 


Geber, Chemistry. 


Abu Mohammed Abdallah, 






Literature. 






900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 


900 


900 Albategni, Astronomy. 
Rases, d. 922, Medicine. 
Ben Musa, Mathematics. 


Almotanabbi, d. %5, 




Azophi, Astronomy. 


Poems 


Said ben Batrik, 876—937, 

General History. 
Eutychius, History. 
Massudi, d. 957, History 






and Geography. 


Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 

Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 




Ibn Haukal, Geography. 
1000 Almuyadad, History of 




P. 1000 Ferdusi, 932—1020, 


1000 Achmet, Treatise on 


'Shah Nameh,' Epic 


Saracens in Sicily. 


Dreams. 


Poem. 




Ibn Mesua, Medicine. 
Avicenna, 980-1038, 
Philosophy, Medicine 


Abiil Ola, 973—1057, 






Poems. 




Abulcasis, Medicine. 
Jelaleddin, Correction of 

Calendar. 






Arzachel, Astronomy. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY— ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 701 



IMAGINATION. 



1100 Tograi, d. 1119, Poems. 



Hairi, 1054—1121, Moral 
Poems. 



P. Feleki, d. 1181, Poems. 
P. Khakani, d. 1186, Poems. 
P. Amvari, d. 1200, Poems. 
Jaafar ebn Tofail, d. 1198, 
•Hai ben Yokdan,' a 
Novel. 
I. Elfaredh,cU234, Poems. 



1100 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



Algazel, Antiquities, &c. 
Ben Idris, 6, 1099, Geog. 



1100 Gazali,1058— 1112, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 
Alhazin, Optics. 
Tabrizi, d. 1136, Commen- 
taries. 



Alchabit, Optics. Astron. 
A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. 

Averroes, d. 1206, Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 



1200 



P. Saadi, 1193—1291, ' Gulis- 
tan,' 'Bostan.' 

Elfaragi, Poems. 



1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin, 
Abdollatif , Topography of 

Egypt. 
Abuldem, d.1244, History, 
El Harawi, Travels. 



Abulfarage, 1226—1286, 
Universal History. 

Elmacin, d. 1302, History 
of Saracens. 



Fadlallah, History of Mo- 
guls. 



1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithm. 



Caswin d. 1274, Natural 

History. 
Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, 

Medicine. 



Nasireddin, 1201—1273, 
Astronomy. 



1300 



Hafix, d. 1395, Odes. 



1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1333, 
Geography. History. 

Novairi, d.1831, Universal 
History. 

Mohammed Ibn Batuta, 
Travels. 

Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, 
Geography. 

Abu Shameh,&.1299, Hist. 

Turan Shah, riU377. Hist. 

Jafei, d. 1368, Biography 



1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. 



Firuzabadi, 1329—1414, 
' The Camoos.' 



140*. 



I'. Janri, d. I486, Poems. 



P. 1400 Ali Yezdi Sherifeddin, 

Life of Tamerlane. 

Makrizi, 1367—1438, Hist. 

Arabshah, d. 1450, Life of 
Timur. 

Baccai,rf.l480, Biography 
P. Khondemir, or Mirkhond, 
Gen. Hist, to a. r>. 1474. 
T. Baber. d. 1530, Autobio- 
graphy. 



1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, 
Dictionary. 

Ulug Beg, 1393—1444, 
Astronomy, Chronology. 



Babacushi, d. 1481, 
Politics. 



1500 Alhassan, Description of 
Africa. 

Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- 
versal History. 



W-\ 



Jabacushi, d. 1566, Morala, 



70: 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IMAGINATION. 


FACT. 


SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC, 


J SCO 


1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. 
Abulgazi, ICU5— 1663, Hist. 

of Tartars. 
T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, 

History. 


P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. 
Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani 
Kata,' Dictionary. 


170C 


P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- 
nals of Ilindostan. 


1700 Gholam A li, Grammar. 



UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 



IMAGINATION. 



1600 



1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, 

Poems. 
Benj. Church, 1739—1776, 

Poems. 
Wm. Livingston, 1723 — 

1790, Poems. 
John Trumbull, 1750-1831, 

'McFineal,' <fcc. 
Joel Barlow, 1755—1812, 

' The Columbiad.' 

John Blair Linn, 1777— 
1804, Poems. 



T. Dwight, Conquest of Ca- 
naan, &c. 



1S00 Clias. B. Brown, d. 1810. 
Novels. 
Robt. Treat Paine, 1773— 
1811, 'Invention of Let- 
ters,' 'The Ruling Pas- 
sion, and other Poems. 



Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist. 
of Massachusetts. 



1700 Inc. Mather, 1723, ' History 
of War with Indians.' 
Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist. 
of New England. 



Cadwallader Colden, 1688- 
1776, History of the Five 
Nations of Indians. 

John Bartram, d. 1777, 
Botany, Travels. 

Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, 
Hist, of Massachusetts. 



David Rittenhouse, d. 1796. 
Astronomy. 

Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- 
tory of N. Hampshire 
Amer. Biog. &c. ■ 

Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist, 
of Massachusetts Bay.' 

Isaac Backus, 1806, Church 
History of N. England. 



SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 



1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, 

Sermons, <fcc. 
John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol. 
Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, 

Sermons, ' Magnalia,'&c. 



1700 



Benj. Colman, d. 1747, 

Theology. 
Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, 

Theology. 
Samuel Davies, d. 

Sermons. 
John Clayton, d. 

Botany 



1761, 
1773, 



1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist, 
of Maine. _ 

David Ramsay, d. 1812, 
' Life of Washington,' 
'American Revolution,' 
' Universal History.' 



Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, 

Theology. 
Benjamin' Franklin. 1706— 

1790,Natural Philosophy, 

Politics, &c. 
Jas. Otis. d. 1783, Pontics. 
John Hancock, 1793, 

Politics. 
John Witherspoon, d. 1794, 

Theology, Politics. 
Patrick Henry, d. 1796, 

Politics. 
Samuel Adams, 1803, 

Politics. 
Samuel Hopkins, 1721— 

1803, Theology. 
Fisher Ames, d. 1808, 

Politics. 



1800 Thos. Paine, 1737-1309, 
Politics, 'Age of Reason, 
' Rights of Man,' &c. 

Jos. S. Buckminster, d 
1812, Theology. 

Alex. Hamilton, 1757— 
1804, Politics. 



LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 



703 



IMAGINATION. 



ISO) Paul Allen, 1775—1826, 
' Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist. 
of Am. Re vol.] 



I SPECULATIVE ANT) SCIENTIFIC. 



1800 Alexander Wilson, d. 1S13, 
'American Omithologv.' 

Hugh Williamson, d. 1818, 
Hist. ol'N. Carolina. 

Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, 
Botany. 



3. G. C. Bramard. d. 1826, 
Poe'np 



Wm. "Wirt, 1772—1834, 
'British Spy.' 



Robt. C. Sands, d. 1832, 

Poeuis. 
J. Q. Adams, 1767—1847, 

Poems. 
Washington Allston, 1779- 

1843, Painter, Poet, and 

Novelist. 
Timothy Flint, 1780-1840 

Novels. 
Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789— 

1841, Poems. 
Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840, 

Poems, Miscellan., Polit. 
R. H. Wilde, 1789— 184T, 

Poems, Researches on 

Tas=->, &c. 



E. A. Poe, 1811-1849,Poeir-i, 

Tales. 
J. F. Cooper, 17S9— 1S51 

Novels, &c. 



180C 



Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, 

Botany, Travels. 
Jedediali Morse, d. 1826, 

Geog., Statistics, &c. 



Nathl. H. Carter, 1788— 
1830, ' Letters from Eu- 
rope.' 

Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 
1830, Travels in Europe, 
Lectures on Literature, 
, &c. 

John D. Godman, d. 1S30. 
Anatomy, Natural Hist., 
&c. 

John Marshall, 1755—1835, 
Life of Washington. &c. 

Jno. Armstrong, 1 758-1843, 
'War of 1812.' 

Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, 
Annals of America. 

Timothy Flint, 1780—1340, 
Hist, of Mississ. Valley. 

A. S. Mackenzie,, — 1S49, 
Travels in Spain, &:. 



Gouverneur Morris, 17K2- 

1S16, Politics. 
Timothy Dwight, 1713— 

1817, ' Theoiugy Explain- 
ed and Defended.' 
Levi Frisbie, 17S4— 1822, 

Moral Philo<=ophv. 
Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, 

Law, Politics. 
Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835, 

Law 
W. E. Channing, 1780— 

1842, sermons, Criticism. 



Thomas Jefferson, 1743— 

1826, Politics. Philos. 
John Adams. 1735 — 1820, 

Politics. 
John M. Mason, D. 1).. 

1770—1829, Divinity, 

Sermons, &c. 
John H. Hobart, D. D.. 
1776-1830, Sermons, &c. 
Jos. Story, 1779—1845, 

Law. 
Henry Wheaton, 1782- 

1S48, Law. History. 
Edw. Livingston, 1764— 

1836, Criminal Code, <fec. 
David Hosack, 1769—1835, 

Medicine. 
Jas. Madison, 1751—1836, 
Politics. 



Alex. H. Everett, 1790— 

1847, Essays. 
R. Harlan, ;796— 1843, 

Natural History. 
James Kent, 1763—1847, 

Comment, on Am. Law, 
Hugh S. Legare, 1797— 

1843, Miscellanies. 
Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me. 

taphysics. 
Albert Gallatin, 1761-184& 

Ethnology, Philology. 
J. C. Calhoun, 1782-1 89i 

Politics, Speeches, 



HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS, 



WITH THE 



HEROES. AND HEROINES OF ANTIQUITY. 



Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. 

Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. 

Abreta'nus, a surname of Jupiter. 

A'bron, a very voluptuous Grecian. 

Aby'la, a famous mountain in Africa. 

Acan'tha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 

Acas'tus, the name of a famous hunter. 

Ace'tus, one of the priests of Bacchus. 

Achai'menes, the first king of Persia. 

AchaHes, a trusty friend of iEneas. 

Ach'eron, a son of*Titan and Terra, changed into 
a river of hell for assisting the Titans in their 
war against Jupiter. 

AchilHes, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and 
Thetis, a goddess of the sea, who, being dip- 
ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in- 
vulnerable in every part except his right 
heel, by which she held him ; after signaliz- 
ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, 
as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by 
Paris with an arrow. 

Acid'alia and ArinaHa, names of Venus. 

Acida'his, a famous fountain of Breotia. 

A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, 
because he rivalled him in the affections of 
Galetea. 

Ac'mon, a famous king of the Titans. 

Ac'ratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. 

A 'Hmon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally 
discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned 
into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. 

Adme'tus a king of Thessaly. 

Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and 
Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by 
Venus and Proserpine. 

Adras'tea, the goddess Nemesis. 

JE'acus, one of the infernal judges. 

JE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. 

jEge'us, a king of Attica, giving name to the 
iEgean sea by drowning himself in it. 

JEgi'na. a particular favorite of Jupiter. 

JE'gis, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. 

Mgle. one of the three Hesperides. 

JE'gon, & wrestler famous for strength. 

JEgyp'tus, son of Neptune and Lybia. 

JBVlo, one of the three Harpies. 

JEne'as, son of Anchises and Venus. 

JEo'lus, the god of the winds 



JEo'us, one of the four horses of th» inio. 
JEsculahius, a Roman god of riches. 

j£scula'pius, the god of physax 

JEthal'ides, a son of mercury. 

JE'thon, one of the four horses of the sun. 

JEl'naMs, a title of Vulcan. 

JEtoHos, a son of Endymion aud Diana. 

Agamem'non, a brother of Menelaus^ cbosen 

captam-general of the Greeks «u t^i ->iega 

of Troy. 
Aganip'pe, daughter of the river Permessus, 

which flows from mount Helicon. 
Age'nor, the first king of Argos. 
Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry. 
Agelas'tus smd^Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. 
Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. 
A'jax, one of the most distinguished princes and 

heroes at the siege of Troy. 
Albu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. / 
Alci'des, a title of Hercules. 
Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra. 
Alci'oneus, a giant slain by Hercules. 
Aici'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. 
Alcme'na, the wife of Amphitryon. 
Alec'to, one of the three Furies. 
Alec'tryon, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mars. 
Ai'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. 
Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. 
Ala'us, a giant who warred with Jupiter. 
Amaltha'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. 
Ambarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. 
Ambro'sia, the food of the gods. 
Am'mon, a title of Jupiter. 
Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypermnestrai 

a very famous augur. 
Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Peneloj?*. 
Amphi'on, a famous musician. 
Ampkitri'te, the wife of Neptune. 
Amyntor, a king of Epirus. 
Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution. 
Ancahis, a king of Arcadia. 
Andro'geus, the son of Minos. 
Androm'ache, the wife of Hector. 
Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Ca»- 

siope.who, contending for the prize of beauty 

with the Nereides, was by them Dound to a 

rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea 

monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and 

married her. 
Ange'rona, the goddess of silence. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, EW 



705 



An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. 

Anta'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he 
was squeezed to death by Hercules. 

An'turos. one of the names of Cupid. 

Anlever^ta, a goddess of women in labor. 

An'thia. and Argi'va, titles of Juno. 

An'ubis, an Egyptian god with a dog's head. 

Aon'ide.2, a name of tha Muses. 

Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus. 

A'pis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, 
Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the 
Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines ; 
after his death they worshipped him in the 
form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. 

A i acli'ne, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva 
into a spider, for presuming to vie with her 
at spinning. 

Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus. 

Argenti'nus, and JEscula'nus, gods of wealth. 

Ar'go, the ship that conveyed Jason and his com- 
panions to Colchis, and reported to have been 
the first man-of-war. 

Ar'gonauts, the companions of Jason. 

Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- 
dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the 
ship Argo. 

Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, 
gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him 
out of the Cretan labyrinth : being after- 
wards deserted by him, she was married to 
Bacchus, and made his piies?<ess. 

Arimas'p? a warlike people of Scythia. 

Arron, a .yric poet of Methymna. 

Aristas'us, son of Apollo and Cyrene. 

Aristome'nes, a cruel Titan. 

Aristoph'txnes, a comic poet, bom at Lindus, a 
town of Rhodes. 

Arte'mis. "he Delphic sybil ; also Diana. 

Ascle'pia festivals of ^sculapius. 

Asco'lia, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. 

Aste'ria, daughter of Ceus. 

Astrapca'us, and Ataby'rus, Jupiter. 

Astra'a, the goddess of justice. 

Astrol'ogus, a title of Hercules. 

Asty'ana-x, the only son of Hector. 

Astypalca'a, daughter of Phoenix. 

A'te, the goddess of revenge. 

Atlan'tes, a savage people of Ethiopia. 

At'las, a king of Mauritania. 

At'ropos, one of the three Fates. 

Aver'nus, a lake on the borders of hen 

Averrunc'uss. a god of the Romans. 

Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable 01 3000 
oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- 
cules cleansed it in one day. 

A'vistuper, a title of Priapus. 

Au'rea, a name of Fortuna. 

Auro'ra, the goddess of morning. 

Auto'leon, a general of the Crotonians. 

Autum'nus, the god of fruits. 

B 

Bac'ehus, the god of wine. 

Sap'ta, the goddess of shame 

Barba'la, a title of Venus and Fortuna. 

Bas'sareus. a title of Bacchus. 

Bat'tus, a herdsman, turned by Mercury into a 
loadstone. 

Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband 
Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, 
travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- 
fused. 

30* 



Bellero'phon, son of Glaucu3, ki.ig of Ephyra, 
who underwent numberless hi rdshlps fo\ 
refusing an intimacy with Sthenoboea, th« 
wife of Proetus, king of Argos. 

Betto'na, the goddess of war. 

Berecyn'thia Ma'ter, a title of Cybele. 

Berenice, a Grecian lady, who was the only 
person of her sex permitted to see the Olym- 
pic games. 

Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. ■ 

Bib'tia, the wife of Duillius, who first instituted 
a triumph for naval victory. 

Bi'ceps, and Bi'frons, names of Janus. 

Bisul'tor, a name of Mars. 

Bi'thon, a remarkably strong Grecian. 

Boli'na, a nymph rendered imirortal for aot 
modesty and resistance of Apoilo. 

Bo'na JDe'a, a title of Cybele, and Fortuna. 

Bo'nus DaJmon, a title of Priapus. 

Bo'reas, son of iEstraus and Heribeia, generally 
put for the north wind. 

Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna. 

Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and 
Terra : the poets feign him to have had a 
hundred arms and fifty heads. 

Bri'mo, and Bu'bastis, names of Hecate. 

Brise'is, daughter of Brises, priest of Jupiter, 
given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr- 
nessus, a city of Troas, by the Greeks. 

Bron'tes, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. 

Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself 
into mount ^Etna. on account of his de- 
formity. 

Bruma'lia, feasts of Bacchus. 

Bubo'na, the goddess of oxen. 

Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel 
tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules. 

Byb'lis, the daughter of Miletus. 

C 

Cabar'ni, priests of Ceres. 

Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. 

Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitse. 

Ca'cus, a son of Vulcan. 

Cad'mus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, who, 
searching in vain for his sister, built the <.-.ity 
of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of rlie 
Greek alphabet. 

Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. 

Ca'ca, and Conserva'Lrix, titles of Fortuna. 

Ccbc'uIus, a robber, son of Vulcan. 

Cai'neas, a title of Jupiter. 

Cal'chcts, a famous Greek soothsayer. 

Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon. 

Calli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry, 

Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, who 
reigned in the island of Ogygia, where sh« 
entertained and became enamored of Ulys- 
ses, on his return from Troy. 

Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. 

Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of tha 
Medes and Persians. 

Camas'tia, and Carna, goddess of infants. 

Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. 

Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. 

Car'dua, a household goddess. 

Carmen'ta, a name of Themis. 

Car'na, a Roman goddess. 

Carya'lis, a title of Diana. 

Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to 
starve their parents to death when 70 years 
old, and to train up dogs for war. 



706 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Cassafi'dra, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba 
endowed with the gift of prophecy by Apollo. 

Castal'ides, the Muses, from the fountain Cas- 
talius, at the foot of Parnassus. 

Cas'tor, son of Jupiter and Leda, between whom 
and his brother Pollux immortality was al- 
ternately shared. 

Ca'tius, a tutelar god to grown persons. 

Ce'crops, the first king of Athens. 

Celafno, one of the three Harpies. 

Cent tours, children of Ixion, half men, half 
horses, inhabiting Thessaly. 

Cepha'lus, the son of Mercury and Hersa. 

Cvplieus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia. 

Cerau'nius, a title of Jupiter. 

Cer'berus, a dog with three heads and necks, 
who guarded the gites of hell. 

Verta'lia, festivals in honor of Ceres. 

Ce'res, the goddess of agriculture. 

Ce'rus, or tie'rus, the god of opportunity. 

Chal'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan. 

Ckar'ites, a name of the Graces. 

Cka'ron, the ferryman of hell. 

Chi'mera, a strange monster of Lycia, which 
was killed by Bellerophon. 

Chi'ron, the preceptor of Achilles. 

Chro'mis, a cruel son of Hercules. 

Chrysao'rius, a surname of Jupiter. 

Ckry'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. 

Cir'ce, a famous enchantress. 

Cis-'rka, a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence 
the winds issued which caused a divine rage, 
and produced oracular responses. 

Cithafrides, a title of the Muses. 

Clau'sina, a name of Venus. 

Clau'sius, or Clu'sius, a name of Janus. 

Cleo'medes, a famous wrestler. 

Cli'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- 
troness of heroic poets. 

Clo't/w, one of the three Fates. 

Clytemnes'tra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, 
killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her 
adultery with iEgisthus. 

Cocy'tus, a liver of hell, flowing from Styx. 

Colli'na, the goddess of hills. 

Compita'lia, games of the household gods. 

Co'm.us, the god of festivals and merriment. 

Concor'dia, the goddess of peace. 

Conservator, and Cus'tos, titles of Jupiter. 

Con'sus, a title of Neptune. 

Corti'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. 

Coryban'tes, and Cure'ies, uiests o^ fvbele. 

Cre'on, a king of Thebes. 

Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo. 

Crinis'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change 
himself into any shape. 

Crm'sus, a rich king of Lydia. 

Cro'nia, festivals in honor of Saturn. 

Ctes'ibus, a famous Athenian parasite. 

Gu'nia, the goddess of new-born infants. 

Cu'pid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, 
smiles, &c. 

Cyclops, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye 
in the middle of their forehead. 

Cyb'ele, the wife of Saturn. 

Cyc'nus, a king of Liguria ; also a son of Nep- 
tune, who was invulnerable. 

Cylle'nius, and CamiiUus, names of Mercury. 

Cynoceph'ah, a people of India, said to have 
heads resembling those jf dogs. 

Cyn'thia, and Cyn'thius, Diana, and Apollo. 

Oyparissai'a, a title of Minerva. 

Cyp'ria, Cytherea, titles of Venus. 



DadaHion, the son ol ^ucifer. 

Dozd'alus, an artificer of Athens w ho formed tb« 
Cretan labyrinth, and invented the augfer, 
axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts and 
sails for ships. 

Da'moii, the sincere friend of Pythias. 

Da'mon, Bo'nus, Dithyram'bus, and Dionys'- 
ius, titles of Bacchus. 

Da'nae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos, 
seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden 
shower. . 

Dana'ides, or Be'lides, the fifty daughters ». 
Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except 
Hypermnestra, killed their husbands, the sons 
of their uncle iEgyptus, on the marriage 
night : they were therefore condemned to 
draw water out of a deep well with sieves, 
so that their labor was without end or suc- 
cess. 

Daph'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 

Darda'nus, the founder of Troy. 

Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an 
account of the Trojan war. 

De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus. 

Dec'ima, a title of Lachesis. 

Deian'ira, the wife of Hercules. 

Deida'mia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king of 
Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, 
while he lay concealed in woman's apparel 
in the court of Lycomedes, to avoid going to 
the Trojan war. 

Deiape'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno. 

Deiph'obe, the Cumean sybil. 

Deiph'obus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

De'lia, Del'ius, Diana and Apollo. 

De'las, the island where Apollo was born. 

Del'phi, a city of Phocis, famous for a temple 
and an oracle of Apollo. 

DeVphicus, Didymai 1 us, titles of Apollo. 

Dem'ades, an Athenian orator. 

Der'bices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who 
punished all crimes with death. 

Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes 
saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre 
served from the general deluge, and re-peo 
pled the world. 

Dever'ra, the goddess of breeding women. 

Diag'oras, a Rhodian, who died for joy, because 
his three sons had on the same day gained 
prizes at the Olympic games. 

Dia'na, the goddess of hunting, &c. 

Di'do, daughter of Belus, the founder and queen 
of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have 
burnt herself through despair, because iEne- 
as left her. 

Di'es, and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter. 

Din'dyme, Dindyme'ne, titles of Cybele. 

Diom'edes, a king of iEtolia, who gained ereal 
reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by 
Ulysses, carried off the Palladium; also, t 
tyrant of Thrace. 

Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses. 

Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. 

Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. 

Di'rce, a title of the Furies. 

Dis, a title of Pluto. 

Discoridia, the goddess of contention. 

Domidu'ca, a title of Juno. 

Domidu'cus, and Domihius, nuptial gods. 

Dom'ina, a title of Proserpine. 

Dry'ades, nymphs of the woods and forsel* 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



707 



E 

Ecki'on, a companion of Cadmus. 

Et'ho, daughter of Aer and Tellus, who pined 
away for love of Narcissus. 

Edon'idis, priestesses of Bacchus. 

Edu'ca, a goddess of new born infants. 

Ege'ria, a title sf Juno; also a goddess. 

Elcc'tra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly 
temnestra. who' instigated Orestes to revenge 
their father's death on their mother and her 
adulterer iEgisfhus. 

E'leics, and Eleuthe'rise, titles of Bacchus. 

Eleusin'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser 
pine. 

EloHdes, nymphs of Bacchus. 

Empu'stz, a name of the Gorgons. 

Enaym'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso- 
lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a 
sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited him by night 
in a cave of mount Latmus. 

Enia'lius, a title of Mars. 

En'yo, the same as Bellona. 

Epe'us, the artist of the Trojan horse. 

Epig'ones, the sons of the seven worthies who 
besieged Thebes, a second time. 

Epilc&'nea, sacrifices to Bacchus. 

Epistro'phia, and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. 

Epizeph'rii, a people of Locris, who punished 
those with death that drank more wine than 
physicians prescribed. 

Era'to, the muse of love-poetry. 

Er'ebus, sjt infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox; 
a river of hell. 

Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated 

Eriotho'nius, a king of Athens, who, being lame 
and very deformed in his feet, invented 
coaches to conceal his lameness. 

Erin'nys, a common name of the furies. 

E'ros, one of the names of Cupid. 

Eros'tratus, the person who, to perpetuate his 
name, set fire to the celebrated temple of 
Diana at Ep'hesus. 

Ete'ocles, and Poly'nices, sons of (Edipus, who 
violently hated, and at last killed each other. 

Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who 
threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- 
band Cataneus, from affection. 

Euc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du- 
plicity, and dissimulation. 

EumenHdes, a nan.e a " the Furies. 

Euphros'yne, one of the three Graces. 

Euro'pa, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, 
was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white 
Dull, into Crete. 

Eury'ale, one of the three Gorgons; 

Eurydhce, the wife of Orpheus. 

Eurym'c'JiS. an infernal deity. 

Euler'pe, u.? muse presiding over music. 

Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler. 



F 

Fab'ula, the goddess of lies. 

Fabuti'nus, a god of infants. 

Fa'ma, the goddess of report, <&c. 

Fas'cinum, a title of Priapus. 

Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. 
Clothos, Lachesis, and Atropos, intrusted 
with the lives of mortals, &c. 

Fau'na, and Fat'ua, names of Cybele. 

Fau'nus, the son of Mercury and Nox, and la- 
ther of the Fauns, rural gods. 



Feb'rua, Flor'ida, Fluo'nia, titles of Juno. 

Feb'rua, a goddess of purification. 

Feb'ruus, a title of Pluto. 

Feli'citas, the goddess of happiness. 

Fer'culus, a household god. 

Fere'trius, and Fulmina'tor, titles of Jupiter. 

Fero'nia, a goddess of woods. 

Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons. 

Fid'ius, the god of treaties. 

Flam'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c. 

Flo'ra, the goddess of flowers. 

Fluvia'les, or Polamides, nymphs of rivers. 

For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers. 

Fortu'na, or ForHune, the goddess of happiness^ 
&c. said to be blind. 

Fu'ries, or Eumen'ides, the three daiuditers ol 
Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, Megaera, 
and Tisiphone, with hair composed of snakes, 
and armed with whips, chains, &c. 



G 

Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion- 
ately beloved by Polyphemus. 

Oal'ii, castrated priests of Cybele. 

Gal'lus, or Alec'trion, a favorite of Mars, and 
changed by him into a cock. 

Game'lia, a title of Juno. 

Gan'ges, a famous river of India. 

Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. 

Gelasi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles. 

Gelo'ni, a people of Scythia, who used to paini 
themselves in order to appear more terrible 
to their enemies. 

Ge'nii, guardian angels. 

Ge'nius, a name of Priapus. 

Ger'yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with 
human flesh, and was therefore killed by 
Hercules. 

Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva. 

Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating 
a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus, 
who exchanged his arms of gold lor the bra- 
zen ones of Diomede. 

Gnos'sis, a name of Ariadne. 

Gor'dius. a husbandman, but afterwards king of 
Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords 
on which the empire of Asia depended, in so 
very intricate a manner, that Alexander the 
Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. 

Gor'trons, the three daughters of Phorcys and 
Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who 
could change into stone those whom they 
looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin- 
cipal of them. 

Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas. 

Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, tfio 
daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; atten- 
dants on Venus and the Muses. 

Gradi'vics, a title of Mars. 

Gy'ges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of 
Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so 
incensed her that she slew Candaules, and 
married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by 
means of a ring could render himself invi- 
sible. 

H 

ffa'des, a title of Pluto. 

Hamaxo'bii, a people of Scythia, who lived in 

carts, and removed from place to place at 

necessity required. 



708 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Harmi'nis, a famous artist of Troy. 

Harpal'yca, a very beautiful maid of Argoa. 

Har'pies, three monsters, Aello, Celceno, and 
Ocypete, with the faces of virgins, bodies of 
vultures, and hands armed with monstrous 
claws. 

Harpoc 1 rates, the Egyptian god of silence. 

He'oe, the goddess of youth. 

He'brus, a river in Thrace. 

He'calius, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. 

Hec'ate, Diana's name in heil. 

HecHor, a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the 
most valiant of all the Trojans, 

Hechtba, the wile of Priam. 

Hege'sius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de- 
scribed the miseries of life with such a 
gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors 
killed themselves through despair. 

Hel'ena, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti- 
ful woman in the world who, running away 
with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. 

Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

Hel'icon, a famous mountain of Boeotia, dedi- 
cated to Apollo and the Muses. 

Hera'ia, sacrifices to Juno. 

Her'cules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re- 
markable for his numerous exploits and 
dangerous enterprises. 

Heribe'ia, the wife of Astreus. 

Her'mce-, statutes of Mercury. 

Her'mes, a name of Mercury. 

Hermi'one, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- 
ried to Cadmus ; also a daughter of Mene- 
laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 

He'ro, a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, 
priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, 
loved her so tenderly that he swam over the 
Hellespont every night to see her ; but being 
at length unfortunately drowned, she threw 
herself into the sea, through despair. 

Herod'otus, a very famous historian of Halicar- 
nassus. 

Heroph'ila, the Erythraean sybil. 

Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. 

Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star. 

Hes'perides, the daughters of Hesperus ; iEgle, 
Arethusa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar- 
den bearing golden apples, watched by a 
dragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away 
the fruit. 

ffe'sus, a name of Mars among the Gauls. 

Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis. 

Hippocamfpi, Neptune's horses. 

Hip'pocrene, a fountain at the bottoir if mount 
Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. 

Hippol'ytus, the son of Theseus and Antiope or 
Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his 
stepmother Phaedro. At the request of 
Diana, jEsculapius restored him to life, 
after he had been thrown from his chariot, 
and dragged through the woods till he was 
torn in pieces. 

Hinpi'na, the goddess of horses and stables. 

Hteto'ria, the goddess of history. 

Sort'in'sis, a name of Venus. 

Ho'ris, a title of the sun. 

tfcstili'na, a goddess of corn. 

Hy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
jEthra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- 
thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They 
were changed by Jupiter into seven stars. 

Hy'bla, a mountain in Sicily, universally famous 
for its thyme and bets. 



Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or a* 
some say nine, others fifty, killed by Uercu 
les in the lake Lerna. 

Hyge'ia, the goddess of health. 

Hyl'lus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire. 

Hy'men, the god of marriage. 

Hype'rion, a son of Ccelus and Terra. 

Hypsip'yte, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- 
ished for preserving her father when all ths 
other men of the island were murdered hf 
their kindred. 



Iac'chusj a name of Bacchus. 

Ian'lhe, the beautiful wife of Iphis. 

Iape'tus, a son of Crelem and TejTa. 

lar'bas, a cruel king of Mauritania. 

Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, having re- 
ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went 
into Attica, to show men the use of it: but, 
making some shepherds drunk, they thought 
he had given them poison, and therefore 
threw him into a well. 

Ica'rus, the son of Dasdalus, who, flying with his 
father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring 
too high, melted the wax of his wings, and 
fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian 
sea. 

I'da, a mountain near Troy. 

Idai'a Mater, a name of Cybele. 

Idas'i Dacl'yli, a priest of Cybele. 

Ida'lia, a name of Venus. 

Id'inon, a famous soothsayer. 

Ido'1/iea, Jupiter's nurse. 

lli'one, the eldest daughter of Priam. 

llis'sus, a river in Attica. 

Plus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom 
Troy was called Ilium. 

Impera'lor, a name of Jupiter. 

In'achis and l'ses, names of Io. 

I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and 
wife of Athamas. 

Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women. 

Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of Juno. 

In'uus, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan. 

I'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- 
ter Into a white heifer ; but afterwards re- 
suming her former shape, was worshipped 
as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the 
name of Isis. 

Ipli'idus, the twin brother of Hercules. 

Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready 
to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, 
was, by that goddess, transformed into a 
white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her 
priestess. 

Fphis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself 
for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas. 

IpMitus, son of Praxonides, who instituted 
Olympic games to Hercules. 

Pris, the daughter of Thaumas; she was Juno'8 
favorite companion, and her messenger on 
affairs of discord, <fec. 

Ptys, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered 
and" served up by his mother at a banquet 
before Tereus, in revenge for hi"? having vio- 
lated her sister Philomela. 

Ixi'on, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened in 
hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, 
for boasting thai he had lain with Juno. 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



709 



JanHtor, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus. 

Ja'nus, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and 
Creusa. 

Jafson, a Thessalian prince, son of iEson, who 
by Medea's help brought away the golden 
fleece from Colchis. 

Jo'casta, the daughter of Creon, who unwittingly 
married her own son, CEdipus. 

Ju'no, the sister and wife of Jupiter. 

. T u'no, InJ'er'na, a name of Proserpine. 

Juno'ness, guardian angels of women. 

Ju'piter, a son of Saturn and Ops — the supreme 
deity of the heathen. 

Ju'piter Secun'dus, a name of Neptune. 

Ju'piter Ter'tius, InJ'er'nus, or Sty'gius, seve- 
ral appellations given to Pluto. 

Juven'ta, a goddess of youth. 



La'chesis, one of the three Fates. 
Lacin'ia, and LucilHa, titles of Juno. 
Laclu'ra, or Lactuci'na, a goddess of corn. 
Laistrig'ones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted 

and ate the companions of Ulysses. 
Lafius, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by 

his own son, CEdipus. 
La'miai, a name of the Gorgons. 
Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of 

Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by 

serpents for opposing the reception of the 

wooden horse into Troy. 
La'pis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. 
La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped 

as household gods. 
Latera'nus, a household god. 
Laver'na, a goddess of thieves. 
Lean'der, see Hero. 
Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- 

darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a 

swan. 
Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, <fec. 
Le'ncn, priestesses of Bacchus. 
Ler'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra, 

killed there by Hercules. 
Le'the, a river of hell, whose waters caused a 

total forgetfulness of things past. 
Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants. 
Libiti'na, the goddess of funerals. 
Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. 
Z,ubeii'tia, the goddess of pleasure. 
Lu'cifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the 

morning star. 
Lu'na, Diana's name in heaven. 
Luper'calia, feasts in honor of Pan. 
Lyper'ci, priests of Pan. 
Lyca'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter 

into a wolf. 



Si. 

Ma'ia, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned into 

a star to avoid Juno's rage. 
Manaerene'ta, a goddess of women in labor. 
Mantivra, a goddess of corn. 
Mantur>na, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. 
Mariana, Mel'anis, Mer'etrLv, Migoni'tis, and 

Mur'cia, titles of Venus. 
Mars, the god of war. 



Mauso'lus, a king of Caria, who had a moat 
magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife 
Artemisia. 

Mede'a, daughter of iEtes, king of Colchis, a 
famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob 
tain the golden fleece. 

Meditri'na, a goddess of grown peneons. 

Medu'sa, the chief of ihe three Gorgons. 

Megcb'ra, one of the three Furies. 

Megalen'sia, festivals in honor cf Cybele. 

Mega'ra, the wife of Hercules. 

Metani'ra, a name of Venus. 

Me'lim, nymphs of the fields. 

Me'lius, a name of Hercules. 

Melo'na, the goddess of honey. 

Melpom'ene, the muse of tragedy. 

Mem'non, a king of Abydos. 

Menala'us, a famous Centaur. 

Menela'us, the husband of Helena. 

Men'tha, a mistress of Pluto. 

Men'tor, the governor of Telemachus. 

Mer'cury, the messenger of the gods, inventor ot 
letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise! 
and robbers. 

Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. 

Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac- 
chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power 
given him of turning whatever he touched 
into gold. 

Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. 

MimaVlones, attendants on Bacchus. 

Miner'va, the goddess of wisdom. 

Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi- 
nary justice, a judge of hell. 

Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. 

Min'ym, a name of the Argonauts. 

Mnemos'yne, the goddess of memory. 

Mo'mus, the god of raillery, wit, &c. 

Mone'ta, a title of Juno. 

Mor'pheus, the god of sleep, dreams, &c. 

Mors, the goddess of death. 

Mul'ciber, a title of Vulcan. 

Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of 
all the sciences, presidents of musicians and 
poets, and governesses of the feasts of the 
gods; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, 
and Urania. 

MuHa, the goddess of silence. 



N 

Nmnia, the goddess of funeral songs. 

Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, &c. 

Narcis'sus, a very beautiful youth, who, falling 
in love with his own shadow in the water, 
pined away into a daffodil. 

Na'tio, and Nundi'na, goddess of infants. 

Namcb'a, a country of Elis, famed for a terribia 
lion killed there by Hercules. 

Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge. 

Nep'tune, the god of the sea. 

Ne'reides, sea nymphs. 

Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. 

Niceph'orus, a title of Jupiter. 

Ni'nus, the first king of the Assyrians. 

Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- 
phion, who, preferring herself to Latona< 
had her 14 children killed by Diana ani 
Apollo, and wept herself into a statue. 

No'mius, a name of Apollo. 



710 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



JVojt, the most ancient 01 the deities ; she was 
even reckoned older than Chaos. 



O 

Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. 

OccaHor, the god of harrowing. 

Oce'anus, an ancient sea god. 

Ocyp'ete, one of the three Harpies. 

(Ed'ipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of 
Thebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, 
unwittingly killed his father, married his 
mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out 
his eyes. 

Om'phale, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- 
cules was so enamored, that she made him 
submit to spinning and other unbecoming 
offices. 

Oj-tr'tus, a name of Pluto. 

Opi'gena, a name of .luno. 

dps, a name of Cybele. 

Orbo'na, a goddess of grown persons. 

Ores'tes, the son of Agamemnon. 

Ori'on, a great and mighty hunter. 

Or'pheus, son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had 
great skill in music, and was torn in pieces 
by the Maenades, for disliking the company 
of women after the death of his wife Eury- 
dice. 

Orythi'a, a queen of the Amazons. 

Osi'ris, see Apis. 



Pac'lolus, a river of Lydia, with golden sands 
and medical waters. 

Pa'an, and Pha'bus, names of Apollo. 

Pa'les, the goddess of shepherds. 

Palil'ia, feasts in honor of Pales. 

Pallu'dium, a statue of Minerva, which the 
Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that 
their city could not he taken whilst that re- 
mained in it. 

Pal'las, and Py'lotis, names of Minerva. 

Pan, the god of shepherds. 

Pando'ra, the first woman made by Vulcan, and 
endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- 
ter gave her a box containing all manner of 
evils, war, famine, &c, with hope at the 
bottom. 

Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. 

Pa'phia, a title of Venus. 

Par'cca, a name of the Fates. 

Par'is, or Alexander, son of Priam and He- 
cuba, a most beautiful youth, who ran away 
with Helena, and occasioned the Trojan 
war. 

Farnas'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for 
a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite 
residence of the Muses. 

Par'tunda, a nuptial goddess. 

Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. 

Patiareus, a title of Apollo. 

Pateli'na, a goddess of corn. 

Patula'cius, a name of Janus. 

Palule'ius, a name of Jupiter. 

Paven'lia, and Poli'na, goddesses of infants. 

Peg'asus, a winged horse belonging to Apollo 
and the Muses. 

Pello'nia, a goddess of grown persons. 

Pena'tes wnall statues or household gods. 



Penel'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebrated for hei 
chastity and fidelity during the long absenct 
of Ulysses. 

Per'seus, son of Jupiter and Danae, who per- 
forated many extraordinary exploits by 
means of Medusa's head. 

Phcbcasia'ni, ancient gods of Greece. 

Pha'eton, son of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, wha 
asked the guidance of his father's chariot 
for one clay, as a proof of his divine descent; 
but unable to manage the horses, set the 
world on fire, and was theiefore struck by 
Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po. 

PhaVlica, feasts of Bacchus. 

Philam'mon, a skilful musician. 

PailomeHa, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, 
who was ravished by her brother-in-law, 
Tereus, and was changed into a nightin- 
gale. 

Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- 
gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, 
but was recompensed with the knowledge 
of futurity ; also a king of Thrace, turned 
into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- 
dusa's head. 

Phleg'ethon, a boiling river of hell. 

Phleigon, one of the four horses of Sol. 

Phleg'ya, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by 
Neptune, on account of their piracies and 
other crimes. 

Phat'bas, the priestess of Apollo. 

PhcB'bus, a title of Apollo. 

Ph&hiix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- 
cused of having attempted the honor of one 
of his father's concubines, was condemned 
to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by 
Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege 
of Troy. 

Picum'nus, a rural god. 

Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womeu. 

Pin'dus, a mountain in Thessaly. 

Pi'tho, a goddess of eloquence. 

Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, 
Merope, Halcyone, and Celceno ; they wera 
changed into stars. 

Plu'to, the god of hell. 

PluH.us, the god of riches. 

Pol'lux. See Castor. 

Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler. 

Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. 

Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. 

Polyphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- 
tune, with but one eye inthe middle of hii 
forehead. 

Pomohia, the goddess of fruits and autumn. 

Pose'idon, a name of Neptune. 

Prasnesti'na, a name of Fortuna. 

PrcbsHes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. 

Praxil'eles, a famous statuary. 

Pri'am, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, 
Hector, &c. ; he was the last king of Troy. 

Prog'ne, wife of Tereus, king of Thrace, and 
sister of Philomela ; she was turned into a 
swallow. 

Prome'theus, son of Iapetus, who animated a 
man that he had formed of clay, with fire, 
which, by the assistance of Minerva, he stole 
from heaven, and was therefore chained by 
Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vulture 
continually preying upon his liver. 

PropyUcta, a name of Hecate. 

Pros'erpine, the wife of Pluto 



HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 



711 



Pro 1 teus, a sea god, who could transform himself 
into any shape. 

Psy'che, a goddess of pleasure. 

Pyl'adas, the constant friend of Orestes. 

Pyr'amus, and This'be, two lovers of Babylon, 
who killed themselves with the same sword, 
and occasioned the turning the berries of the 
mulberry-tree, under which they died, from 
white to red. 

Prya'tis, one of the four horses of the sun. 

Pyr'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his 
cruelty at the siege of Troy. — 

Py'tkon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud 
of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in 
memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. 

Pythonis'sa, the priestess of Apollo. 



Quad'rifrons, a title of Janus. 
Qui'ea, a goddess of grown persons. 
Quieta'hs, and Quietus, names of Pluto. 
Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas. 



R 

Rect'us, a title of Bacchus. 
Re'dux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. 
Regi'na, a title of Juno. 
Rhadaman'tkus, one of the three i 

judges. 
Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. 
Rhe'a-syVvia. the mother of Romulus. 
Robi'gus, a god of corn. 
Rom'uius, the first king of Rome. 
Rumi'na, a goddess of new-born infants. 
Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. 
Rusi'na, a rural deity. 



Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. 

Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. 

Salinone'us, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- 
bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. 

Sa'lus, the goddess of health 

Sanc'us, a god oi the Sabines 

Sator, and Sorri'tor, rural gods. 

Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. 

Satur'nus, or Sat'um, the son of Ccelus and 
Terra. 

Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- 
sters, half men, half goats. 

Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. 

Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn. 

Sel'li, priests of Jupiter. 

Sen'ta, a goddess of married women. 

Sera'pis. See Apis. 

SHi'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- 
chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, 
and was drunk every day. 

Si'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. 

Sis'yphus, the son of iEolus, killed by Theseus, 
and doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone 
up a mountain in hell for his perfidy and 
numerous robberies. 

Sol, a name of Apollo. 

Som'nus, the god of sleep. 

Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, 
who destroyed herself because CEdipus 
solved the enigma she proposed. 



Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. 

Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to 

have been as strong and as loud as the voicea 

of 50 men together. 
Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. 
Styx, a river of hell. 
Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. 
Summa'nus, a name of Pluto. 
Sylva'nus, a god of woods and forests. 
Sy'rens, sea monsters 



T 

Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. 

TantaUus, a king of Paphlagonia, who, ssir- 
ing up to table the limbs of his son, Ptiopi, 
to try the divinity of the gods, was plunge* 
to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to 
everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- 
ment for his barbarity and impiety. 

Tarla'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. 

Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter 
carried away Europa. 

Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. 

Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses. 

Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the 
resort of the gods. 

Ter'minus, the god of boundaries. 

Terpsicho're, the muse of music, &c. 

Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. 

Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. 

The'mis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the 
goddess of laws, oracles, &c. 

Thes'pis, the first tragic poet. 

The'tis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- 
dess of the sea. 

Thyr'sus, the rod of Bacchus. 

Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. 

Tisiph'one, one of the three Furies. 

Ti'tan, son of Ccelum and Terra, and the elder 
brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. 

Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. 

Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. 

Tri'tonia, a name of Minerva. 

Tro'ilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 

Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out 
a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but 
they at last captured and destroyed it. 

Tuteli'na, a goddess of corn. 

Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. 



U 

Ulys'&es, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king 
of Ithaca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, 
was eminently serviceable to the Greeks sa 
the Trojan war. 

UnxHa, a title of Juno. 

Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. 



Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persona. 
Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. 
V.allonia, a goddess of valleys. 
Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. 
Ve'nus, the goddess ol love, and beauty, 
Vergil'la), a name of the Pleiades. 
Verticor'dia, a name of Venus. 
Vertum'nus, the god of spring. 



712 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Ves'la, Che goddess of fire. 

Vm'les, deities of the highways. 

Vibil'ia, the goddess of wanderers. 

Virgmen'sis, a nuptial goddess. 

Virgo, a name of Astrea and Fortune. 

Virilis, and ViscaHa, titles of Fortune. 

Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- 
conciled husbands to their wives; a temple, 
at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the 
married couple repaired after a quarrel, and 
returned together friendly. 

Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. 

Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. 

Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. 



Xan'thut, one of the horses of Achillea, born of 



the harpy CeUieno, a river nesj: Troy. calM 
also Scamander. 



Z 

Zaigreus, a title of Bacchus. 

Zeph'yrus, son of .flSolus and Aurora wiio pas 

sionately loved the goddess Flora, and is put 

for the west wind. 
Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Otythia, 

who accompanied the Argonauts, anil drove 

the Harpies from Thrace. 
Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, very expert 

in music. 
Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PAET I. 

TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 

I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. 
II. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 yeais 



I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 



1. From the Creation, 

to the Deluge, 

2. From the Deluge, 

to the Call of Abraham, 

3. From the Call of Abraham, 

to the Exode from Egypt, 



B.C.* 

4004 
2348.. 



. 1656 yea rs The Antediluvian Period. 



2348 

1921 427 years The Dispersion Period. 

1921 



1491 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 

, 396 years The Theocratic Period. 

. 507 years The Monarchical. Period. 

. 258 years The Persian Period. 

to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years, The Grecian Period. 

146 years The Roman Period. 



4. From the Exode, 

to the Kingdom of Saul, 

6 From Saul, 

to the Captivity of Israel, 

6 From the Captivity, 

to Alexander the Great, 

7. From Alexander, 



1491 

1095. 



1095 

588. 



330. 
330 



B From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 
to the Birth of Christ, 



' From the Creation to the Christian era. the dates are reckoned e o- 
BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to a. o.—the Year of our Lord. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 



FIRST PERIOD— (the Antedihevicm)— 1656 yews. 



B. 0. 

4004 


THE CREATION OF THE WORLD 


— {Hebrew Pentateuch.)* 








The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour. 




The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman— a husbandman. 


88T5 


The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 


8874 


Seth born, the third son of Adam. 


Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 


3769 


Enos born. 


Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He In- 
troduces the use of weights and measures. — Jo- 
sephus. Tytler. 


8679 


( ainan born. 


Irad. 


36i'9 


Mahalaleel born. 


Mehujael. 


3544 


Jared " 


Methusael. 


33S2 


Enoch " 


Lamech — polygamy introduced. 


3317 


Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) 


Jabal, 


Jubal, 


Tubal-cain, 


Naamah. 


3130 


Lamech " 


The first to 


He invent- 


He discover. 


She intro- 


3074 


Death of Adam, aged 930 years. 


build a Tent 


ed the Harp 


ed the mode 


duced the 


3017 


Knoch translated. 


for habita- 


and the Or- 


of preparing 


axis of Spin- 


294S 


Noah born. 


tion, and to 


gan, or wind 


and using 


ning and 


2468 


The building of the Ark commenced. 


use cattle for 


and stringed 


iron, brassi 


Weaving. 


2348 


THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 8154 


purposes of 


instruments 


and other 






B. c] 


husbandry. 


of music. 


Metals. 





* See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700 ; the Septuagint, 5872 ; Josephus, 4658 ; 
the Talmudists, 5344; ScaUger, 3950 ; Petavius, 39S4; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named 
enumerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and re- 
motest date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is 
here adopted as the most generally received standard. 

t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column. They 
a.-e, however, contemporary with those in the other column. 



Remarks. — The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed 
since the birth of Christ. Of the progress ol knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing 
5s known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, caulking, and the use of pitch, or 
paint, of measures by cubit, etc., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in then- 
adaptation to the use of man, other arts, and a considerable advance in science and the mechan- 
ical powers. 



The Tabular Views are continued across two pages at the same time; so that 
contemporary events in different nations mat be seen at a glance 



716 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



SECOND PERIOD— (Dispersion of Mankind )- 



2347 



Progress op Society and the Arts. 



2234 



2122 



2100 



Wine made by Noah from the grape. 



Bricks made, and cemenl used to unite them. 
Confusion of languages at Babel. 



Astronomical observations begun at Babylon. 



2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed 
through the earth : those of Shem probably 
in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Ja[ het » 
Europe. 

2347. The curse pronounced upon the. descend. 
ants of Ham. 

2247. The building of Babel.* 

2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of 
Cush, and Grandson of Ham. 

NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son ol 

Shem. 



Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 



Sculpture and Painting employed to com- 
memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. 

Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science 
of Geometry beginr to be cultivated. 



1398 



Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of 
Husbandry, and the method of making 
Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



1996. Abraham bom. 



1921. The call of Abraham. 



* The cnronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placet 
wabel 531 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 b, Oi 
—the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

427 years. — The Deluge to Abraham. 



717 



PROFANE HISTORY.— {In this period traditional and uncertain.) 



2207 



EUROPB. 



2009 
2059 



2017 



CHINA. The first imperial 
dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi 
(who is perhaps Noah him 
self) is mentioned as the first 
Chinese monarch. 



Bel us reigns in BABYLON. — 
[Some suppose Belus to be 
the Nimrod of Scripture. If 
so, there is a discrepancy of 
121 years between the sacred 
and profane chronologies.] 
The origin of the kingdoms 
of Babylon and Nineveh, and 
of the Assyrian empire, is 
variously stated by the chron- 
ologists. See Sacred Hist.] 



Ninus, son of Belus, reigns m 

Nineveh. 
He establishes the ASSYRIAN 

EMPIRE. 



2188. Misraim (Menes), the son 
of Ham, builds Memphis, in 
EGYPT, and begins the E- 
gyptian monarchy. 



2111. THEBES founded by 
Busiris. 

2100. Osymandyas, the first 
warlike king, passes into 
Asia, and conquers Bactria. 



2085. Egypt conquered by the 
shepherd kings of Phenicia, 
who hold it 260 years. 



Semiramis enlarges and embel 
lishes Babylon, and makes it i 
tfie seat of empire. [By others 
placed 2107 b. c] 



1975, Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- 
j opia, and India. 



089. SICYON, the first king- 
dom of GREECE, founded 
by Egialus, or Inachus. 



2048. A colony of Pheniclan* 

land in Ireland. (I) 
2042. Uranus arrives in G reeca 



1938. Lake Moeris constructed. J 



lOST^The Arabs seize Nineveh. (1) 



Revolt of the Titana 
War of the Giante, 



jig THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

THIRD PERIOD — (The Abrahamic or Patriarchal)- 



SACRED HISTORY. 



Progress of Society and the Arts. 



1920 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 



B. C. 



The Jews. 



1891 



1822 



Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 



Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 



15S8 

ir,s> 



1580 



1534 



1506 
1497 



1494 



Atlas, the astronomer. 

The chronology of the Arundelian marbles 

begins. 
The cymbal, used at the feasts of CyDele. 



1921. Abraham called. 
1920. —goes into Egypt. 
1912. —delivers Lot from captivity, and re- 
ceives the blessing of Melchizedec. 
1909. Ishmael born. 
1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. 

God renews his covenant with Abraham. 
1896. Isaac born. 

1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in 

sacrifice. 
1856. Isaac married. 

1836. Jacob and Esau born. 

1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 

1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 
1739. His name changed to Israel. 

1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 

1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 

1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 

1702. End of the seven years' famine. 

1699. Death of Jacob. 

1635. Death of Joseph. 



1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 
1574. Aaron born. 
1571. Moses born. 



Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. 
Book ot Job written about this time. (?) 

T\\t flute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 
Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams 

and draws prognostics from omens. 
Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry 



1531. Moses flees into Midian. 
1513. The supposed era of Job. 



1491. God appears to Moses in a burning bush 
at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to delivet 
the Israelites. 

The Ten Plagues in Egypt. 
Institution of the Passover. 
The EXODUS of the Israelites from 
Egypt. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) 



'19 



PROFANE HISTORY— (Still fabulous or uncertain.) 



1766 



China. The 2d Imperial dy- 
nasty begins. 



Akkica. 



1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 

1558. Rameses-Miamum reigns 
in Egypt. 



Europe. 



1856. Inachus, the Pheninan 
plaits a colony in ARGOS. 



1807. Phoronci'e reigns is 
Argos. 

1764. Ogyges reigna m Boeotia. 

1707. Apis, king ol Argos. 

1732. The Ogygean Deluge in 
Attica. 

1711. The city of Argos built 
by Argus, the son of Niobe. 

1710. A colony of Arcadians 
emigrate into Italy under 
CEnotrus.— CEnotria after- 
wards called Magna Grecia. 

1641. Criasus succeeds h;i 

father, Argus. 



1556. ATHENS founded ly 
Cecrops. 



1552. Triopas. king of Argos 
The kingdom divided, Poly 
caon reigning in Messenia. 

1546. TROY founded by Sci 
mander. 

1529. Deluge of Deucalion h\ 
Thessaly. 

1520. Corinth founded. 

1516. Sparta founded, and th« 
kingdom of Laconia, or La 
cedemon. 

1507. The Areopagus establish- 
ed in Athens. 

1506. Crotopas succeeds to th t 
throne of Argos. 

1504. Deucalion arrives in At 
tica. 

The kingdom of Mess* 
nia co?j.inencedby Polycaon 

1493. THEBES in Bceotia 
founded by Cadmus, a Phe 
nician, who introduce! th* 
alphabet int.? Greece. 



720 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



FOURTH PERIOD.— {The Mosaic or Theocratic.)— 



Progress of Society and the Arts. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



The Jews. 



I486 



1453 



1370 
1356 



1284 
1263 
1263 



Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 
Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. 

The fabulous or traditionary Hermes-Tris- 
megistus placed about this period. 



Bacchus, god of wine. 



Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. 
Apollo, god of music and poetry. 



Bucklers used in single combat invented by 

Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. 
Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- 

pus. 



Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled 

in music. 
The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the 

council of Amphictyons. 
Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the 

first naval expedition on record. 



Musceus, a poet. 



The axe tcedge, wimble and lever, also masts 
and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of 
Athens. 



1 he game of Backgammon invented by Pala 
in ;des of Greece 



1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt 
The law given at Mount Sinai. 



1471. Rebellion ofKorah,Dathan, and Abiram 

1453. Aaron dies. 

1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 

1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. 



1443. Joshua dies. 

1405. Othniel judges Israel. 

1390. The tribe of Benjamin s lmost ext net. 



1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 
1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 
1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an 

ox goad. 
1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan. 
1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- 

ites — Sisera killed by Jael. 



1252. Israel enslaved by the Midianlea. 
1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats the fttt 
dianites. 



1209. Abimelech judges Israel 
1206. Tola judges Israel. 



1183. Jair, judge of tarsal. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



721 



396 yearn. — Moses to Saul. 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (Still uncertain.) 



480 Dardanus, ki ig of Troy, builds 
Dardaraa. 



1449 



14R 



1400 



1374 
1314 



12G0 
1259 



1225 
1222 



1220 
1215 



Ericthoniua reigns in Troy. 



Cuehanrishathaim, knig of 
Mesopotamia. (See Scrij}- 
tu*z.) 

Teucer, king of Troy. 



Troas, king of Troy. 
Ilus, son of Troas, founder of 
Ilium. 



Laoinedon, king of Troy. 
Phenicia : TYRE founded. 

Second Assyrian Dynasty : 

Mithreaus or Ninus II. 
Troy taken by the Argonauts. 



Hercules arrives in Phrygia, 
Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 
les, first king of LYDIA. 
Priam, king of Troy. 
Tautanas, king of Assyria. 



Africa. 



1491. Pharaoh and his army 
drowned in the Red Sea. 

1485. Egyptus reigns, and 
gives name to the country. 



1376. Sethos :«igns in Egypt. 



1233. Cart: 
Tyrians 



age foundei by the 



1194 The TROJAN WAR begins. 

1184 Troy taken, 408 years before 

the 1st Olympiad. 

1183 Teutaeus, king of Assyria. 

1182 Trojans migrate into Italy. 



31 



Sthenelus reigns in Argoa. 



1474. Danaus usurps the king- 
dom of Argos. 

1463. Danmonii invade Ire- 
land. 

1457. The kingdom of Mycene 
begins under Perseus, lata 
king of Argos. 

1453. "Olympic games first ce- 
lebrated at Elis. 

1438. Pandion begins to reign 
at Athens. 

1400. Minos reisns in Crete. 

1397. CORINTH becomes a 
kingdom under Sisyphus. 

1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 

1376. The Isthmian games in- 
stituted. 

1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- 
troduced. 



1283. jEgeus reigns in Attica. 

1266. ffidipus, king of Thebes. 

1263; The Argonautic Expe- 
dition. 

1257. Theseus unites the cities 
of Attica under one govern- 
ment. 

1243. The Arcadians conducted 
by Evander into Italy. — Mu- 
sasus, a poet. 

1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 



1225. First Theba.n War.— 
Euristhenes and Proclfcs 
kings of Lacedemon. 

1222. Hercules celebiates the 
Olympic Games. 

1216. War of the Epigomi, or 
2d Theban War. 

1213. Helen carried off by 
Theseus, is recovere-1 by 
Castor and Pollux, and mar- 
ries Menelaus. 

1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 
1 182. iEneas lands in lialy. 
1176. Salamis founded by 

Teucer. 
1170. Epirus: Pyrrhua Nsor> 

tolpnius. 



722 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

Fourth Period. — ( The Mosaic or Theocratic^ — 



S 15 

1 Off 



Progress of Society and the Arts. 



Mariner's compass said to be known in 
China. C?) 

A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- 
ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- 
she. 0) 



SACRED HISTORY. 



1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines anc 
Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a 
portion of Israel. 

1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and 
becomes judge of a part of Israel. 



1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the 
jawbone of an ass. 



1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 
1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 



1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 
1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- 
NARCHY. — Saul anointed king of Israel. 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 

396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul. 



723 



PROFANE HISTORY.— (.Still fabulous or uncertain.) 



1141 Temple of Ephesus burnt by 

the Amazons. 
1 139 Thinasus, king of Assyria. 



China :— 3d dynasty; — Tchcoo 



1109 Dercylus, king of Assyria. 



1152. Alba-Longa buil*. bj 
Ascanius. 



1124. iEoliau migration. 

THEBES, the Capital o'. 
Bosotia, founded. 



1104. Return of the Heraclidse. 
— End of the kingdona cl 
Mycene. 



724 



THE WORLDS PE OGRESS. 

FIFTH PERIOD.— (The Monarchical)- 







SACRED HISTORY. 


B.C 


Progress of Society and the Arts. 


The Jews. 






1095. Saul, King of Israel. 
J 085. David born. 

1062. David kills Goliath. 

1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron 
overjudah; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- 
naim, over eleven tribes. 

1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king 
over all Israel. 

1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- 
ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to 
the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on 
the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 


. ! 
i 

i 


1036. Solomon born. 




. 


1023 Revolt and death of Absalom. 






1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 


1015 


M:nos gives his latM to Crete. 


1015. Solomon crowned in the presence oi 
David. 

1016. David dies. 

1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the 
temple. 

1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S 
TEMPLE. 

1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- 
nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, 
via Red Sea, and to the. shores of the Atlan- 
tic, via Straits oi Gibraltar : builds Tad- 
mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and 
other cities. 

985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wivea 
975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. 

Judah. , Israel. 

975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 
971. Shishak plunders 

the temple. 
958. Abijah, king. 
955. Asa, king. 

954. Nadab, king. 
953 Baasha, king. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



725 



507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



104-1 



Wj 



01. 



The Ionian emigrants settle 
in Asia Minor. 



Allfance between Solomon and 
Hiram, king of Tyre. 



Samos built. 



Europe. 



1088. End of the kingdom o! 

Sicyon. 
1070. Heremon, from Galiicia, 

conquers Ireland. 
1069. Codrus devotes himsell 

for Athens. 
1060. Athens governed by 

Archons. 



SLishak plunders Jerusalem. 



Alliance between Solomon and 
Pharaoh. 



Utica built 



978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- 
ture, and supposed Sesos- 
tris,) king of Egypt. 



976. Capyf 
Longa. 



reigns in k 



726 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Fifth Period. — (TJie Monarchical.) — 



937 



■■■ 10 



TT6 



721 



710 
685 



Progress op Society and the Arts. 



Breastplates invented by Jason. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



JUDAH. 

942. Asa defeats Ze- 
rah, king of Ethio- 
pia, with a million 
of men. 

941. — makes a league 
with Benhadad, king 



of Syria. 



930. Elah, king. 

929. Zimri, king, 

Omri, king. 

918. A. tab, king. 



Homer 's poems brought into Greece. 
Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta, 
Gold and silver coined by Phidon, tyrant of 
Argos. 



Prophecies of Jonah. 



Carpets in use for tents. 

The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels 

with three banks of oars. 
First recorded Olympiad and beginning of 

authentic chronology in Greece. 
Sculpture first mentioned in profane history — 

an Egyptian art. 



I"f jo first eclipse of the moon observed by the 
Chaldeans at Babylon. 

The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 
into India. 

Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 
12 months instead of 10 as before. 

Augurs instituted by Numa. 

Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- 
taius, and Evander, poets. 

Chess invented 



314. Jehoshaphat, 
king. 

907. Benhadad, king ol 
nno t , , , Syria, besieges Sa- 

898. Jehoshaphat as- m aria, but is re- 
sists Ahab. pulsed. 
S94. War with Moab. 
8S9. Jehoram, king. 

897. Ahaziah, king. 

896. Jehoram, king. 

895. Elijah translated. 

884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. 
Athaliah, queen ; 
usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king. 
878. Jehoash, king. 



The Prophet Jo 
nah. 
839. Amaziah, king. 
810. Azariah, king. 



758. Jotham, kins 
742. Ahaz, king. " 



841. Jehoash, king. 
825. Jeroboam, king. 
784. Interregnum.. 
773. Zachanah, king. 

Shalium, king. 
772. Menahem, king. 
770. Pul invades Is- 
rael, and is bribed 
to depart with 1000 
talents. 
762. Pekahiah, king. 
759. Pekah, king. 
Interregnum. 
Hoshea, king. 
721. CAPTIVITY OP 
ISRAEL. 



717. Hezekiah, king. 

712. Sennacherib "in- 
vades Judah. 

711. His army (185,- 
000) destroyed by a 
pestilence. 

696. Manasseh, king. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

507 yew)i>. -Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 



727 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



97 1 Homer born. (?) 



820 



707 



761 

747 



fl ! 



Jonah preaches to the Nine- 
vites. 



Arbaces, king of Assyria. — 

Media revolts. 
Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. 



Pul, king of Nineveh. 



Sardanapalus, king of Nine- 
veh. 

Media subjected to Assyria. 

Alyattes, king of Lydia. 

ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— 
Assyrian empire destroyed. 
— Meles, king of Lydia. 

Thamaces, king of Cappado- 
cia. 

xiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- 
ria and part of Israel. 

Oandaules, king of Lydia. 

Shalmanezer king of Nine- 
veh, takes Samaria, and car- 
ries the Ten Tribes into 
captivity. 

Gyges usurps the throne of 
Lydia. 

Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 

MEDIA becomes a kingdom 
under Dejoces. 

Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. 



on and Nineveh under 
Esarhaddon. 



869. Dido arrives in Africa, 
and builds Byrsa. 

825. The dynasty of the Ta- 
nites in Egypt ; begins with 
Peterbastes. 



781. The dynasty of the Saites 
in Egypt. 



737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 



935. Bacchus, king of Ccricth. 



916. Calpetus, king of Alba. 



903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 

895. Tiberinus drowned in tha 
river Albula, which is thence 
called the Tiber. 



64. Romulus, king of Alba 
Longa. 



845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 



814. The kingdom of MACE- 
DON founded by Caranus. 
SOS. Procas, king of Alba. 
794. Numitor, " " 

794. Amulius, " " 



Olam Fodla, king in Ire- 
land. 0) 

769. . Syracuse founded by 
Archias of Corinth. 

753. BUILDING OF ROME 

Catania founded by a co- 
lony from Chalcis. 

747. Union of Romans and 
Sabines. 

743. 1st Messinian War. 



716. Romulus murdered by tha 

senators. 
715. Numa Pompilius. 
713. Gela in Sicily founded. 

703. Corcyra built by the Co 
rinthiar.is. 

685. 2d Messinian War 



728 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

Fifth Period. — {The Monarchical.)- 



651 



640 



629 
621 



600 



Prooress op Society and the Arts. 



Attempt to discover the primitive language of 
mankind; Interpreters instituted by Psam- 
meticus; children educated in the language 
and manners of Greece. 

Se-Matsien's history of China begins. 



The Spner ical form of the earth and the true 
cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, 
who discovers the electricity of amber. 



Periander encourages learning at Corinth. 



Draco frames his bloody code of laws at 
Athena. 



Pharaoh-Necho oegins a canal between the 
Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 
120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 
out a Phoenician fleet which, sailing through 
the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the 
third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus 
circumnavigating Africa. 



Sappho, Alcceus, Pittacus, Bins, Chilo, My- 
son, Anacliarsis, JEsop, Ilychis, Theognis, 
Stesichorus, Phocylides, and Cad?ims (ol 
Miletus), flourish at this time. 



601 Thales' prediction of a solar eclipse accom- 
plished. — (See Asia.) 



Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that 

of Draco". 
The Pythian Games at Delphi. 



SACRED HISTORY. 



677. Mat.asseh carried to Batylon, is aftsp 
wards restored. 



640. Amnion, king of Ju.iah. 

641. Josiah. king of Judah. 



Josiah killed at Megiddo, by Fharaob-No- 



cho. 



609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried lo 

Egypt. 

Jehoiakim, king. 



606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM bj 

Nebuchadnezzar. 



598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three months, 
and is carried captive to Bahylon. 
Zedekiah, king. 
591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 



588. CAPTIVITY OF J UDAH completed. 
JERUSALEM DESTROYED-the tern 

pie burnt. 
Qbadiah prophesies. 



xiE world's progress. 



729 



507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 



PROFANE HISTORY. 



Asia. 



676 



658 
648 
647 



634 
631 

626 

624 

619 
61* 



604 



699 

696 



Ardysus II., king of Lydia. 
Holofemes, Assyrian general. 

Phraortes, king of Media. 

Saracus, king of Babylon and 

Nineveh. 
Phraortes conquers Persia 

Armenia, &c. 



Cyaxares, king of Media, 
Sadyattes, king of Lydia. 

Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- 
racus. 

The Scythians invade Lydia 
and Media. 

Alyattes II., king of Lydia. 

Nineveh a second lime destroy- 
ed. 

Nabopolassar, king of Baby- 
lon. 



Pharaoh-Necho defeated by 
Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- 
sium, on the Euphrates. 

Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 
bylon. 

Daniel interprets the king's 
dream. 

A solar eclipse predicted by 
Thales — separates the Medes 
and Lydians in battle. (New- 
ton's GVmws.,585.) 

Birth of Cyrus. 

Astyages of Media drives out 
the Scythians. 



31* 



660. Psammeticus, king of 
Egypt. — Memphis becomes 
the capital of the kingdom. 



Europe. 



678. Argasus, 1st king of Ma- 

cedon. 
672. Tullus Hostilius, king oi 

Rome. 
668. Messina in Sicily founded 
665. Alba destroyed. 
664. Sea fight between tha 

Corinthians and Coxcyreans. 

658. BYZANTIUM founded. 



640. Ancus Martius. — The port 
of Ostia built. — The Latina 
conquered by the Romans. — 



Philip, 1st king of Mace- 



610. Pharaoh-Necho, king 
Egypt. 



600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 



594. Pharaoh- Hophra, ki lg of 

Egypt. 



don 



629. Periander rules at Co- 
rinth. 



616. Tarquinius Pnscue, king 
of Rome. 



602. ^Iropus, king of ^ac* 
don, conquers Llyrife. 



594. Solon, Archor ©f Ath 



730 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



SIXTH PERIOD.— (The Persian.)- 



s.c 


Progress of Society. 


Jews. 


Asia. 


585 




' 


582. Nebuchadnezzar invade* 
Elam — takes Susa. 


£78 


Money coined at Rome by Ser- 
»ius Tullius. 




572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad 
nezz'ar. 

569. Nebuchadnezzar losing 
his reason is deposed. 
New Tyre founded. 


568 


Depoenus and Scyllis open a 
school of statuary at Athens. 

Naucrates given to the Greeks 
by Egypt as a factory. 

Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- 
bited cities. 






562 


First comedy acted at Athens 




562. Crcesus, king ot Lydia. 




on a cart, by Susarion and 




Solon and iEsop at his court. 




Colon. 




561. Evil-Merodach, king of 




Dials invented by Anaximan- 




Babylon. 




der of Miletus. 
Anaximenes, Cleobulus. 


559. Handwriting on the wall 
at Belshazzar's feast. 


559. Neriglissar or Belshazzat 
killed in the night. 

Cyaxares II. (Darius') 
king of Media. 

Cyrus the Persian assists 
him. 
Asia Minor subjected to Croe 
sus. 


540 


The Corinthian order of ar- 




546. Sardis taken oy Cyrus. — 
Crcesus made prisoner. — 




chitecture invented by Cali- 




The Lydian Kingdom end- 




machus. 




ed 




Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- 




538. BABYLON TAKEN by 




sopher. 
Simonides, Anacreon, poets. 




Cyrus. 






536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- 


536. PERSIAN EMPIRE 






turn of the Jews. , 


founded by CYRUS, com- 






Joshua, Zerubbabel. 


posed of Assyria, Media and 


535 


Thespis performs the first 




Persia. 




tragedy at Athens. 


535. Rebuilding of the tem- 
ple begins. 








Zechariah, Haggai. 


529. Cambyses, king of Per- 
sia. 


527 


Learning encouraged at Ath 
ens. — First public library 
founded. 






522 


Confucius the Chinese philo- 








sopher. 




522. Darius Hystaspsa, &ing 




The Daric issued by Darius. 


516. Dedication of the second 
temple. 


of Persia. 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



731 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander the Great. 



B. C. 


Africa. 


Greece. 


Rome, etc. 


581 


Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 


585. Death of Periander, tyrant 
of Corinth. 

582. Corinth becomes a repub- 
lic. 


578. Servius Tullius, king of 
Rome. 


571 
569 


Apries taken prisoner, and 
strangled in his palace. 

Amasis, king — connection be- 
tween Greece and Egypt. 


560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Ath- 
ens. 

549. Temple of Apollo at 
Delphi burnt by the Pisis- 
traiidae. 

5-17. Amyntas, king of Mace- 
don. 

539. The Phocians emigrate to 
Gaul and build Massilia 
(now Marseilles). 


567. Conquest of the Etruriacs 

by Rome. 
565. First census of Rome: 

84,700 citizens. 


536 


Pythagoras visits Egypt. 










527. Pisistratus dies. 


534. Tarquimus Superbus, 
king of Rome. 

530. Cadiz built by the Car- 
thaginians (near the ancient 
Tarskish). 


525 


Psammenitus, last . king of 
Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- 
byses, who defeats the 
Egyptians at Pelusium, and 
takes Memphis. 

Egypt becomes a Persian 
Province. 


522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- 

mos. 
514. Hipparchns killed. 

510. The Pisistratidas expelled. 
— Democracy established at 
Athens — Statues erected to 
Ilarmodius and Aristogiton, 
leaders in the revolution. 





732 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)— 



GU9 



507 



500 



4;>3 



479 



473 

471 

468 



Progress op Society. 



Abolition of the Regal Govern- 
ment, and establishment of 
Republic at Rome. 



Heraclitus, Theano, Prota- 
goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- 
phers. — Corinna, poetess. 

The Phoenician letters earned 
to Ireland from Spain. 

Pythagoras teaches the doc- 
trine of celestial motions. 

The temple of Minerva built. 



The Etrurians excel in music, 
the drama and architecture! 



j32schylus, Pindar, poets. 



Simonides, of Cos, obtains the 
prize at Olympia. for teach- 
ing a system of Mnemonics, 
which he had invented. 

Empirics instituted by Acron, 
of Agrigenlum. 

Thncydides born. 

Sophocles, the tragic, and 
Plato, the comic poet. 



The Jews. 



483. Joachim, High Priest. 



jgQ Voyage of the Carthaginians 
to Britain for tin 



458. Esther. 

457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, 
collects the Jewish Scrip- 
tures : and 

453. — writes the Chronicles. 



508. Darius conquers India 



500. The Ionians revolt from 
Persia and burn Sardis. 



490. Darius sends an army of 
500,000 men into Greece. 



487. Artabazes, king of Pon- 

tus. 
486. Xerxes, king of Persia. 

481. The expedition of Xerxes 

into Greece. 
480. The family of Archean- 

actes, from Mytilene, settle 

in Bosphorus (now Circas- 

sia.) 



78. Death of Confucius. — 
China distracted by internal 
wars. 



6. Persians defeated by s>ea 

and land. 
465. Xerxes assassinated. 
464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima. 

nus,) king of Persia. 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



733 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued. 



Egypt revolts — is subdued by 
Xerxes. 



Hamilcar killed in battle. 



460 Egypt, under Inarus, revolts 
from Persia. 



155 All Egypt reduced by Megaby- 



505. Lacedemonian War. 
504. Lemnos taken by Milti 
ades. 



497. Alexander 1st, king of 
Macedon. 

Hippocrates, tyrant of 
Gela. 

490. Invasion of the Persians 
under Datis and Artapher- 
nes. 

Battle of MARATHON. 



489. Miltiades imprisoned. 
484. Herodotus born. 
483. Aristides banished. 



480. Battle of Thermopylae. 
Athens burnt by Xerxes. 
Battle of Salamis. 
479. Mardonius a second time 
takes Athens. 

Defeat of the Persians at 
Platea and Mycale on the 
same day. 

(?) 
476. Themistocles rebuilds 
Athens. — The Piraeus built. 

470. Cimon son of Miltiades. — 
Themistocles banished. — 
The kingdom of the Odryss 
extends over the most of 
Thrace. 

466. The Persians twice de- 
feated at the Eurymedon by 
Cimon. 

465. 3d Messinian War. 

461. Ostracism of Cimon. — 
Pericles rises to great 
power. 

459. Athens assumes to be the 
head of Greece. 

456. Cimon recalled. 



Eojie and Italy. 



509. The Tarquins expelled 

from Rome. 
Brutus and Collatinus 

first Consuls oi' Rome. 

507. Second census of Rome. 

130,909 citizens. 
The Capitol finished. — Wai 

against the Tarquin3 and 

their ally Porsonna. 



498. Titus Lartiw firat Dicta- 
tor. 

Tribunes of the people. 
496. Posthumius, Dictator. 



491. Coriolanus banished. 



488. At the request of hia 
mother, Coriolanus with- 
draws the Volsci from Rome. 

485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 

483. Quaestors appointed. 



480. The Carthaginians de- 
feated by Gelon. 

479. Syracuse governed \j 
Hiero. 



477. The 300 Fabii slain. 



467. Thrasybulus succeeds 
Hiero, and is expelled for 
his cruelty. 

Democracy in Syracuse. 



461. Earthquake at R«Tie. 



456. Cincinnatus Die/at* 



734 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 

The Sixth Period. — (T/ie Persian.) — 



b.c Progress of Society, etc 



450 



441 



434 



414 



tlJ 



The Britons inflict punish 
ment of death by drowning 
in a quagmire. 



Empedocles, Parmenides, 
Aristippus, and Antis- 
thenes, philosophers. — 
Phidias the finest sculp- 
tor of antiquity. — Euri- 
pides, gains the first prize 
in tragedy. 

The Battering Ram invented 
by Arternones. 



Aristophanes, prince of an- 
cient comedy. 



Meton begins his lunar cycle. 

Socrates, the greatest of hea- 
then moralists. 

Hippocrates, of Cos, the father 
of medicine. 

Thucydides, Clesias, histo- 
rians. 

Democritus, the laughing phi- 
losopher. 



An eclipse of the sun causes 
the defeat of the Athenians 
at Syracuse 



Thucydides' history ends, and 
Xenophon's begins. 



The Jews. 



445. Walls of Jerusalem built 
by Nehemiah. 

Sect of Samaritans. 



449. Persians defeated at Sst- 
lamis in Cyprus. 
Peace with Greece. 



438. Spartacus takes poasas. 
sion of the Boephorua. 



425. Xerxes II. k. of Persia 
424. Darius II. k. ol Persia. 



404. Artaxerxes II. Qhi\am js.) 
king of Persia, 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



735 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



«07 



Amyrtseus, king of Egypt, 
shakes off the yoke of Per- 



The Carthaginians send 300,- 
i 000 men into Sicily. 



454. Perdiccas, II., king of Ma- 
cedon. 

449. Cimon dies. 

448. First Sacred War. 

447. Athenians defeated at Che- 



440. Pericles takes Samos. 



437. Amphipolis planted by 

Athenians. 
436. Corinth at war with Cor- 

cyra. 



432. Revolt of Potidffia from 
the Athenian confederacy. 

431. The Peloponnesian War. 
Invasion of Attica. 

430. The Plague at Athens. 

429. Pericles dies, having gov- 
erned Athens 40 years. 

425. An earthquake separates 

the peninsula of Eubrea 

from the main land. 
424. Exile of Thucydides. 

Campaign of Brasidas in 

Thrace. 
420. The 90th Olympiad. 

Alcibiades effects a treaty 

between the Athenians and 

Argives. 
416. Nicias, general of the 

Athenians. 

War in Sicily . 
413. The Athenians alarmed by 

an eclipse. — Their army in 

Sicily destroyed. 
413. Archelaus, king of Mace- 
don. 
411. Athens governed by the 

400. — Alliance of Sparta 

with Persia. 
411. Alcibiades at the court of 

Tissaphernes. 
410. Alcibiades defeats the 

Spartans. 



408. Capture of Byzantium. 

405. Lysander defeats the 
Athenians, 404. takes Athens, 
and establishes the 30 ty- 
rants. 

End of the Peloponnesian 
War. 

Death of Alcibiades. 



451. Decemviri — the laws Oi 
the 12 tables. 

Virginia killed by hei 
father. 



446. Syracuse reduces Agrt 
gentum. 

445. Military Tribunes. 

444. Office of Censor insti- 
tuted. 

440. Famine in Rome. 



437. The Veii defeated. 



434. War with the Tuscan*. 

433. The temple of Apollo de- 
dicated. 
431. The Equi and Vo.sci d* 

feated. 



736 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Sixth Period. — (Tlie Persian.}— 



I s. Progress of Society, etc. 



39 



SSo 



Catapults invented by Diony- 
sius. 



Cynics, sect of philosophers 
founded by Antisthenes. 



Plato, the philosopher. 
Philoxenes, the poet, 



Treatise on conic sections by 
AristaMS. 



Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates 
and Isceus, orators. 



*:•" 



401. Cyrus the younger de- 
feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 
under Xenophon. 

400. The city of Delhi found 
ed. 



A celestial globe brought into 
Greece from Egypt. 



Philippics of Demosthenes. 



Commerce of Rhodes with 
Africa and Byzantium 



366. Jeshua slain by Johan- 
nan in the inner court of the 
temple, for which a heavy 
fine is laid on the daily sacn 
fices. 



387. The Greek cities of Asia 
tributary to Persia. 

383 BITHYNIA becomes a 

kinsdom. 

Mithridates 1st, king of 
PONTUS. 



362. Ariobarzanes king of Pon- 
tus. — Revolt of the Persian 
governor in Asia Minor. 

361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- 
erxes III. king of Persia. 

360. CAPPADOCIA become* 
a kingdom under AriaratUss I 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



73; 



258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 



379 



362 



360 



The Carthaginians land 
Italy. 



Tachos, king of Egypt. 

Agesilaus, the Spartan, 
aids the Egyptians. 



Voyages of the Carthaginians 
under Hanno. 



401. Thrasybulus expels the 
30 tyrants. 

Death of Socrates. 



399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- 
cedon. 



396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 
395. Corinthian War begun. — 
Battle of Coronea. 



382. Thebes taken by Phoebi- 
das. 

380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- 
pides and Epaminondas. 
100th Olympiad. 

377. Spartan fleet defeated at 
Naxos. 

372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- 
loponnesus, swallowed up 
by an earthquake. 

371. Battle of Leuctra. 

Alexander II., king of Ma- 
cedon. 

Predominance of Thebes. 

370. Perdiccas III., king of 
Macedon. 

364. Pelopidas killed in'battle. 

362. Battle of Mantinea, death 
of Epaminondas. 

Decline of Grecian 
Republics. 

360. Philip II., king of Mace- 
don. defeats the Athenians 
at Methone. 

The Macedonian phalanx. 
War of the nllies against 
Athens. 



358. Philip takes Amphipolis 

and loses his right eye by an 

arrow from Astor. 
357. The 2d Sacred War. 
356. Philip conquers Thrace 

and Illyria. 

The Temple of Diana at 

Ephesus burnt. 

A L E X A N D E R " the 

Great" born. 



Rome and Italy. 



400. Siege of Veii begun. 
397. Lake Alba drained 



391. Camillus, Dictator, takes 
Veii, after a siege of ten 
years. 

390. Rome taken and burnt by 
the Gauls, under Brennus 
— The Capitol besieged. — 
Camillus delivers his coun- 
try. 

386. Damon and Pythias. 

384. M. Manlius Capitolinua 
thrown from the Tarpeian 
rock. 



379. The Volsci defeat the 
Romans. 



376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- 
beian consul. 

Camillus, the fifth time 
Dictator. 

371. The curule magistrates 
appointed. 



362. Curtius leaps into a gulf 
in the Forum. 



357. Dionvsius, the youngai 
expelled from Syracuse. 



738 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

SEVENTH PERIOD.— {The Grecian.)- 



B.C 


Progress op Society, etc 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


313 


Aristotle, the logician and phi- 
losopher, founder of the Pe- 
ripatetics; JEschines, ora- 
tor. 

Demosthenes ; Icetas, of Syra- 
cuse. 




- 


342 


The Lyceum built in Attica. 






336 


Alexander spares the house of 

Pindar. 
The revolution of eclipses first 

calculated by Calippus, the 

Athenian. 




336. Mithridates II., long at 
Pontus. 


336 


Caustic painting or the art 
of burning colors into wood 








or ivory, invented by Gau- 
sias, a painter of Sicyon. 




334. Battle of the Granicus. 






333. Battle of Issus— Parthia, 








Bactriaj Hyrcania,Sogdiana, 
and Asia Minor, conquered 














by Alexander. 
332. Tyre subdued after seven 
months' sieg«». 

Damascus taken. — Gaza 






Alexander enters Jerusa- 
lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the 
High Priest, clad in his 


surrenders. 

331. Battle of Arbela.—Tho 
Persian army totally defeat- 
ed. 

330. CONQUEST of the PER ■ 
SIAN EMPIRE. 

329. Thalestris, queen of the 
Amazons, visits Alexander, 
wilh a train of 300 women. 

328. Alexander extends his 






robes, he declares he had 
seen him in a vision, invit- 
ing him to Asia, and pro- 
mising him the Persian em- 
pire. He goes to the Tem- 
ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- 
vah, and departs. 


328 


The voyage of Nearchus from 


conquest to the Ganges. 




the Indus to the Euphrates. 




323. Alexander dies at Baby- 




Apeiles, the painter ; Calis- 




Ion. 




thenes, philosopher. 




322. Peidiccas takes Carp* 




Menander, the inventor of the 




docia. 




new comedy. 








Lysistratus invents moulds 








from which to cast wax 








figures. 






330 


First work on mechanics, writ- 


320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 
Jews into Eypt. 


320. Eumenes defeated by A» 




ten by Aristotle. — Diving 


tigonua. 




Bell first mentioned. 


Onias I. 





THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



739 



184 gears.— 'Alexander to tlie Fall of Greece. 



319 



340 



Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, 
and pillages its temples. 



The Carthaginians defeated by 
Timoleon. 



Egypt conquered by Alexan- 
der. 

Alexandria built. 



Ptolemy L 
(pis.) 



(Soter, son of La- 



Greece — Macedon. 



353. The Phocians defeated by 
Philip. 

348. End of the Sacred War. 
Philip takes Olynthus. 

346. Philip admit fed to the 
Amphictyonic Council. 

345. Duras buried by an earth- 
quake. 

343. Thrace tributary to Mace 
don. 

Aristotle appointed tutor 
to Alexander. 



341. Philip makes war upon 
Athens. 

340. — lays siege to Byzantium. 
Timoleon recovers Syra- 
cuse, expels Dionysius, the 
tyrant, and defeats the Car- 
thaginians at Agrigentum. 

338. Philip defeats the Greeks 
at Cheronea. 

336. Philip is murdered by 
Pausanias. 

ALEXANDER III., sur- 
named the Great. — He rava- 
ges Greece, destroys Thebes, 
sparing the house of Pindar. 

335. — is chosen generalissimo 
f Greece against Persia. 

334. — invades Persia, and after 
several great battles (see 
" Asia ") subdues the Per- 
sian empire and Egypt, and 
marches into India. 



330. JEschines, the orator, 
banished. 



325. Demosthenes banished. 

323. Death of Alexander. — 
The Grecian cities revolt 
from Macedon. — Demosthe- 
nes recalled. 

322. The Greeks defeated by 
sea and land near Cranon. 
Death of Demosthenes. 

321. Antipater, regent. 



319. Polysperchon succeeds 
Antipater, and proclaims 
liberty to the Grecian cities- 



Rome, etc. 



354. Dion put to death, ana 
Syracuse usurped by ty« 
rants. 



345. Twelve cities in Campa- 
nia buried by an earth juftke. 

343. Samnian War, which con- 
tinues 53 years. 



340. P. Decius devote* him- 
self for his country. 

All Campania is subdued. 



332. The Caledonian mo- 
narchy (Scotland) founded 
by Fergus I. 



325. Papirius Cursor, Dictator. 



321. The Samnites make tha 
Romans pass under the yoke. 

320. The Samnites defeated a) 
Luceria. 



740 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)- 



b. o. Progress op Society, etc. The Jews 



317 






310 



300 



Commerce of Maeedon with 
India, through Egypt. 



The Appian Way constructed. 
— The Gnomon invented to 
measure altitudes. 



Aqueducts and baths in Rome. 



293 



m 



885 



:»! 



311. Judea subject to AUigo- 
nus. 



Euclid, of Alexandria, the 
celebrated mathematician. — 
Zeno, founder of the Stoics ; 
— Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; 
Epicurus, of the Epicu- 
reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- 
nes, philosopher. 

The great Chinese Wall built. 



The first sun-dial erected at 
Rome by Papirius Cursor, 
and the time first divided 
into hours. 



Fabius introduces painting at 
Rome. 

The Colossus of Rhodes 
built by Chares, of Lindus. 



Theocrites, the father of pas- 
toral poetry. 

Dionysius, the astronomer at 
Alexandria, begins his era. 
He found the solar year to 
consist of 365 days, 5 hours, 
and 49 minutes. 

The Septuagint translation of 
the Old Testament, begun at 
Alexandria, by order of PtO' 
lemy Phi) idelphus. 



301. Judea under the domi 
nion of the PtQlemies. 



312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator. 



311. Seleucus Nicator retakes 

Babylon. 

Era of the Seleucid<B. 
310. Eumeles usurps the 

throne of Bosphorus, putting 

to death all his brothers. 

After a reign of six years, is 

murdered. 



305. War in India, against 
Sandrocottus. 



301. Battle of Ipsus.— Amiga- 
nus killed. 

ALEXANDER'S EM 
PIRE DIVIDED in four 
parts. — Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
Cassander. Lysimachus. 

Mithridates III., king oi 
Pontus. 



291. Seleucus founds Antioch 
Edessa, and Laodicea. 



284. The sect of the Sadducees. 



285. The Scythians invade 
Bosphorus. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



741 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



307 
306 



Agathocles is defeated by the 
Carthaginians. 

Peace between Sicily and Car- 
thage. 



318. Phocion put to death by 
the Athenians. 

317. Cassander assumes 
the government of Macedon. 
Demetrius Phalerius gov- 
erns Athens. 

315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, 
and founds Cassandria. 



312. Epirus: P y r r h u s II., 

the greatest hero of his time. 



306. Democracy established at 
Athens by Demetrius. 

304. Athenians repulsed from 
Rhodes. 

303. Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
general of the Grecian States. 



300. Restoration of Democracy 
at Athens. 



291. Death of Cassander. — 
Alexander and Antipater 
succeed. 

296. Siege of Athens, by De- 
metrius. 

294. Demetrius murders Alex- 
ander, and seizes the throne 
of Macedon. 



287. Athens revolts from De- 
metrius. 

286. Pyrrhus expelled from 
Macedon. 



284. The Achaean Republic. 



317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp- 
ed by Agathocles. 



312. War with the Etruscam, 



310. The Carthaginians defeat 
Agathocles, and besiege Sy- 
racuse. 

308. Fabius Maximum 
defeats the Samnites. 



303. Establishment of th« 
Tribus Urbance. 



300.First Plebeian High Priest. 



290. End of the Samnite Wu. 



286. Law of Hortensius, bf 
which the decrees of the 
people had the force of thoM 
of the senate. 



742 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian.)- 



i.o. Progress of Society, etc. 



883 



881 



:n 



The Pharos built at Alexan- 
dria, the first light-house on 
record. 

Philetaerus, of Pergamus, pa- 
tron of the arts, especially 
Architecture. 

Alexandria, the resort of the 
learned, and centre of trade. 

Chariots armed with scythes, 
and fortified camps, in use. 



207 
266 

204 



256 
855 



First society of critics formed. 



Ptolemy makes a ;anal from 

the Nile to the Red Sea. 
Silver money first coined. 



The Parian Chronicle com 

posed. 
Gladiators first exhibited at 

Rome. 



Berosus, the historian of Ba- 
bylon. 

The armillary sphere invented 
by Erastosthenes, who made 
the first attempt to determine 
the length of a degree. 



Greece instructs the Romans 
in the arts and sciences. 



248. Onias II., high priest. 



282. The kingdom of PER- 
GAMUS founded by Phile. 
tarus. 

281. Lysimachus defeated and 
killed by Seleucus. — Anlio- 
chus Soter succeeds Seleu- 
cus. 



266. Ariobarzanes III., king of 
Pontus. 



262. Antiochus Soter deflated 
at Sardis. 



256. Kingdom of PARI HIA 

founded by Arsaces. 
255. The fourth imperia. if 

nasty of China begins 



252. Mithridates IV., besieged 
in his capital by the Gaols. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



743 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



283 Ptolemy Philadelphia king of 
Egypt. 



2G9 



258 



m 



Egypt first sends ambassadors 
to Rome. 



Regulus invades Africa, and is 
defeated by Xantippus, a 
Spartan general. 



Metallus defeats Asdrubal. 



283. Lysimachia destroyed by 
an earthquake. 



281. Lysimachus defeated and 
slain by Seleucus. 

The Achaean League of 
12 states, under Aratus, of 
Sicyon. 



279. Irrruption of the Gauls 

under Brennus. 
278. — they are defeated near 

Delphi. 
277. Antigonus Gonatus, king 

of Macedon. 



274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- 
don, defeats Antigonus, and 
is proclaimed king. • 



272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 
and Argos — is slain, and An 
tigonus is restored. 



68. Athens taken by Antigo- 
nus Gonatus. 

Second incursion of the 
Gauls into Macedon. 



255. Antigonus liberates 
Athens. 

Athens joins the Achasan 
league. 



251. Sicyon joins the Achaean 
league. 

250. The Romans begin to re- 
sort to Greece for improve- 
ment in knowledge. — Par- 
thia revolts from Macedon. 



Rome, etc. 



283. The Gauls and 
rians subdued. 



EtTW 



281. The Tarentine War. 



280. The Tarentines seek the 
alliance of Pyrrhus, who 
conquers the Romans as 
Pandosia, and at 

279 — Asculum. 

278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- 
hus. 



275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, 
and compels him to leave 
Italy. 



272. Fall of Tarentum. 



266. Rome mistress of all Italy : 
census of the city 292,224. 

264. The first PUNIC WAR. 
— Appius Claudius drives 
Hiero from Syracuse. 

260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- 
tory over the Carthaginian 



256. R e g u I u s gains ano- 
ther victory. 

255. The Lacedemonians as- 
sisting Carthage. — Xantip- 
pus defeats Regulus, and 
takes him prisoner. 

254. Palermo besieged by the 
Romans. — About this time 
the Huns are first heard o£ 
governed by Teuman. 



249. Naval fight at Drapanum. 



744 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)—* 



B. c PrtooBESs of Society, etc. 



:■::« 



225 



219 



Agiarianism attempted in 
Sparta, but is put down. 



Comedies first acted at Rome, 
those of Livius Andronicus. 



The original MSS. of ^Eschy- 
lus, Euripides and Sopho- 
cles, lent by the Athenians 
to Ptolemy, on a pledge of 15 
talents. 



Fabius Pictor, the first Roman 
historian. 

Appollonius Rkodius, poet. — 
Chrysippus, Stoic philoso- 
pher. 

Archimedes, the mathemati- 
cian demonstrates the pro- 
perties of the lever, and 
other mechanical powers, 
also the art of measuring 
solids and surfaces,and conic 
sections — constructs aplane- 
tarium. 



The art of Surgery introduced. 
An eclipse of the moon ob- 
served in Asis Minor. 



237. Simon II., High Priest. 



246. Antiochus II. poisoned bj 
his wife. 



241. Attalus I., king of Perga. 
mus. 



226. Seleucus HI., k. of Syria. 



224. The Colossus of Rhade* 
thrown down. 



213. Chi Horg Ti destroys titt 
records of the Chinese em- 
pire. 

211. Antiochus th« 
Great, king of Syria. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



745 



184 years. — (Continued.) 



246 



23£ 
237 



221 



219 



Hamilcar Barcas, general of 
the Carthaginians. 

Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy- 
ria. 



End of the Libyan War. 
Hamiloar with Hannibal, pass- 
es into Spain. 



Carthagena in Spain, built by 
Asdrubal. 



Ptolemy Philopater, king of 

Egypt. 



Conquests of Hannibal, 
the Carthaginian, \i Spain ; 
He crosses the Alps. 



243. Corinth taken by Aratus. 
242. Demetrius II., of Mace 

don. 
241. Agis, king of Sparta, put 

to death for attempting to es> 

tablish an Agrarian law. 
240. Cleamhus, the Stoic, 

starves himself. 



232. Philip III., of Macedon. 



228. Roman ambassadors first 
appear at Athens and Co- 
rinth. 

The fortress of the Athe- 
naeum built. 



226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- 
ta, defeats the Achasans. — 
Lyscades killed. — The Agra- 
rian law restored. 

225. The Romans send another 
embassy to Greece. They 
are admitted to a share in 
the Isthmian games, and 
granted the freedom of Ath- 
ens. 

223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- 
polis. 
222. Battle of Sellasia. 



220. The S o c i a 1 W a l 
—Philip, of Macedon, as- 
sists the Achasans. — Cleome- 
nes dies in Eyypt. — Agesi- 
polis and Lycurgus elected 
kings of Sparta. 

218. Acanama ceded to Philip. 



215. Aratus poisoned at 

iEgium. 
214. First Macedonian War, 



211. Alliance of Philip with 
Hannibal. 



Rome, etc. 



247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- 
mans at Liliboeum. 



241. End of the fijrst P<u»# 
War. 



231. Sardinia and Corsica con- 
quered by Rome. 



225. The Gauls repulsed in 
Italy. 



224. The Romans first cross 

the Po. 
223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n • 

t i a and Cremona. 
222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu- 

ria (Genoa) conquered by 

Rome. 



219. Hannibal takes Sagun- 
tum, and crosses the Alps. 



218. The Second Pnmo 
War . — The Romans de- 
feated by Hannibal at Ti- 
c i n i s and T r e b i a . 

217. Flaminius defeated 
t Thrasymene. 

216. Varro at C a n n ae to- 
total ly defeated by Hannibal. 
Fabius Maximue 
Dictator. 

212. Syracuse and Sicily con- 
quered by Marcellus. 
— Archimedes killed. 

211. The Carthaginians dri vet 
from Capua. 



32 



746 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian.)- 



a. c. | Progress op Society, etc. 



aw 



200 



193 



183 



aeo 



Ennius, of Calabria, poet; 
Sotion, of Alexandria, i 
grammarian. 

Plautus, of Umbria, the co 
mic poet ; Appollonius, of 
Perga, mathematician; Ze 
no, of Tarsus, the philoso- 
pher. 

Gold coined at Rome. 



The art of printing in China. 



Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 

Alexandria. 
Caius Lelius, the Roman 

orator. 



Jiooks, with leaves of vellum, 
introduced by Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, in lieu of rolls, 



A total eclip&i of the sun at 

Rome. 
Asiatic luxuries brought to 

Rome. 



A comet visible 80 days. 
Bion and Moschus, comic 
poets. 

Statius Ccecilius, comic poet. 



203. Judea Conquered 3y 
Antiochus the Great. 



201. Onias III., High Priest. 



200. Jesus, the son of Sirach, 
writes Ecclesiasticus. 



198. The Jews assist Antio- 
chus in expelling Scopas and 
the Egyptian troops from 
Jerusalem. 

First mention of a Senate or 
Sanhedrim. 



206. The dynasty of H a & ia 
China. 



197. Eumenes, king of Perga- 
mus. 

196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, 
who seizes the Thracian 
Chersonese. 



192. Syria at war with Rome. 
190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats 
Antiochus at Magnesia. 



187. Antiochus killed in the 
temple of Jupiter Bclus.— 
Syria becomes a 
Roman province. 

186. The city of Artaxata (in 
Armenia) built. 

185. Seleucus IV., king of Sy- 
ria. 

183. Pharnacesl.,king of Po« 
tus, conquers S i n o p e . 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



747 



184 years. — (Continued. 



205 
204 



202 



193 



180 



Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of 
Egypt. 

The Roman general Scipio be- 
sieges Utica, and takes in 
one day the camps of Asdru- 
bal and Syphax. 

Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- 
ba poisoned by Masinissa. 

Hannibal defeated at Z a m a . 
—End of the 2d Punic War. 



Treaty of Carthage with Ma- 
sinissa, king of Numidia. 

Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 
sions. 



Masinissa harasses the Cartha- 
ginians, and injures their 
commerce. 



Ptolemy Pfcilometer, king of 
Egypt. 



Greece. 



208. Battle of Lamia, near Elis. 
— Philip, of Macedon, de- 
feats the ./Etolians. 



206. Battle of Mantinea : 
Philopcemen, the Prae- 
tor of Achaia, defeats the 
Spartans. 



200. The Rhodians defeat the 
Macedonian fleet near Chios. 
—Siege of Abydos. — Second 
Macedonian War begins. 



193. The Achfeans and Spar- 
tans join the Romans against 
Macedon. 

197. Philip III. defeated at Cy- 
nocephalas by the Romans, 
under Flaminius. 

195. Flaminius, the Roman, 
quarrels with Nabis, king of 
Sparta. 



189. Epirus declared free by 
the Romans. 

18. Philopoemen abrogates 
the laws of Lycurgus in 
Sparta. 



183. Philopoemen defeated and 
killed by Dinocrates, king of 
Messinia. 



Rome, etc. 



210. Scipio takes New 
Carthage, and conquers As- 
drubal. 

207. Nero and Livy defeat As- 
drubal at Metaurus — Asdru 
bal killed. 

206. The Carthaginians driven 
out of Spain. 



204. Scipio carries the war 
into Africa. 



201. Scipio carries Syphax ia 
triumph to Rome. 



197. Flaminius victorious in 
Macedon. 

195. C a t o in Spain. 



19C War with Antiochus, of 
Syria, who is totally defeat- 
ed by L. C. Scipio, and 

188. Syria is made a Roman 
province. 

187. Scipio Africanus banish- 
ed from Rome. 



183. Cato, the elder, censoc 
181. Plague at Rome. 

180. Death of Scipio Africa- 
nus. 

179. Numa's books founfl in a 
stone coffin at Rome. 



748 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Seventh Period. — (TJie Grecian?)- 



0.0. 


Puooress op Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 






176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 

175. Jason obtains the high 

priesthood by corruption. 








172. Jason defeated by Mene- 


172. Antiochus IV. (Epipha- 






laus. 


nes) king of Syria. 
171 — declares war against Pttv 
lemy Philomater. 


170 


Paper invented in China. 


170. Jerusalem and the temple 


170. An irruption of Tartan 


109 


Polybius, historian of Greece 


plundered by Antiochus 


into China. 




and Rome. 


Epiphanes, who attempts to 






The comedies of Terence per- 


abolish the Jewish religion, 






formed. 


and commits great cruelties. 




168 


An eclipse of the moon, which 
was predicted by Q,. S- Gal- 
lus. 






167 


The first library opened at 


167. Matthias, High Priest. 






Rome, consisting of books 




166. Prusias, kir.gof Eithynia. 




brought from Macedon. 








The Roman treasury is so rich 


165. Judas Maccabeus ex- 






that the citizens pay no 


pels the Syrians, and puri- 






taxes. 


fies the temple. 




162 


Hipparchus of Nice fixes the 
first degree of longitude and 








latitude at Ferro, whose 




164. Antiochus Epiphanes 




most western point was 




died. 




made the first general meri- 




162. Demetrius Soter, king of 
Syria. 




dian — lays the foundation of 






Trigonometry. 




Mithridates Philopater, 
king of Cappadocia. 


161 


Philosophers and rhetoricians 


161. Judas kills Nicanor — is 




banished from Rome. 


succeeded by Jonathan. 






First treaty with the Ro- 








mans. 








158. Jonathan compels the Bac- 








chides to withdraw — is mur- 




159 


The clepsydra or water clock 


dered by Tryphon. 






invented by Scipio Nascia. 




157. Mithridates V., king oi 
Pontus. 

153. Ariarathes VII., king o. 

Cappadocia. 


150 


Hipparchus, of Rhodes, astro- 


150. Jews take Jopja. 


150. Alexander Bala kills D* 




nomer. — Aristarchus, of 




metrius,and takes the throne. 




Alexandria, grammarian. 




149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kill- 
ed by his son NicomefW 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 

184 years. — (Continued.) 



749 



m 



Ca'-3 e embassy to Carthage. 



155. Embassy of Diogenes, 
Carniades, and Critolaus to 
Rome. 



152 iMtssinissa defeats the Cartha- 15'2. Andriscus usurping the 

ginians. government of Maced5n, is 

15J J( unt reign of Philomater and conquered by Metellus. 
Physcon in Egypt. 



146 



178. Perseus, king of Mace- 
don. 



171. Third Macedonian War. 



168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- 
na, by Paulus Emilius. — 
Macedon becomes a Ro- 
man Province. 



165. Romans enter Achaia. 



CARTHAGE TAKEN 

destroyed. 



and 



147. Metellus defeats the Ach- 
seans in Greece. 

146. Corinth taken and de- 
stroyed by Mummius. — 
GREECE becomes a RO 
MAN PROVINCE under 
the name of Achaia. 



ROMS, ETC. 



170. Tibe rius and Cant 
Gracchus. 



167. Census 327,032. 



155. Romans unsuccessful SB 

Spain. 



151. Defeat of Ga'.ba. 



49. Third Punic War. 



Conquest of CarthagK and 
of Corinth. 

Greece annexed to the 
Roman empire. 



750 the world's progress. 

EIGHTH PERIOD.— {The Roman.)- 



B.C. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


The Jews. 


Asia. 


116 


Alexandria, the centre of com- 
merce. 






113 


Hipparchus begins his new 








cycle of the moon. 


142. Simon, High Priest. 




140 


Toothed tcheels applied to the 
clepsydra by Ctesibius. 






137 


Learning and learned men 




137. Antiochus IV., (Sidstes,) 




liberally patronized by Ptol- 




king of Syria. 




emy Physcon. 








Diodorus and Satyrus, peri- 








patetics ; Nicancler. physi- 








cian and poet ; Lucius Ac- 


135. End of the Apocrypha.— 






cius, tragic poet ; Aristobu- 


Jerusalem besieged by An- 






lus, the Jewish peripatetic. 


tiochus IV. 


134. Antiochus invades Judea. 


133 


Equestrian order, a distinct 

class. 






130 


Revival of learning in China. 


130. John Hyrcanus delivers 


130. Antiochus IV. defeated 






Judea from the Syrian yoke : 
— reduces Samaria and Idu- 


and killed in a war with Par- 






thia. 






mea. 


129. Demetrius II. (Nicator) 

regains Syria. 
123. Mithndates the Great, 


120 


The theory of eclipses known 
to the Chinese. 




king of Pontus. 








116 


L. Ccelius Antipater, histo- 
rian ; Lucillius, the first 
Roman satirist; Apollodo- 
rus, of Athens, chronologist ; 
Castor, of Rhodes, chrono- 
logist; Anthemon, philoso- 








pher. 




111. Urithridates conquers Bcy« 


110 


First sumptuary law at Rome. 




thia, Bosphorus, Coi 'Jus, 






103. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- 


dec. 






107. — succeeded by his son 








Aristobulus, who first as- 








sumes the title of king. 








105. Alexander Janneus at 








war with Egypt— takes Ga- 








za. — Rebellion excited by 








the Pharisees. 


i 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

1 46 years. — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era. 



751 



B.C. 


Africa. 


Roman Empire. 


146 


Commerce of the world cen- 


In the Bast. 


In Europe. 




tres at Alexandria. 






.145 


Ptolemy Physcon becomes 
soie king of Egypt by the 
death of Priiiomater. 




141. Numantian War. 

140. The Picts from the norta 

of England settle in the south 

of Scotland. 

135. Servile ■yar in Sica!/. 






133. Pergamus, a Roman 


133. Numantia destroyed by 






Pro vince. 


Scipio : Spain becomes a 
Roman Province. 

Death of Tiberius Grac- 
chus. 


129 


Ptolemy Physcon driven from 
his throne for his cruelty. 






128 


Pestilence in Egypt. 






123 


Carlhage rebuilt. 




123. Tribunate of C a i u a 


118 


Death of Micipsa, king of 


118. Dalmatia, a Roman 


Gracchus. 




Numidia, and the assassina- 


Province. 






tion of Iliempsal by Jugur- 








tha. 






116 


Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 








Egypt. 
Jugurthine War. 




113. First great migration of 


112 




the German nations. 








109. War of the Teutoni and 








Cimbri. 


13/ 


Alexander I., king of Egypt. 






W5 


Jugurtha is defeated and guv- 




105. Numidia becomes a Ro- 




renders Numidia to the Ro- 




man province by the defeat 




IliUAE. 


i 


of Jugurtha. 
104 The Teutoni defeat 80,000 

Romans on the banks of tile 

Rhone. 
102. M a r i u s victorious 

over the Teutoni and Ambro- 

nes at Aquae Sexta?. 
101. Marius and Catullus de- 
feat the Cimbri. 
100. Marius buys his sixth con« 

sulate. 








Banishment of Metellua 



752 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Eighth Period. — (The Ro?nan.)- 



B.o Progress op Society, etc. 



,>2 



The Jews. 



Libraries of Athens sent to 
Rome by syiia. 



Decline of Agriculture in 
Italy ; corn supplied from 
the provinces. 

Posidonius calculates the 
height of the atmosphere to 
be about 800 stadia. 

Zeno, of Sidon, the Epicurean ; 
Apellicon of Athens ; Alex- 
ander Polyphistor,ihe gram- 
marian ; Pholius Gallus, 
rhetorician ; Q. Valerius 
Anlias. Roman historian ; 
Q. Hortensius, orator. 

The cherry tree brought to 
Europe from Asia by Lu- 
cullus. — Tereritius Varro 
writes three books on agri- 
culture. 

The Romans possess gold 
mines in Asia Minor, Mace- 
donia, Sardinia and Gaul ; 
and productive silver mines 
in Spain. 

The first water mill described 
near a dwelling of Mithri- 
dates. 

Ebony introduced at Rome by 
Pompey. 

Vikramaditya Icing of Ozene, 
in India, patron of literature 
— at his court flourish Ame- 
ra Sinka, lexicographer; 
Varurvchi, grammarian ; 
Kalidasa, poet. 



79. Alexandra, widow of Jan- 
neus, governs Judea. 



70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, 
deposed by his brother Aris- 
tobulus. 

67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus 
appeal to Pompey, who en- 
ters Judea and takes Jerusa- 
lem, and restores Hyrcanus 
to the priesthood. 



63. JUDEA A ROMAN PRO- 
VINCE. 



9S. China sti' submits to tha 
Han dynasty ; S e m a t - 
z i n , Emperor. 

97. Mithridates conquers Cap- 
padocia. 

95. Cappadocia declared fre* 
by Rome. — Ariobarzanes 
elected king. 

94. Antiochus, king of Syria, 
defeated iy Seleucus. 

93. Tigranes, king of Arme- 
nia. 



Pontus at war with Romo. 



86. Mithridates takes Bythi- 
nia and several Roman pro- 
vinces. 

83. Tigranes made king of 
Syria. 



75. By the death of Nicome- 
des Bythinia becomes a 
province. 



70. Damascus possessed by 

the Romans. 
69. Mithridates and Tigranes 

defeated by Lucullus. 
66. Mithridates defeated by 

Pompey. 

65. Antiochus XII. defeated 
by Pompey. — The race of 
the Seleucidae becomes ex- 
tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., 
king of Cappadocia. — An 
earthquake in Bosphorua 
lays in ruins several towns. 

64. Dejotarus, king of Galatia, 
seizes Armenia Minor. 

'53. Pharmaces, king of Fontua. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



753 



148 years. — (Continued.) 



By the death of Ptolemy 
Apion, Cyrene becomes a 
Roman province. 



82 Revolt in Upper Egypt.— 

Thebss destroyed. 
81 Alexander II., king of Egypt. 



Roman Empire. 



In Asia and Africa. 



97. Annexation of Cyrene. 



89. Mithridatic War; Sylla 
commands the Roman army. 

88. The Athenians seek as- 
sistance from Mithridates 
against Rome. 

86. Athens, reduced by famine, 
is taken by Sylla. 

83. Second Mithridatic War. 
82. Sylla plunders the temple 
of Delphi. 



In Europe. 

99. L u s i t a n i a conquered 
by Dolabella, and becomes 
a Roman province. — Birth 
of Julius Caesar. 



91. Social War in Italy. 



8- Sylla defeating the 
Marsi and Peligni, puts aa 
end to the Social War. 

Civil War between Ma- 
rius and Sylla. 



82. Sylla defeats Marius, and 
is created perpetual dictator. 



SO. 7ULIUS CESAR'S First 
79. P o m p e y defeats Do- Campaign. 
mitius in Africa. 



Ptolemy 
Egypt. 



Anletes, king of 



75. B y t h i n i a a Roman 
Province. 



74. Third Mithridatic War 
under Lucullus. 



66. Metellus subdues Crete. 
P o n t u s becomes a 

Roman Province. 
65. Syria, a Roman 

Province. 



77. Sertorius revolts in Spam 
and defeats Metellus and 
Pompey. 



73. War of Spartacus, the gla 
diator. 

71. Spartacus defeated by Craa 
sus. 



70. Pompey and Cras. 

sus Consuls. 
69. Census 450,090. 



65. M. T. Cicero, Consul. 



63. Cataline's Conspi. 
racy detected and flup» 



/ racy ueiecieu a 

I pressed by Cicero. 



32* 



754 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

The Eighth Period.— {The Roman.)- 



b. o. Progress op Society, etc. 



«: 



60 



£5 



60 



46 



45 



43 



Magnificent houses of the 
nobles ; marble theatre of 
Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- 
tators. 

Cicero, statesman and orator 
Sallust, historian ; Lucre 
tius and Catullus, poets 
Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhe 
torician ; Aristomedes, of 
Crete, grammarian ; Andro- 
nicus, of Rhodes, peripate 
tic philosopher. 



Iron chain cabtes used by the 
Veneti. 



A water mill on the Tiber at 
Rome. 



The Alexandrian library (400,- 
000 vols.) burnt. 

The year of confusion — so 
called because the calendar 
was altered by Sosigenes. 



Ccesar reforms the Calendar, 
by introducing the solar in- 
stead of the lunar year. — 
First Julian year. — Vitru- 
vius, the greatest Roman ar- 
chitect. 

Cornelius Nepos, historian ; 
Dio-iorus Siculus, histo- 
rian. 



53. Crassus plunders the tem- 
ple of 10,000 talents. 



3. Antipater, the Idumean, is 
made lieutenant in Judea by 
Caesar. 



43. Judea oppressed by Cras- 
sus. 

Malichus poisons Anti- 
pater. 

40. Herod the Great, son of 
Antipater, defeats his rival, 
antigonus, and Parcorus. 
the Parthian — takes Jerusa- 
lem — marries Mariamne — is 
made king by the Romans. 



53. Parthian War.— The Fe- 
nians defeated. — Cras^<jr 
slain. 



49. The era of Antioch. 



47. Battle of Zela.— PhaiEf 
conquered by Caesar. 



44. A comet seen in China. 



39. The Parthians, under Pai 
corus, defeated by Ventl 
dius. 

Darius, king of Pontua. 
38. Ariobarzanes dethroned by 
Marc Antony. 



the world's progress. 755 

1 46 years. — (Continued.) 



b a 


Africa. 


Roman Empire. 




.' 


East. 


West. 

60. First Triumvirate : — 
Pompey, Crassus, and Julius 
Caesar. 

Sciold, first king of Den- 
mark. — Boh a fierce son 
of Odin. 


68 


Ptoiemy goes to Rome, Bere- 




58. Clodius procures the ban 




lice reigns in his absence. 




ishment of Cicero. — The 
Helvetii defeated by Julius 
Cassar. 

57. Cicero recalled. — S a 1 - 
lust expelled from the 
senate. — Gylf, king of Swe- 
den. 

55. Caesar passes the 
Rhine, defeats the Ger- 




















mans and Gauls, and In- 








vades Britain. 








54. Caesar's second invasion 






53. Crassus defeated and killed 


of Britain. 






in Parthia. 


52. Pompey, sole consul. 

51. Caesar completes the con- 
quest of Gaul, which be- 
comes a Roman province. 

49. Caesar passes the 
Rubicon, and in sixty 
days makes himself master 
of Italy— marches into Spain 
and forces Pompey's troops 
to surrender. 

48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 






48. Thessaly becomes the seat 
of war.— The Athenians de- 






clare for Caesar against Pom- 








pey. 
Battle of Pharsalia: — Pom- 








pey, defeated by Cassar, flees 




46 


The African War. — Scipio 


into Egypt, and is slain there. 






a %.' Juba defeated at Thap- 


47. Caesar takes Alexandria, 






sr.s. — Cato kills himself at 


and conquers Egypt. — Cae- 






liiica. — Ptolemy Dionysius 


sar victorious at Zela, in 






drowned in the Nile. 


Asia. 




45 


Caesar rebuilds Carthage. 


45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar. 


45. Caesar perpetual 
dictator — he subdues 
the two sons of Pompey, and 
acquires the sole power. 

44. Caesar assassinated in the 
Senate House. 


43 


Cleopatra poisons her brother 




43. Second Triumvirate : — 




aid reigns alone 




Octavius Caesar, Marc An- 
tony, and Lepidus. — Cicero 
proscribed and murdered. 
42. The Battle of Philippi :-- 
Antony and Octavius defeai 














Brutus and Cassius. 



756 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

TJie Eighth Period. — (The Roman. 



9. c. Progress op Society, etc. 



30 



29 



Golden age of Roman litera- 
ture. 

The revenue of the empire 
amounts to about 40 millions 
sterling. — First standiiig ar- 
my in Rome. — Direct trade 
of Rome with India. — Silk 
and linen manufactories 
in the empire. 

Temple of Janus at Rome 
closed — there being now a 
general peace. 



Treasures of Egyptian art 
brought to Rome. — The Pan- 
theon built. 

Horace, Virgil, Tibullus, 
Propertius, poets; Varrus 
and Tucca, critics ; Livy, 
historian ; Maecenas, minis- 
ter of Augustus, patron of 
literature ; Strabo, geogra 
pher; jEmilius Macer, of 
Verona, poet ; Agrijma, war- 
rior, and patron of the arts. 

Worship of Isis at Rome. 

Pantomimic dances intro- 
duced on the Roman stage. 



Aqueducts constructed by 
Agrippa. 

Dedications of by>ks first in- 
troduced. 



The Jews. 



30. Herod kills Mariamne. 



19. The Temple rebuilt by 
Herod — he also builds Cy- 
pron, Antipatris, Pharsselis, 
and the tower of Phasa^l in 
Jerusalem. 



The legions distributed over 
the provinces in fixed camps, 
which soon grew into cities 
— among them were Bonn 
and Mayence. 

The calenda" corrected by 

Augustus. 
Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, 
historian ; and Dionysius, 
geographer. 

BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- 
fore the Vulgar Era. 
3. Archelaus succeeds Herod 
with the title of Ethnarch. 



Cyrenius taxes Judea. 



Asia. 



34. Antony fakes possession 
of Armenia, which Jsecomes 
a Roman province — lead* 
an inglorious expedition 
against Parthia. 



29. E p h e s u s , next to 
Alexandria, the chief place 
of trade in the Roman em- 
pire. 



20. Porus, king of India, soft- 
cits an alliance with Rome. 
Parthians defeated by Ti- 
berius. 



14. Polemon conquers So® 
porus. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



757 



146 years. — (Continued.) 



36 



34 



80 



Roman Empire. 



Cleoj atra obtains from An- 
tony a grant of Phoenicia 
Cyrene and Cyprus. 

— receives all Asia from the 
Mediterranean to the Indus. 

Cxeopatra and Marc Antony 
defeated by Octavius, at 
Act turn. 



Alexandria taken by Octavius. 
—Antony and Cleopatra de- 
stroy themselves. 

Egypt becomes a Ro- 
man province. 



21. Athens finally subjected *.o 

Rome. 
20. CXCth Olympiad. 



8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 

5. Q. Varrus appointed gov- 
ernor of Syria, and Cyre- 
nius governor of Judea. 



West. 



36. Sextus Pompey defeated 
in Sicily. 

32. Antony quarrels with Oc- 
tavius. 

31. By the BATTLE OF AC- 
TIUM Octavius acquire* 
the empire. 



30. THE REPUBLIC BE- 
COMES A MONARCHY. 



29. Octavius's 3 days triumph 
at Rome. 

Temple of Janus shut 
Rome contains 4,101,017 
citizens. 
27. The titles of Augustus and 
Emperor conferred on Octa- 
vius for 10 years. 



23. Agrippa in Spain. 



22. Conspiracy of Murana. 

21. Augustus visits Greece 
and Asia. 

16. Lollius defeated by the 
Germans. 

15. Cancabria, Austria, Rhos- 
bia, Vindelencia and Moesia 
become Roman provinces — 
being conquered by Dru- 
sus. 

13. Augustus assumes the 
title of Pontifex Maximus. 

12. Pannonia, conquered by 
Tiberius, becomes a Ro- 
man province. 

11. Germany subdued iv Ger 
manicus. 



4. Cymbeline, king of Britain. 



PAKT II. 

MODERN CHRONJLCGY, 

PROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 



Epochas or Periods. 



L From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Persecution, o 

to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 \ Christians. 



a. 

" Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 



Northern Invasions. 

m ' « Flight of Mahomet, « 622 \ " *■*•*» and Belisariu*. 

" CrowningofCharlemagneatRome, » 800 \ " Saracen Empire. 

« Battle of Hastings, « 1066 j " New Western Empire. 

" Founding of the Turkish Empire, " 1299 ( " The Crusa d<*- 

VII ) 

" Taking of Constantinople, « 1453$ Tamerlane,Wickliffe, and Hum, 

V U- ) " The Reformation; Discoveriet 

" Edict of Nantes, " 1598 \ and Inventions. 

IX. 1 " The English Vomm.onwes.Uh 

" Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, " 1718 { and Wars of Louis XIV. 

X ? " American and French Revolu 



\ " 



" Battle of Waterloo, » 1815 $ tions. 

XJ j « European Revolutions, Liter a- 

" present time (1865.) \ ture and the Arts. 



760 the world's progress. 

MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st,— -{The Ten Persecutions.)— 



S6 



30 



48 



60 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Celsus the physician ; Phaedrus, the fabu- 
list ; VeUius Paterculus, Roman histo- 
rian. 



Sacred. 



The BIRTH OF CHRIST :— (see p. 44.) 
Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch 
of Galilee. 



8. Christ reasons with the doctors. 



The Druids in Germany. 



Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 
Seneca, moral philosopher. 



Valerius Maximus, historian. 

Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called 
the "Trumpet of the World." 



A census being taken by Claudius, the em- 
peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome 
are found to amount to 6,900,000. — (Univ. 
Hist.)— [More than three times the number 
67 London at present.! 

Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books 
on husbandry. 



25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 

26. John the Baptist begins Iris ministry. 

27. Christ baptized by John 

28. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew 
called. 

29 Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and 
two." 

30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- 
day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection, 
Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, 
May 4. 

33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 

34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 

39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 

40. The disciples first called Christians at 
Antioch. 

41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 



44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of 
St. James. 

45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 



50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athen 
52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 



55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Ctesa- 
rea. 

57. — pleads before Felix. 
59. — pleads before Festus, and appeals te 
Caesar. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



761 



306 years. — From the Christian Era to the reign of Conslantme. 



Roman Empire. 



East. 
Caiun Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. 



Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. 
Germanicus poisoned at Antioch. 



Thrace becomes a Roman province. 



West. 

Tiberius returns to Rome. 

3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. 

— Cains Caesar dies. 
6. Q. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- 
erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- 
vince. 
9. The Germans, under Arminius, defeat and 
kill Varrus. 
Ovid is banished to Tomos. 
14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is 
succeeded bv 



■Tiberius. 



19. The Jews banished from Rome. — The 

Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 
21. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by Sre. 



26. Tiberius retires to Caprasa. 



31. Sejanus disgraced and put to death. 

33. Conquest of Mauritania. 

37. Tiberius dies, aged 78. 



-Caligula, 1 



(noted for his profligacy and folly.) 
41. Caligula assassinated by Chereas. 
C 1 a u d i u s*~ 



succeeds to the tHrone. 
43. — invades Britain with his general, Plsu- 
tius. 

45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 
48. Census of 'the city, 6,900,000. 



51. Caractacus, the chief of the Britons, con- 
quered and brought to Rome. 



54. 



N e r o ,\ 



a profligate and bloody tyrant. 
55. — poisons Britanicus. 
56 Rotterdam built. 



59. Nero's mother, Agrippina, put to daatJi by 
his order. 



762 



THE world's pr.oge.ESS. [Modern : Period I. — 306 yean 



67 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Nsrc's golden palace built; of great extent, 
inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in 
Rome more regular after the fire. 



Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural 
history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Per- 
sius, satirist. 

Tostphus, the Jewish historian. 



The Coliseum of Vespasian. 



The Capitol rebuilt. 
Circumnavigation of Scotland. 
Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii 



80 Very beautiful paintings in the Baths of 
Titus ; the group of the Laocoon. 

Quintiltian, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet ; 
Martial, Epigrammatist; Apollonius, Py- 
thagorean philosopher; Epictelus, stoic; 
Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- 
losopher ; Philo ByHius ; Ignatius and Pa- 
pias, two of the fathers of the church. 



26 



Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 



59. Paui is shipwrecked on the Isiasd »' 

Melita (Malta). 

60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 

63. Paul set at liberty. 

64. The first persecution of Christians 6j 

Nero. 

63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travels 
through the greater part of the known 
world. 

66. Pope Linus.* 

The Jews at war with the Romans, and 
Paul beheaded. 
St. Peter crucified. 

67. The Jews massacred by Florus.-^Josephus, 
governor of Galilee. 

Pope St. Clement. — Gamaliel. 

68. Vespasian invades Judea. 



70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by 7Vsm 



77. Pope St. Cletus 



Tacitus, historian ; Juvenal, satirist ; Sta- 
tins, poet; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- 
rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; 
the younger Pliny. 



T he Ulpian library ; Public schools in all 
the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes ; 
the city adorned with the Forum ; Pillar 
of Trajan, and bal/is; bridge built over 
the Danube. 



83. Pope Anacletua. 



95. Second persecution of the Christians by 
Domitian. 

St. John writes his Gospel and Apoca- 
lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patmos. 

96. Pope Evaristus. 



97. Timothy stoned. 

St. John returns from exile. 

98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. 



* The word Pope is used in accordance 
with the Roman Catholic usage, though th« 
name was not adopted by their Pontiffs liH 
several centuries alter. 



— Christian Era to Constantiue.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



763 



Roman Empire. 



6U 



65 



East. 



Corbuli subdues Armenia. 



Tiridates placed on ihe throne of Armenia by 
Ne:o. 



Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by 

Titus. 
Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, 

Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. 
Revolt of the Parthians. 



West. 



61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa 
dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- 
feated by Suetonius, poisons herself. 

(54. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses the 
Christians of the crime. 

— persecutes the Christians — Seneca, Lit- 
cian, and others put to death. 



■Galba, 



reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 



69.- 



•O t h o . 



(2 months) defeated and killed by 
■ V i te 1 1 i us, 



who is defeated by the army of 
— — Vespasian. fH? 



77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in 
one day. 



79. T i t u s , ^§f - 

(beneficent.) 
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed 
by an irruption of Vesuvius. 
80. Julius Agricola, conqueror and governor 
of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 



-Domitian, fH 
( a cruel tyrant.) 



6. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, 
defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a 
yearly tribute. 

8. Capitoline and secular games. 
War with Dacia 15 years. 



96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. 



N e r v a , 



(well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) 



-Trajan, 1 



(a great sovereign anda warrior.) 
The Roman Empire at its greates'. exient 
J. Severus, general in Britain. 



764 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Modem : Period I. — 306 years. 



107 



132 



!?6 



Progress of Society, etc. 



The Jbst credible historian among the 
Chinese. 



The great buildings of Palmyra. — Temple of 

the Sun at Baalbec. 
The Roman mosaics. 



Jurisprudence improved by the publishment 
of Adrian's perpetual code. 

Ptolemy, the celebrated Egyptian astronomer 
and geographer — Arrian, Appian, Maxi- 
mus, Lysius and Pausanius, Greek histo 
rians; Lucian, a satirical writer; Hermo- 
rhetorician of Tarsus. 



Tschang Heng, the Chinese astronomer 



169 ' Galen, Greek physician ; Athceneus, a gram 
marian; Diogenes Laertius, Greek histo- 
rian. 



\% 



Ecclesiastical. 



The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 



100. St. John dies at Ephesus, set. 94. 



107. Third persecution of the Christians tef 

Trajan. 
101 St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts. 
Pope Alexander I. 



118. Fourth persecution of the Christians by 
Adrian. 

119. Pope SixtusL 



126. Quadratus, bishop of Athens. 

127. Pope Telesphorus. 

130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- 



134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges 
three Gods. 

135. Poly carp and Aristides, Christian fathers 

139. Pope Hygenus. 



142. Pope Pius I. 

Heresy of Valentine. 



150. Pope Anicetus. 

Canon of Scripture fixed about this time 

154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology fo 
the Christians. 



162. PopeSoter. 



167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Alia, 



171. Pope Eleutherus. 

177. The Christians persecuted at LyMi«.« 
Theophilus, Tatian, and Montana*. 



1S5. Pope Victor I. 
St. Irenaus. 



— Christian Era to Constantine.\ 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



765 



102 



in 



130 



132 



Roman Empire. 



Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his 
account of the Christians. — Great victories 
of Trajan. 



Trajan's expedition against the Parthians. 



Seizure of Ctesiphon. 

Armenia Major again governed by its own 
kings dependent upon Rome. 

Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 
earthquake. 



Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. 

Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of 

iElia Capicolina, and erects there a temple 

to Jupiter. 
The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war 

of five years. — The Jews banished from 

Judea. 



100. The Huns emigrate westwa: i. 

101. Trajan reduces" Dacia. 



1 15. Massacre of the Greeks and Ron. &ru by 
the Jews of Cyrene. 



117.- 



Adrian. 



120. — makes t progress through all tha 

121. provinces-visits Britain, builds there 
a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith.— A 
wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 



1G0 Embassy sent by Antoninus to China 



168 



War with the Parthians, lasts 3 yeara. 



133. — Antoninus Pius, ^g - 

(eminent for his virtues and love ol peace.) 

140. Lollius Urbicus extends the Roman do- 
minion in Britain, and erects a second ram- 
part, called the Wall of Antoninus. 

145. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, 
and Dacians. 

146. — introduces the worship of Serapis into 
Rome. 

152. — stops the persecution of the Christians. 



161. — Marcus Aurelius, ^g' (Ar>> * 

ninus,) 
(the stoic philosopher.) 
Escape of the thundering legion. 
158. Plague over the whole known world. 



169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 



180. The emperor aies at Sirmium: s»» 
ceeded by 



Commodus. 



(profligate and cruel ;) makes peaca 

with the Germans. 
GOTHS in Dacia. 



766 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[Modern : Period /.— 306 yean, 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Ecclesiastical. 



'.'IG 



235 



M2 



240 
860 



Papinian, the greatest civil lawyer of anti- 
quity — Julius Africanus, chronologer. 



Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen- 
ship to all the provinces, that they may be- 
come liable to the taxes, inheritances, <fcc. 



197. Pope Zephyrinus. 



202. Fifth persecution of the Christians undel 
Severus. — Tertullian, an able defender of 
Christianity. — Clemens, of Alexandria, and 
Minutius Felix, C. F.* 



217. Pope Calixtus I. 

The Septuagint found in a cask. 



Ammonius, founder of a new school of Pla- 
tonic philosophy at Alexandria. 
Dio Cassius, Greek historian. 



Censorius, a critic and grammarian. 



Herodian, Greek historian. 
Longinus, philosopher and ;ritic 



228. Pope Urban ». 

234. Pope Pontianus. 

235. Anterus. 

Origen, C. F. 

Sixth persecution of the Christians, unde? 
Maximinus, in which Leonidas, Ireiceua t 
Victor, Perpetua, and Felicitas are mar- 
tyred. 



244. Gregory Thaumaturgus, and Dionyntu 
of Alexandria, C. F. 



250. Pope St. Cornelius. 

Seventh persecution of the Christian!. 

* Christian Father. 



— Christian Era to Constantine.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



767 



169 



Roman Empihe. 



East. 
The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 



PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Artax 
erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasida). 

Parthia tributary to Persia. 



S*2 



Gordian defeats the Persians under Sapor 



West. 

189. The Capitol of Roma destroyed by light 
ning. 

191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 

192. Commodus assassinated by Martia an« 
Laetus. 



193.- 



P e r t i n a x , 



proclaimed by the Praetorian guards — 
murdered after a reign of 3 months. — The 
empire bought by Didius Juliamts, who 
is put to death by order of the senate. 

Septimus Seyerus,g 

(governs with vigor.) 
— defeats his competitors, Niger and Albi- 
nus. 
194. —besieges Byzantium. 
202. —persecutes the Christians. 
20S —his sons Caracalla and Ge'a go to Bri- 
tain, where 50,000 Roman troops died of 
plasue. 

The wall of Severus between the Forth 
and the Clyde built. 

211. Severus dies at York, in Britain. 

Caracalla and G e t a . fjgf 

Caracalla murders Geta. 

212. — visits the provinces along the Danube 
— Wars with the Catti and Alemanni. 

217. Caracalla is assassinated. 



Macrinus, 



put to death by the soldiers. 

218. Heliogabalus, fjjj 

(a monster of vice and cruelty.) 

222- Alexander Severus ,f§^ 

(a beneficent and enlightened prince.; 
The Romans agree to pay an annual tri- 
bute to the Goths, to prevent them from 
molesting the empire. 
226. The victory of Severus over the Persians 
at Tadmor. 

235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the 

army ; succeeded by 
M a x i m i n u s , JL 



who defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians. 

236. Maximinus assassinated by his troops 
near Aquilea. 

— Balbinus and Gordian,®- 
241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his 

tory ; they invade Gaul. 
244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum. 
. Gordian put to death by 



— Philip , b§i (the Arabian, N - 



who makes makes peace with Sapor. 
247. The secular games restored. 



249.- 



D e c i u s W 



persecutes the Christians. 
250. —slain by the Goths, who invade the 
empire by crossing the Danube. 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[Modern : Period I. — 306 years. 



251 



270 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Plotinus. 

Odin in Scandinavia. 



Paulus, a Roman poet. 



Longinus at the court of Zenobia. 



274 Rome surrounded with a wall. 
Longinus dies. 



27G 

277 



Porphyry, the Greek philosopher and opposer 

ol Christianity. 
Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra- 

cian Franks in t>3 Mediterranean and 

Northern Seas. 



Ecclesiastical. 



251. Si Cyprian, bishop of Carthage.— Mo- 
nastic life originates about this time. 

Dispute between the churches of Roms 
and Africa about baptism. 



259. Pope Dionysius. 



262. Paul, bishop of Samosatia, del iea the 
divinity of Jesus Christ 



269. Pope Felix I. 

272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 



274. Pope Eutychianes. 

Manes originates the heresy of the Manfc- 
chsans— rejects all the sacraments ; refuses 
allegiance to temporal sovereigns, &c. 



384 



Diocletian's Oriental form of government— 
tho monarchy considered hereditary — nomi- 
nation of Ca?sars as co-ru!ers. 

Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches 
of white marble, while the walls were 
adorned with paintings. 



283. Pope Caius. 

The Jewish Talmud ana Targum cora 
posed. , , 

Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reh 
gious ceremonies multiplied.— Pagan rites 
imitated by the Christians. 



286. Hierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserta 
that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and 
denies the resurrection. 



—Christian Era to Constaniine.] 



THE fTORLD'S PROGRESS. 



•09 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



HUNS o'l the Caspian Sea. 



260 

261 



264 



269 
273 



The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 
Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman 

arms. 
The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and 

Ceesarea. 

Odenatus, king of Palmyra— he is succeeded 

by his wife. 
Zen obi a, who reigns with the titles of 

' Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' 



Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Armenia, 

and Asia Minor. 
Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 

destroys her magnificent capital, and carries 

her to'Rome. 



The Persians defeated by Probus 



West. 



Gal lu s 



251. 

purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con- 
federacy of the Franks between the Rhine 
and Elbe, 
—•a great pestilence prevails in the empire. 



253.- 
254.- 



E miiianus. 
Valerian. 



— is successful against the Germans and 

Goths. 
256-69. Four great piratical expeditions tf the 

Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 
259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and 

flayed alive by the Persians. 

■ G a 1 1 i e n u s . fpf 



Period of the 30 tyrants. 
The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 
264. Alliance with Odenatus. 

267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths 
and Scythians. 

268. Gallienus killed at Milan. 

-Claudius II. 



defeats an army of 320,00U Goths. 
269. —dies at Sirmium. 



■270, 



- Aurelian, l|§f 

(a great warrior.) 
271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 



273 — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- 
ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 

274. France, Spain, and Britain reduced to 
obedience. 

The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt.— 
Dacia eiven up to the barbarians. 

275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 
An interregnum of 6 months. 

— Tacitus, vg5 



(a descendant of the historian,) 
reians with wisdom 6 months. 



277, 



Probus, 



(a warlike prince.) 
— obtains several victories over the barba- 
r j ans ._The Franks permitted by Probus to 
settle in Gaul. 
282. Probus slain by his soldiers. 



C a r u s 'f>. 



killed by lightning. 

Carinus and Numerianus 

(effeminate and cruel.) 
28S. Fingal. king of Morven, dies. 



284, 



Diocletian 



sends ambassadors to China. 
"The Era of Diocletian," or of "the 
martyrs," Ausust 29. 
287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigns 
7 years. The empire attacked by the ror'.h- 
e'rn barbarians, and several provinces 
usurped by tyrants— Maximianus, a col- 
league of the Emperor. 



33 



770 the world's progress. 



[Modem : Period I. — 306 years. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



290 The Gregorian code. 



304 



340 



357 



Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elms. 
Sparlianus, and Vopiscus, historians ; Tre- 
bellius Polio. 



Ecclesiastical. 



296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 
Pope Marcellinus 



303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converted 
torn idolatry. 



The praetorian guard broken up by Constan- 
tine. 



Foundation of Constantinople by Constantine 
the Great. — Celebrated dome of St Sophia : 
the splendor of the court so great that it 
cost more than the legions. 

Constantinople becomes the seat of art and 
literature. 



MODERN: PERIOD SECOND.— 170 years — 

306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by 

Constantius. 

310. Pope Eusebius. 
Arius excommunicated. 

311. Pope Malchiades. 



Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to 
have flourished about this time. 



Eutropius and Marcellinus, historians ; Jam- 
bdcus and Eunapius, Greek historian. 



314. Pope Sylvester I. 

319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantine 
the Great. 



325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th, 
325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, 
who condemn Ari&nism. —Eusebius, bishop 
of Caesarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- 
rian. — Lactantius. Athanasius, Arius, 
Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the 
reign of Constantine. 

336. Pope Marcus. 

337. Pope Julius. 

Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, 
the cross reverenced, and incense used by 
the Christians. 



341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by 
Frumaintius. 

356. Pope Felix II. 

St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, ol 
Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F. — 
Elites Donatus, bishop of Carthage.— 
Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem. — Monasteries ia 
Thebais. 



—Christian Era to Constantine. \ 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



771 



Roman Empire. 



East. 



JVarsis, king of Persia, loses Armenia, Meso- 
potamia, and Assyria. 

Alexandria taken by Diocletian. 

Hormiadas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. 



From Constantine to Odoacer. 



325 
328 



340 
350 

351 

351 



331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- 
ples to be destroyed. 



The first general council a . Nice. 

The seat of government removed to Constan- 
tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on 
May 11th, 330. 

Great famine and pestilence in Syria. 
Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- 
persed over the empire. 
Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, 

Constantius, Constans,and Constantine 



West. 

291. The Franks make themselves masters ol 

Batavia and Flanders. r 

293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 

296. Britain restored to the emperor. 



304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em 
pire to 

Constantius and Galerius. 



306. — Constantine the Great, ^ff 

(first Christian emperor.) 
Licinius, Maximian, and Mazentius, hia 
three colleagues. 
Constantine defeats the Franks. 
312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 
314. Civil war with Licinius. 
319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- 
tianity. 

321. — appoints the observance of Sunday. 

322. —defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- 
comes sole emperor. 

325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and 
assemblies. 



150 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 

earthquake. 
Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 

extensive empire. 
Gallus put to death by Constantius. 

y 

Constantius dies at Tarsus. 

A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 



EASTERN EMPIRE 
astending from the lower Danube to the con- 
fines of Persia. 



340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and 

killed by Constans at Aquilea. 
350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius. 



357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at 
Strasburg. 

361. — Julian, the Apostate, wif - 



— attempts in vain to rebuild the temple 
at Jerusalem. 
363. — is slain in a war with the Persians. 



364. Death of Jovian, and the accession oi 
Valentinian and Valens, under whom the 
EMPIRE is DIVIDED : 

WESTERN EMPIRE, 
•extending from the Caledonian ramparta 
to the fty. of Mount Atlas. 



772 the world's progress. 



[Modern: Period II. — 170 years, 



Progress op Society, etc. 



■A-2 



<U2 



C35 



Aurelius Victor, author of lives of celebrated 
Romans. 



Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 
Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, mathe- 
maticians. 



Claudian, Latin poet. 



Macrobius, Platonic philosopher. 



i25 Theodosius establishes public schools, and : 
tempts the restoration of learning. 



T\ 6 Theodosian code published. 



Ecclesiastical. 



373. The Bible translates into the Gothic laa 
guage. 



379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much 
enlarged. 

381. The second general Council of Constan- 
tinople. 



384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate 
for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 
5. Pope Syricius. 



392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan 
tinople ; St. Ambrose,^ archbishop of Milan ; 
St. Jerome, St. Martin, and St. Augustine, 
' Christian Fathers.' 

Image worship. — The Christian hier- 
archy begins. 



401. Pope Innocent I. 



112. Q/n7, bishop of Alexandria ; Isidore and 
Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Orosiue, 
a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine ; and 
Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi- 
nal sin, &c. 

416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the 
African bishops. 

417. Pope Zozimus. 

418. Pope Boniface I. 



422. Pope Celestine I. 



429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ae 
. knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 

431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 

432. Pope Sixtus III. \ 

St. Patrick preaches the Gospel ia Ire 
land. 
435. Nestorianism prevails in the East 



440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 

443. The Manicha&an books burned at Roma 
415. Flavian, patriarch of Constantinople. 



-From, Constantine to Odoccei:] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



773 



364 



376 



388 
392 
394 

395 
408 

•14 



Eastern Empire. 



V a 1 e n s . 



HUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by 
the Huns, from whom it is named. — The 
Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by 
VaJens to settle in Thrace. 

Valens defeated and slain by the. Goths near 
Adrianople. 

Theodosius the Great, ^^ 

a zealous supporter of Christianity. 



Theodosius defeats Maximus, the tyrant of the 
western empire. 



Western Empire. 



364.- 



Valentinian I . } 
elected by the army. 



368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de> 
feated by Theodosius. 



G r a t i a n 



gains a victory over the Germans ; suc- 
ceeds to the eastern empire on the death ol 
Valens; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. 
— Gratian killed at Lyons. 



379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- 
via, and defeat the Vandals. 



383.- 



Valentinian II. 



is dispossessed by Maximus, but is re- 
stored by Theodosius; makes Treves his 
capital. 
384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a 
Gaul, commander of the army. 



Theodo sius wl 



becomes sole emperor of the East and West. 

Complete down fall of Paganism. 

Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. 

Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. 



A r c a d i u s . 



-Theodosius 1 1 .^ff — 
a ehild ; Athenius, minister. 



Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 



Persian War. 



Armenia divided between the Persians and 

Romans. 
A great part of Constantinople destroy©. 1 by 

fire. 

Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum gained (rom 
the western empire. 



H o n o r i u a . 



401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 

403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 

406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, 

Gaul, &c. 
410. Rome sacked and burned by the Goths 

under Alaric. 

412. Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 

413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 

414. The Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- 
louse. 



417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by 

the Goths. 
420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their 

first king, on the lower Rhine. 



424. — Valentinian III . flf 

426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 

427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 

428. jEtius, the Roman general, defeated bj 
the Franks and Goths. 

Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con 
quests to the river Somme. 

433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," form* 
an immense empire from China to the At- 
lantic. 

437. jEtius defeats the Goths. 

439. The kingdom of the Vandals in 
Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who 
takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 

441. The Roman territories invaded by the 
Huns, Persians and Saxons. 

445. The famous embassy from Britain, soil- 
citing aid against the Picts. 



774- THE WORLD'S progress. [Modern: Period II.— 170 years. 



*>> 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Zozimus and Olympiodorus, Greek histo- 
rians. 



ffi 



The principle established that every accused 
person shall be tried by his peers, or equals. 



Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric 
being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- 
narchy. 



The tottering empire of the west was finally 
overthrown by Qdoacer's sack of Rome, the 
great event which precedes the middle or 
"dark ages." The form of the old 
Roman government remained — the senate, 
the consuls, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a 
succession of wars, plagues, famines, and 
every form of public tyran-'v and domestic 
slavery, was nearly a desert 



Ecclesiastical. 



447. Eutyches asserts the existence of onlj 
one nature in Jesus Christ. 

449. Ibus, bishop of Edessa ; and Eusebius, 
bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 

450. Sozomen and Theoaoret, ecclesiastical 
historians. 

451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon, 
at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianism 
are solemnly condemned. 



461. Pope Hilarius. 
465. Pope Simplicius. 



Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Con 1 
stantinople, Alexandria, An.tioch, and Jeru- 
salem — all striving for the supremacy.— 
The church now begins to assume a poiit* 
cal aspect. 



-From Constantine to Odoaccr.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



Eastern Empire. 



160 



457 



4G1 



M a r c i a n , ^g 



a Thracian, refuses to pay the annual 
tribute to the Huns. 



Western Empire. 



448. Franks :— Merovoeus 1st, king of the Me- 
rovingians. 

iElius defeats the Huns. 



451. The arrival of the Saxoni 
in Britain, under Hengist and Horea. 

452. The city of VENICE founded. 
455. Valentinian assassinated by 

-Petronius Maxim us. fi|? 



Leo I . , (the Thracian,) 



m 

475 



first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch 
War with the Goths. 

Peace with the Goths ; Theodoric is received 
from them as a hostage. 



Z e n o . 



a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- 
racies. 
Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, 

and invades the empire. He ravages 

Thrace. 



■Maj orian . fgf- 



458. Franks : — Childeric I., conquers as far 
as the Loire and takes Paris. 



■ S e v e r u s . 



467.- 



Athenius. 



(The last three emperors slain by 
Ricimer.) 
468- Spain : — The Visigoths, under Eric, esta 
blish their kingdom. 



O 1 y b i u s . ||§ 



Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- 
tinople. 



473.- 
474.- 



G 1 y c e r i u s .f§?- 

Julius Nepos. fl 



475. — Romulus Augustulus. Wg 
476. ROME taken by ODOACER, king of 
the Herulii : 

END of the WESTERN EMPIRE. 
1228 years after the building of Rome ; and 
commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un- 
der Odoacer. 



76 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 

MODERN : PERIOD III— 146 wars 



Progress of Society, etc. 



\i£ 



4SQ 



501 



511 



613 
514 



Rise of the feudal, system in France, under 
Clovis. 



Theodoric introduces the architecture of 
Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. 



Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- 
bylon. 

Burgundian laws published, being a collec- 
tion of the rights and customs of the Bur 
gundians. 



The Salic law established in France. 



Boethius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 

Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 
tinople. 



The Christian Era proposed and introduced 
by Dionysius, a monk. 



Ecclesiastical. 



483. Pope Felix III. 

excommunicated by Acacius, bishop of 
Constantinople. 

484. Christians persecuted by Kuneric, kvu% 
of the Vandals. 



492. Pope Ge.asius I. 

494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his supre 

macy. 
496. Christianity introduced into France. 



630 
631 



U3 



The schools of Athens suppressed. 

The fables of Pilpay translated into Pers.an. 
Chess introduced into Persia from India. 

Justinian 1 s pandects and code of laws. 



Architecture : the church of St Sopkia ! ui'.t 

at Constantinople. 
Proclus, a learned Platonist. 



513. Christianity embraced by the Persian 
king, Carbades. 

514. Pope Hormisdas. 



519. The orthodox bishops restored by Justin 



523. Pope John I. 

525. The Arian bishops deposed. 

526. Pope Felix IV. 

Extreme Unction introduced. 



529. The Order of Benedictine monks in 
stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 

530. Pope Boniface II. 



533. Pope John II. 

535. Pope Agapetus. 

536. " Sylvester I. 

Separation of the Armenians fr>m the (lie-id 

church. 
53S. Por e Vigilius. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 777 

—Odcacer U Mahomet. [The " Middle or Dark Ages''' begin here.] 



Eastern Empire. 



An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys the 

greater part of Constantinople. 
Zeno makes Theodoric general and consul 



Anastasius I 



The Green and Blue factions. 

The emperor's persecution of the Catho 
lies, and protection of the Manichaeans, oc 
casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. 



The empire ravaged and the imperial army 
destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. 

Long walls built to protect Constantinople 
from the Bulgarians. 

A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 
killed. 



Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose 
fleet is consumed by the burning glass of 
Proclus. 

Anastasius killed by lightning. 



a peasant of Dalmatia. 
Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire. 



•Justinian I 



celebrated for his code of laws and the 

victories of his generals, Belisarius 

and Narses. 

Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- 

roes. 



—quells i conspiracy in Constantinople, 

— defeats the Vandals in Africa, 
—subdues Sicily. 
— takes Naples. 

—takes Rome, defeats the Ostrogroths in 

Italy. 
— the Huns in Thrace, and 



Europe, generally. 



481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,fg' fcun 3el 
. of the French monarchy. 



484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 
4S5. France : — Battle of Soissons 

gained by Clovis. 
487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by Prinoe 

Arthur and Ambrosius. 
490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. 

Britain : — kingdom of Sussex. 
491. France : — Clovis subdues Thuringia. 



493. Italy : — c onquered by Th. e o - 
d o r i c , king of the Ostrogoths. — Odoa- 
cer put to death. 



499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with 
Theodoric in Italy. 

500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 



507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 

510. France : — Clovis makes Paris his capital. 

511. France: — Clovis dies. 



-Childebert I.* 



512. The HERULII settle in Thiace. 



516. The Christian Era adopted. 

517. Getae ravages Illyricum, Macedon, &c. 



519. Britain: — Prince Arthur defeated ax 
Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third 
Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 

522. Spain :— Amalaric, the first Gothic king, 
who establishes his court in Spain— his capi- 
tal, Seville. 



530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 

531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric. 

532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber*. 



536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, eurrei> 
ders his possessions in Gaul'to the Fiwfc 
king. 

537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 



33* 



778 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Modem : Period III. — 146 yean 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Th? manufacture of silk introduced from 
China by the monks. 



Procopius, a Roman historian— the last of the 
classic writers. 

The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit- 
ed by the Wittenagemat. 

Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the 
servile.— Trial by ordeal. 



Ecclesiastical. 



540. The. Monothelites, who acknowledged 
but one will in Jesus Christ. 



552. The Fifth general Council at Constanti 

nople. 
555. Pope Pelagius I. 

557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, buiJI 
at Paris. 



560. Pope John III. 

The Tritheists acknowledge three God% 
and deny the resurrection. 



68K 
588 



Christianity introduced among the Picts by 
Columbi. 

The old Roman municipal system in Raly 
overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards 
—and the feudal system established. 

Written laws compiled among the nations of 
Herman origin— first by the Visigoths in 
Spain. 

Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- 
tecture of churches, with much grotesque 
sculpture. 



The Latin language ceases to be spoken in 
Iialy, while it supersedes the Gothic in 
Spain. 

The origin of fiefs. 

The Roman Catholic faith established in 

Spain. 
Gregory of Tours, the father of French his 

tory. 



Dretwalda, king of England, converted to 

Christianity. 
Asrathus, a Grecian historian. 
Gildas, the first British historian. 
Evagrias. ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- 

rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 

Theodoric. 
The Saxons, having conquered England, it 

relapsed, in a great measure, into the state 

of barbarism, from which it had been par- 

tvilly raised by the Romans. 



573. Pope Benedict I. 

575. The first monastery founded in Bavaria. 
Great increase of miracles. 

578. Pope Pelagius II. 



)0. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. 

The doctrine of purgatory first taught.- 
Mass introduced. 



598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- 
terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 

604. Pop'e Sabianus, or Sabinian. 

606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head 
of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni- 
versal Bishop assumed. 

The Waldenses refuse submission 1c 
Rome 



-From Odoacer to Mahomet.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



779 



540 

542 
548 
649 



552 
554 



50 1 
562 
563 

505 



669 

574 
576 
578 



570- 
600 



Eastern Empire. 



Europe, generally. 



VH 



Viliges at Ravenna. — North Africa, Cor- 
sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern 
empire. 

Plague at Constantinople — during three 
months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. 

The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The 
Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. 

Siege of Petra. 



Narses defeats and kills Totila. 
Italy governed by Greek exarchs. 



A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 
and lasting nearly 50 years. 



Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 

" restored: — he quells a conspiracy. 
Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly 

destroyed. 
Justinian dies. 

Justin II. M 



Belisarius dies in prison. 



The TURKS first mentioned in history.— 
They send embassies to Justin, and form 
an alliance. 

Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- 
ernment. 

Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. 



Tiberius II. 



Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his 
reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 
almost to the Caspian Sea. 



The Avars flourish under Baian— invade the 
Eastern empire, and spread over Hungary, 
Poland, and Prussia. 



— P hotas, ]§§? — a centurion, elected king 
The empire invadei by the Persians. 



539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. 

The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 



542. Britain : 
Cornwall. 



-Prince Arthur murdered in 



550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first 
duke and legislator. His brother, Zech, 
first duke of Bohemia. 

The Greeks form settlements on tha 
Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 

556. Civil wars in France. 

558. France :— C lotaire I . Hf 

559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar- 
chy commences. 

5G0. Britain:— the kingdom of Northumbria, 
formed by the union of Bemicia and Deira. 
— Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues meet ol 
the Saxon kings. 

561. France :— C haribert I. f|g 



565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 

568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, undei 
Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 

571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 



575. " East Anglia formed into a king- 
dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- 
gin of the name England. 



583. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi- 
goths. 

France :— C lotaire II. fH 
586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. 
Spain : — Recared, king. 

588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 

589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 

591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains 
the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda 
III. 

Italy : — the Lombards, under Authans, 
successful against the Greeks and Franks. 

595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded bj 
the Sclavonians. 

596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgurdy. 

597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. 
Augustine. 

600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 

607. Britain:— Supremacy of the Pope so 
knowledged. 



780 



THE world's progress. [Modern : Period III.— 146 yean 



&.D. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 




The aristocracy acquire great power in 






France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 


606. Pope Boniface III. 




of the palace. 


607. Pope Boniface IV. 




Rites and superstitions increase in all Europe. 


The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to Goo, 




— Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- 


the Virgin, and the Saints. 




nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning 


609. The Christians massacred by the Jews a' 




of candies by day. — Exorcisms, &c. 


Antioch. 




Hereditary Jiefs. — Aristocratic class. 




615 


S^cundus, historian of the Lombards. 




617 


Elhelbert publishes the first code of laws in 






England. 


618. Pope Boniface V. 






MODERN: PERIOD IV— 178 years. 




Progress op Society, etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


620 


Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and 
philosopher. 


625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for 
splendid cathedrals and processions. 
Monks and monasteries increase. 

Africa and Asia, with the churches of 


632 


Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta- 


Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to 




blished in the East. In the Caliphs were 


the Christian world by the progress of Mo- 




united the highest spiritual and regal autho- 


hammedanism. 




rity. 


640. Pope Severinua. 
640. Pope John IV. 


636 


Christianity introduced into China. 

In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- 
cal architecture; circular arches intro- 
duced; churches built at Canterbury, Glas- 
tonbury, St. Albans, Winchester, <&c. - 

In civil architecture, forts and castles — Conis- 






borough Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown 


642. Pope Theodoras. He assumes the titla 




in Derbyshire, &c. 


of " Sovereign Pontiff." 


844 


University of Cambridge founded. 


644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of 
the clergy. 

Separation between the Greek and 




Some of the monasteries of Europe continue 


Roman churches. 




to be the repositories of learning and the 






a-ts. 


654. Pope Eugenius. 




Vel bacy if the clergy enjoined. 


657. Pope Vitalian. He established tha \mj. 
versal use of the Latin language tti the 
service of the church. 

672. Pope Adeodatua 



-From. Odoacer to Mahomet.} 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



'81 



4..D. 


Eastern Empire. 


Europe, generally. 






604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by 






Ethelbert, king ot Kent. 


610 


Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phooas, 
and makes himself king. 




GI2 


MAHOMET publishes his Koran. 
Svna ravaged by the Arabs. 


612. Britain: — Ethelfrith, king of Northum- 




bna, defeats the Britons, and destroys the 


C14 


Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 


monastery of Bangor. 
615. War between Lombardy and Ravenna. 
617. Britain: — St. Peter's (now Westminste 


613 


Constantinople taken and pillaged by the 


Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. 




Avari. 


Britain :— Bretwald IV. 









— From Mahomet to Charlemagne. 



[Dark Ages, continued.} 



633 
634 

636 

641 
642 

647 

653 



559 
661 



668 
670 
6 7 3 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



TheHEGIRA; or Mahomet's Flight from 

Mecca to Medina. 
Era of the Mahometans. 
Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- 



Death of Mahomet. 

Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the 
Saracens. 



Omar, caliph. 

" takes Jerusalem, which is held 

by the Saracens 463 years. 
Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys 

another famous library. 



Constantine III. 



-C o n s t a n s 1 1 . ,1 

(11 years of age.) 



The Saracens become masters of Africa and 
Cyprus. 

The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the 

Colossus. 
Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 

Caliphs. 

The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by 
agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 

Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the 
Treasury. 

Mjawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 
tal. 

Constantine IV. fHfinvades Sicily. 

Grand Cairo founded. 

Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, 
whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of 
Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- 
chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a 
yearly tribute. 



Europe, generally. 



62S. France :--D a g o b e r t I . ^§8 Ha 

builds the church of St. Deny, the burial 

place of the French kings. 
631. Samo, a merchant of France, makes 

himself king of Bohemia. 
633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embraces 

Christianity. 



tS-i Briuin:— Bretwald VI. 



633. France — C 1 o v i s II .jppf5 years old. 
The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years 
old,) being king of Austrasia. 

642. Britain:— Bretwald VII. 

644. Britain : — The University of Cambridge 
founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 



650. Britain:- 
tianity. 



Mercia converted to Chris- 
656. France : — C lotaire III. fBf 



660. France :— C h i 1 d e r l c II. 



663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke 
of Beneventura. 



672. The Saracens driven from Spain, bf 
Wamba king of the Goths. 



782 the world's progress. 



[Modem : Period IV. 178 years. 



A.D. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


674 


Stone buildings and glass come into use in 
England. 


676. Pope Domnus. 




The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of 


The popes become indeper dent of th» 




Gilling founded. 


Greek emperor. 




The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 


679. Pope Agatho. 




and power, by the introduction of Chris- 


680. The sixth general Council at Constantino- 




tianity. 


ple, called by the emperor Ccnstantine, who 




In France, the Teutonic language supersedes 


presides. 




the Latin. — National assemblies established, 


682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of in 




though confined to the aristocracy. 


vestiture. 
634. Pope Benedict II. 




In Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 


685. " John V. 




the Mohammedan. 


686. " Conon. 


687 


Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 


6S7. " Sergius. 


691 


Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 




697 


The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 




698 


A king first elected in Poland. 

Adhetin, the first British writer in prose and 






verse. 


701. Pop e John VI. 




Sclaxonian republics in Bohemia. 


704. The first province ,nven to the pope. 

705. Pope John VII. 

703. " Sissinius (20 days). 




Christianity greatly extended amons the Ger- 


708. " Constantine. 




man nations and other people in the north 






of Europe; but almost exterminated in 






Africa, by the progress of Mohammedan- 






ism 




709 




711. Custom of kissing the Pope's fc»t intro 
duced. 

714. Pope Gregory H. 


716 


The art of making paper brought from Sa^ 

marcand by the Arabs. 
George Si/ncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 




718 


Glastcnbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. 


Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts to pro- 
cure the assassination of the Pops. Tla? 








! 
1 


Romans defend nim. 



— From. Mahomet to Charlemagne.'] 



the world's progress. 783 



69 



083 
683 



cs;. 



695 
697 



71)5 



700 



Eastern Empire, Asia. &c. 



Europe, generally. 



The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. 
Yezid, caliph of ihe Saracens. 



Moawiah II., caliph. 
Abdallah, caliph. 



Justinian II, 



Abdulmelek, caliph. He discontinues the 
tribute to the Greek emperor 



Justinian H deposed, and his nose cut off by 

Leojihius, who is also deposed by 

Absimerus Tiberius. 

Armenia and the provinces between the Black 
and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- 
melek. 

Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa 
completely subjugated. 



Justinian II. restored. 

Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. 



673. France :— T h i e r r y I . f|f 

675. Spain: — Wamba gains a naval victory 
over the Arabs, who attempt to inv.idn hJa 
kingdom. 



6S2. Spain : — Wamba abdicates and turaa 
monk. 



690. France :— P epin d'Heristel ,|§f 
mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasia ( 
defeats Thierry, and becomes king. 

691. France :— C 1 o v i s III . W ■ 



716 



Africa subdued by the Saracens. 



Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes, 
who reigns under the name of Philippicus. 



-Anastasius II .W| 



Theodosius III. fpf pro- 
claimed by the revolted army ol Anastasius. 

ft 

Leo III., (the Isaurian.) f|l| son 

of a shoemaker. 



" — C h i 1 d e b e r t II .fg 

698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective 
monarchy established. 

Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge. 

700. Britain :— Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. 

France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- 
vence become separate dukedoms. 

705. Britain :— Alfred the Wise, in Norths 
umbria. 



710. Spain: — R o d e ri c, king, fH (the 
last of the Goths.) 



711. France :— D agobert II. 



713. Spain conquered by tha 
Saracens under Muca. By the mar- 
riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with fhewido* 
of the Gothic king, the two nations are 
united in interest. 

714. France :— Charles Martel, duke of Aua- 
trasia. 

715. France :— C h i 1 d e r i c II If — — 

716. Britain :— Ethelbald, king of Mercia. 



718. Spain : — Pelagius founds the kingdom $A 
Asturias. 



720. France :— T h i e rr y II .^ — - » 



784 the world's progress. 



[Modern: Period IV. — 178 yean 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Increasing 
power, 
spiritual 

and 

temporal 

of the 

Popes. 



Dark 

period 

of 

European 

literature. 



/31 
735 
740 

J 12 

748 



757 

■ :j 



m 



735 



I'M 



m 



Winifred, an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- 
pel to the Prisons. 

The venerable Bede dies — a grammarian, phi- 
losopher, historian, and theologian. 

The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- 
courage learning. 



Fredegaire, a French historian. 

Virgilius, a priest, is condemned as a heretic 
for believing in the existence of antipodes. 



An organ sent by Constantine to France. 

John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- 
tic philosophy. 

Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory 
of Tours. 

The schools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, 
Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 
sidae caliphs. 



Ignorance, profligacy, and misery, character- 
ized the age preceding Charlemagne. 



The first palm-tree planted in Spain. 



Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the 
caliph Harounal Raschid. 



Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. 
Foundation of schools in monasteries and 

cathedrals, by Charlemagne. 
The Gregorian chant. 
The Synod of Frankfort, 
George, the mink. 



Ecclesiastical. 



726. Image worship being forbidden by th« 
emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 

727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 

728. Leo orders the pope to be seized. 

730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. 
The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 
1. Pope Gregory III. 



736. The images throughout the empire ia- 
stroyed by order of the emperor. 
Monks persecuted. 
741. Pope Zachary 



752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king of 
France, by a papal decree. 

752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- 
bards, assisted by Pepin. 



754. — he journeys to Pepin to implore his 
protection. 

755. Commencement of the Pope's 
temporal power under the auspices 
of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- 
archate of Ravenna. 

757. Pope Paul I. 



768. Stephen IV. 

760. Council of the Lateran. 

770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the 
emperor. 

772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- 
tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 



77?. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- 
lemagne, for the support of the clergy, 
churches, schools, and the poor. 

785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by- 
Charlemagne. 



787. The seventh general Council at Nice, in 
which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts was 
condemned. 



794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagse for 
confirmation. 

Masses said for money. 



—From, Mahomet to Charlemagne, .] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



T 85 



741 
740 



Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 



The Arabs invest Constantinople by land with 
120,000 men, and by sea' with 1800 ships 
The city is saved by the Greek fire — the 
Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 

Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. 

The Greek. possessions in Italy are lost in cor. 
sequence ol" the edict i irbiddmg image wor- 
ship. 



Constantine V. (Copronymus). 

The Arabs defeated by Constantine. — Rhodes, 
Cyprus, and Antioch captured. 



?62 

766 



774 
775 



781 
785 
780 

788 
793 



Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes 

it his capital. 
Asia Minor ravaged by the Turka 



Great victory over the Bulgarians. 
Leo IT.W 



Europe, generally. 



725. France : — Charles Martel crosses th» 
Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 

727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins the 
tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- 
lege at Home. 



732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great 
victory over the Saracens near Tours. 

740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- 
covered by the Pope. 

742. France :— C hilderic III. @ ■ 



752. France :— End of the Merovingian line 
of French kings. 



-Pepin 1 e Bref,] 



Constantine VI. (Poiphyrogenetus).^g 
Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. 
The empire is invaded by Hafoun al 

Raschid, caliph of Bagdad. 
Constantine imprisons his motlier, Irene, for 

her cruelty. 

Irene Hf — — puts him to death, 

and assumes the s)le power. 
— proposes to marry Charlemagne 

is dethroned by Nicephoi us. 
The Saracens ravage Thrace. 



first of the Carlovingian line. 
753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a large 
army against the Lombards. 
Italy :— Ravenna a dukedom. 



756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate . 
Abderhama. 



761. Spain : — Froila, grandson of Pelagius, 
builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of his 
kingdom. 

768. France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles 
the Great, reigns with his brother, Carlo- 
man, until 771. 



774. Charlemaene invades Italy; defeats 
Didier, -king "of Lombardy, and annexes 
Italy to his empire. 

End of the Lombard king- 
dom. 

778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated 
at Roncesvalles. 

779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, 
and the Saxons. 

Charlemagne conquers the Avari. 
— attempts to unite the Rhine and the 
Danube. 

787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of tba 
Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings. 



794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. 
Sweden conquered by Iva Viafama, 



§ 



786 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD. V— The Middle Ages.— 266 yean 



A.D. ' Prosress op Society. 



Ecclesiastical. 



302 



Agriculture and horticul- 
ture encouraged by Charle- 
magne ; both flourish in 
Spain under the caliphs. 

Gold mines worked in Spain. 
801 Paul Warefredus (Diaconus) 
the historian. 
Haroun al Raschid, courting 
his alliance, presents Charle- 
magne with a striking clock. 
This clock was adorned with 
automaton figures, which 
moved and played on va- 
rious musical instruments. 

Fine Arabian breed of horses 
introduced into Spain. 

Alcuin, of York, a pupil of 
Bede, forms schools at Tours 
—patronized by Charle- 
magne. 

Transient revival of learning 
under Charlemagne. 

Eginhard, historian, secre- 
tary to Charlemagne. 
813 The reign of Mamuh (caliph) 
is regarded as the Augustine 
age of Arabian literature. 



800. The Pope separates from 
the Eastern Empire, and 
becomes supreme Bishop of 
the Western. 



Charlemagne reforms the 
church. 



Many bishoprics founded. 
— Great increase of monastic 
institutions. 



St. Mark's Church at Venice 

built. 
Turpin, archbishop, to whom 

is attributed the famous 

" De Vila Caro'i Magni et 

Rolandi." 



New Western Empire. 



813. Insurrection 
against the pope. 



816. Pope Stephen V. 

817. " Paschal I. 

The College of Cardinals 
founded. 



00. NEW EMPIRE of tha 
WEST founded by Charle- 
rnagne, who is crowned at 
Rome, by the pope, king of 
Italy, Germany, and France 



802. Charlemagne receives an 
embassy from Nicephorus 
and from Haroun al Ras- 
chid. 



D6. Charlemagne di- 
vides the empire be- 
tween his three sons. 

t>8. First descent of the NOR 
MANS upon France. 



813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 



814. L o u i s I . !§«§'— — 

(Debonaire) an inglorious 
and turbulent reign. 

817. Louis divides the empire 
between his three sons. 

820. Invasion of the Normans. 



824. Pope Eugenius II. 

Christianity in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

827. Pope Valentine. 

828. " Gregory IV. 
Missionaries sent from 

France to Sweden. 

831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 
monk of Corbey, father of 
the doctrine of transub- 
stantiation. This doctrine 
disowned by the English 
Church. 

Ratramus and Scotus Eri- 
gena, theologians, holding 
much the same opinions as 
Luther. 



833. Lothaire, a fourth son of 
Louis, associated in the gov- 
ernment. 

840. — L othaire .fl? — 

841. —defeated by his brothers, 
Louis and Charles, in the 
battle of Fonlenoy. 

Division of the empire. 

France :—C h a r 1 e s I.^g 
(the Bald). 

Ger. : — L o u i s I . Ygg 

— surnamed the Ger- 



Italy :— L othaire Hg 
with imperial dignity. 

The Normans plundej 
Rouen, and advance to Paris, 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
(a. d. 800-1066.) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror. 



787 



Eastern Empire. 



— N icephorus .^gf — 

The Saracens ravage Asia 

Minor, capture Cyprus, and 

compel Nicephorus to pay a 

tribute. 



— Michael I . l8g 

(Caropaltes) ; at war with 
the Bulgari. 

Kthe 



Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. 
ravage the empire. 



Michael 1 1 .|§§f 

(Balbus or the Stammerer). 

Constantinople besieged by 
the Saracens. The Bulga- 
rians raise the siege. The 
Saracens obtain possession 
of Crete, and name it Can- 
dia. 

— T h e o p h i 1 u s . f§f — 



—Michael III. 
(the Drunkard). 



England. 



813. Egbert, king of Wessex. 
defeats the Britons. 



827. The seven king- 
doms of the Hep- 
tarchy united by Eg- 
bert, king ofWe'ssex, 
under the name of ENG- 
LAND, or the Land of the 
Angles. 

E g b e r t . iff 

Invasion of the Danes. 

38. — Ethel wolf, fjf~ 
a weak prince. 

Scotland : — Kenneth, king 
of the Scots, defeats and ex- 
tirpates the Picts, and be- 
comes sole monarch. 

The Danes return, and 
ravage the country unmo- 
lested, and burn the city of 
London. 

Ethelwolf makes a pilgri- 
mage to Rome; 



The World, elsewhere 



801. DENMARK becomw a 
kingdom under Gothcus 



818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- 
tron of learning. 
10. First dismemberment of 
the Arabian monarchy. The 
dynasty of the Ta'herites 
founded at Khorassan. 
!6. The Danish prince, Ha- 
rold, is baptized at Ingel- 
heim. 



833. Motassim, caliph. He 
builds Saumora, which he 
makes the seat cf gaveriv 
ment. 



788 THE world's progress. [Period V— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



Vr : > 



Progress op Society. 



The aristocratic Feudal sys 
tern in all its power. Here- 
ditary nobility, which, with 
the clergy, was the domi- 
nant order in the state. 

The barons independent of 
the king. Gradual intro- 
duction of the Roman and 
tommon law. 



First inciosure of lands at 
Spalding, where Richard de 
Rules does much to improve 
agriculture. 



Clocks brought to Constanti- 
nople from Venice. 



The Faroe Isles, and Iceland 
discovered in this century. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Spain, Germany. 



814. Pope Sergius III. (Bucca 
Porci). 

Ignatius, patriarch of 
Constantinople. 

Persecution of the Chris- 
tians in Spain. 
847. Pope Leo IV. 

850. Christianity propagated 
by Auscharius in Denmark 
and Sweden. 

855. Pope Benedict III. 



858. Pope Nicholas I. 

First coronation of a pope. 

859. Eulogius, archbishop of 
Cordova, martyred. 

860. The schism of the Greeks 
begins. 



884. The Bible translated into 
Slavonian. 

367. Pope Adrian II. 

8th Council at Constan- 
tinople — Photius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, deposed. 

872. Pope John VIII. 



882. Pope Martin II. 
884. " Adrian III. 

. « Stephen VI. 



855. Lothario retires to a mo 
nastery and dies. 

New division of the em- 
pire at Mersen. 

856. Germ. : — Louis II. ^g 

has Italy with the im- 
perial dignity. 

— establishes his court at 
Pavia. 
858. France invaded by Louis 
the German, who is finally 
compelled to retire. 



68. Lorraine annexed to 
France. 



877. Fr. :— Louis 1 1 .f§f— 
(the Stammerer). 



-Louis III. and 



C & rl o m an 
reign jointly. 



'A. France :— C h a r 1 e sfjjF 
the Fat, an usurper. 

885. Paris besieged by the 
Normans ; gallantly defend- 
ed by archbishop Goslin. 

886. Charles makes a disgrace- 
ful peace with the Normans. 
17. Germany : — A mold, 

-(the im- 



emperor,^, 

perial dignity transferred 

from France to Germany). 

888. France :— E u d e s> .f§g— 



— Charlemagne to William I.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



789 



844 



851 



Eastern Empire. 



Decline of the Caliphate be- 
gins.— Jews and Christians 
persecuted. — Frequent wars 
between the Greeks and Sa 
racens. 



Bazil I.fgjf 

(the Macedonian), defeats 
the Saracens. 



Crete and the Sicilies reco- 
vered from the Arabs. 



S3S 



Basil commences the Mace 

donian dynasty. 
Publication of the Basilica. 



849. Alfred the Great, born. 

852. Ethelwolf defeats the 
Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 



857. EthelbaldandEthel- 

b e r t fgf — reign jointly : — 
increase the influence of the 
clergy. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Leo VI 

(the philo3ophet 



866. -Ethelred.®- 

867. The Danes conquer Nor- 
thumberland. 



872. Alfred the Great] 
— defeats the Danes. 



879. Alfred abandoned by his 
subjects, retires to the Isle of 
Athelney, but soon draws 
together his friends and con- 
quers the Danes. 



845. The Normans plunder 
Hamburg, and penetrate into 
Germany. 

846. The Saracens destroy the 
Venetian fleet, and besiege 
Rome. 

.9. — defeated by the Pope's 
allies. 
851. Sardinia and Corsica ra- 
vaged by the Saracens. 



856. The coasts of Ho. and 
plundered by the Normans. 



860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- 
ed from Odin,) unites Jut- 
land and the Danish Isles, 
and becomes king of Den- 
mark. 

861. Iceland discovered by the 
Normans. 

862. RUSSIA : — Ruric, first 
grand Prince, builds the city 
of Lagoda. 



868. Egypt throws off its de- 
pendence on the caliphs, un- 
der Ahmed. 

874. Iceland, a republic, found' 
ed by the Normans. 

875. NORWAY: — Harold 
Harfrage, first king. 



866. The Scythians saige Cro- 
atia. 



89. Hungary : — Arpad layt 
the foundation of the king- 
dom. 



790 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period V.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



k.D. Progress of Society. 



630 



,"00 



929 



933 



f«9 



',.'■&) 



Oxford University found- 
ed. — Alfred the Great esta- 
blishes a regular militia 
and navy, and the mode of 
Z?7'crf by jury ; mstitutes_/'a»'s 
and markets. — Johannes 
Scotus Erigena, a learned 
philosophical writer. 

England divided into coun- 
ties, hundreds, and tithings. 
The county courts, held 
monthly, become the great 
safeguard of the civil rights 
of Englishmen. 

Hired troops substituted for 
the feudal. 



891. Pope Formosus. 
896. " Boniface VI. 
" Stephen VII. 
<8. " John IX. 

Veneration for saints and 
a passion for relics prevail. 



900. Pope Benedict IV. 
903. " Leo V. 
905. " Sergius III. 



912. The Normans in France 
embrace Christianity. 



914. Pope John X. 



The University of Cam- 
bridge founded. 



The Anglo-Saxon monarchy 
rises into importance. 



Azophi, Arabian astronomer. 



Printing invented among the 
Chinese O) 



Cordova, in Spain, becomes 
the seat of Arab learning 
science, industry, and com 
rnerce. Its celebrated schools 
of geometry.astronomy, che- 
mistry and medicine, toge- 
ther with its equally cele- 
brated poets and philoso 
phers, render it famous 
throughout the world. 

Luitprand, the historian. 

Mints established in Kent or 
Weasex. 



Ecclesiastical. 



921. The Bohemians embrace 
Christianity. 



928. Pope Leo VI 

929. " Stephen VIII. 
Eudes, monk of Cluni. 

931. Pope John XI. 

Mere children elevated to 
the highest offices in the 
church. 



936. Pope Leo VII. 



<X)'.l 



Stephen IX. 



943. Pope Martin III. 



France. Germany,. &c. 



890. Arnold, emperor of Ger- 
many, takes Rome. 



38. Fr.:— Charles III. Ig 
(the Simple). 

39. Ger. :— L o u i s III.® 
Lrvasion of the Hunga- 
rians. 

Contests between the no- 
bles and bishops 



912. France :— R o b e r t , duka 
of Normandy. 

The Normans, under 
R o 1 1 o , establish them- 
selves in Normandy. 

Ger.: — Conrad I.fsg 

(the empire becomes 

elective). 



919 Ger. :— Henry l.^jg— 
(the Fowler), first of the 
Saxon line. 

921. France :— Robert I. de- 
feated and killed by his 
brother at Soissons. 

923. France :— Rudolph elect- 
ed duke. 

Italy: — Hugo, count of 
Provence, oppresses the aris- 
tocracy, who call to their aid 
Berenger. 

France :— Civil wars. 

929. " — Charles dies a 
prisoner at Peronne. 



936. Ger. :— O t h o I . 
(the Great). 



Fr. :— L o u i s IV 

(the Stranger). 



940. Burgundy, a fief O.' U»» 
empire. 



— Charlenagne to William I.\ 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



791 



89? 



904 



910 



917 

919 



Eastern Empire. 



Southern Italy subject to the 
Greek empire. 

War with the Bulgarians, 
Lombards, and Saracens — 
the latter take the island of 



Russian expedition under 
Oleg, against Constantino- 
ple. 



-Constantine VII. wg- 
associates his four sons, so 
that there are five emperors. 



891. Invasion of the Danes. 
The first land lax. 



901. E d w a r dfgf 

(the Elder), the first who 
takes the title of " Rex An- 
glorum." 

War with the Danes. 



Constantinople besieged by the 

Bulgarians. 
Romanus, general of the fleet, 

usurps the empire, with his 

three sons, Christopher, Ste 

phen, and 

-Constantine YHI.f®- 



.'37 



The World, elsewhere. 



924. —A t h e 1 s t a n , 



Romanus gains a naval victory 
over the Russians, who, led 
by Igor, enter the Black 
Sea with 10,000 ships or ca- 
noes, 



942 Naples annexed to the empire 

945 The empress Helen usurps the 
throne. 



934. —by the victory of Bru 
nanburgh, he becomes kin< 
of all Britain. 



900. Scotland : — Constantim 

in. 

901 . Italy :— The republics 
of Venice and Genoa 
founded. 



908. The race of Fatimites in 

Egypt- _. . 

910. Spain :— Kingdom of Leon 
founded by Garcia. 

912. Spain :— Abderrahman III. 
the greatest Arab prince of 
Spain— builds the splendid 
city and palace of Zehra. 

914. Spain :— OrdognoII., king 
of Oviedo, makes Leon his 
capital. 

Commencement of the 
heroic age in Spain. 



921. Poland :— Lesko IV. 
" — Zemormysl. 

923. Spain :— Fruela, king of 

Leon. 
904. « — Alphonzo IV. 
927! " — Ramiro II. 



930. Denmark :— Harold VI., 

firs' Christian king. 

932. 4.rnolf of Bavaria, de- 
feated near Verona. 

933. Norway :— Eric, king— 
his cruelty leads the people 
to revolt. 



94O. — E d m u n d I . 
brother of Athelstan. 



940. Spain :— Ramiro, king ol 
Leon, defeats the Moors, un- 
der Abderrahman, in the bafc 
tie of Simancus. 



792 THE world's progress. [Period V.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 2G6 years. 



a.d. Progress op Society. • Ecclesiastical ' France, Germany, &c. 



:>41 



978 



861 

882 



The mercantile character 
raised by a law of Athelstan, 
that a merchant who made 
three voyages over the high 
seas with a ship and cargo 
of his own, should enjoy the 
rank and privileges of a 
thane. 

The figures of arithmetic 
brought into Europe ley the 
Saracens. 

Silver mines in the Hartz 
Mountains. 

Manufactories of linens and 
woollens in Flanders, which 
becomes the sea: of western 
commerce. 



Geber, Arabian astronomer. 
Suidas, grammarian and lexi- 
cographer. 
Rhazes, Arabian physician. 



The Saxon fleet, consisting of 
360 sail, in three squadrons, 
makes the circuit of the 
island, under the command 
of king Edgar. 



Abbo, monk and astronome/. 



Albirunius, Arabian geogra- 
pher. 

Greenland discovered by the 
Norwegians. 



Almoin, historian. 



Dublin much frequented ' for 
trade, also many places on 
the Baltic. 



946. Pope Agapetus II. 



955 Baptism of Olga, and con- 
version of Russia to Chris- 
tianity. 

956. Pope John XII. 

Quarrel with the emper- 
ors respecting investiture. 

959. St. Dunstan, archbishop 
of Canterbury, attempts to 
reform the church — enforc- 
ing clerical celibacy. 

The influence of the 
monks greatly increased. 



963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by 
Roman citizens. 



964. Benedict V. elected by a 
council. 

965. John XIII. 

Poland receives Christianity 
under Miecislus. 



972. Pope Benedict VI. 

973. Boniface VII. : deposed 
and banished for his crimes. 

974. Domnus II. 

975. Benedict VII. 



984. Pope John XIV. 
986. « John XV. 



989. Christianity propagated 
in Russia by Waldimir — 
they hold to the Greek 
church. 



950. Germany : — Bohemia be- 
comes tributary to Otho. 

953. The Hungarians sub- 
dued. 

954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.f|? 
— confers the dukedoms of 
Burgundy and Aquitaine on 
Hugh the Great. 

957. Germany : — Otho defeati 
the Slavonians in Saxony, 



964. Italy united to the empire 
of Germany. 

Tuscany becomes a duke- 
dom. 



973. Ger. :— Otho Il.fg 
subdues the Bohemians. 



979. Otho at war with Lo 
thaire. 



83. — O th o III. ,W — 
(3 years of age). 

86. Fr.:— Louis V.,@ 
("the Slothful,") last of th« 
Carlovingian race. 

S8.Fr.: Hugh Capet,f|| 
—founder of the third at 
Capeiian line of Frencfc 
kings. 



~Charle?nagne to William I.\ 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



793 



Eastern Empire. 



England, &c. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Constantine III. retires mto a 
cloister. 



946. E 1 d r e d@ 

governed by Dunsian, abbot 
of Glastonbury. 

952. Scotland :— Malcolm I.. 
king. 



963 



955. Scotland :— Indulf, king. 
955. E d w y 



insulted by Dunstan, and 
deposed — his queen, Elgiva, 
put to death. 



S67 
969 



975 



esc 



— R omanus II 
poisoned by his wife, Theo 
phano. 



-Nicephoru? II. 



— he recovers Cyprus and An- 
tioch from the Saracens. 

— is murdered by 

— John Zimisces.f® — 



Basil and Constantine 

viii. fjf — 



Apu.ia and Calabria recover- 
ed and united to the empire. 



._ 959. -E dgar 



marries the beautiful El 
frida, after the violent death 
of Athelvvold, her lover. 
960. Scotland :— Duff, king. 

Wolves expelled from 
England and Wales, in con- 
sequence of a reward beins 
offered for the purpose by 
the king. 

Violent disputes between 
the monks and the clergy. 



975. E d w a r d® 

(the martyr), murdered by 
his stepmother, Elfrida. 



978. — Ethelred I l.,lgp- 
(" the Unready.") — Dunstan 
still minister.— The people 
become discontented. 



985. Danish invasion, under 
Sweyn. 

The king purchases their 
retreat. 



950. Spain :— Ordono III. kina 
of Leon. 



955. Spain :— Sancho I., king 
of Leon. 



958. Italy ; - War between thi 
Normans and Saracens. 



961. Candia recovered from 
the Saracens. 

962. Poland:— Miecislas esta- 
blishes Christianity. 



967. Spain:— Ramiro III, kin" 
of Leon. 

96S. The Northmen devastate 
Galicia, but are defeated and 
almost exterminated. 



973. Hungary : — St. Stephen, 
first hereditary king, extends 
the kingdom eastward ; gives 
it a constitution and written 
laws 

976. Spain :— Hixem, caliph 
of Cordova. 

Almansor, regent, obtains 
many victories over the 
Christians. 

!0. Russia:— Waldimir I; 
marries Anna, sister of the 
emperor Basil II. 

983. Italy : — Venice distracted 
by violent commotions. 

9S5. Sweyn I., or Sweno, king 
of Denmark, invades Eng- 
land. 



34 



794 THE world's progress. [Period V—{a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



A.d. Progress of Society. 



S97 



1002 



1024 



Venice and Genoa carry on a 
flourishing trade between 
Asia and Western Europe. 

Stephe.i, duke of Hunga- 
ry, propagates Christianity 
among his subjects. 



Paper made of cotton rags. 



Spain, the seat of Arabian and 
Jewish learning. 



Churches first built in the 
Gothic style. 

Foundation of the House of 
Wisdom at Cairo. 

The French language first be- 
gins to be written. 

Leo, the grammarian. 

The arts faintly revive in Italy 
— paintings in fresco and 
mosaic. 

Literature, the arts and sci- 
ences,and commerce flourish 
at Ghizni. 

Musical scale, consisting of six 
notes, invented by Guido 
Aretino. 

Avicenna, a famous Arabian 
chemist and physician. 

Glaber Had, historian. 

Campanes, of Navarro, astro- 
nomer. 

Hermannus Contractus, monk 
and mathematician. 



Ecclesiastical. 



993. First canonization of 
saints. 



996. Pope Gregory V. 

997. " John XVI. 



999. Pope Sylvester II. 



Hungary a fief of the 
Romish church. 



1003. Pope John XVIII. 



1009. Pope Sereius. 
1012. " Benedict VIII. 



Persecution of the Albi- 
genses in Languedoc. 



1024. Pope John XIX. He 
gained his election by bribe- 
ry. He was not of the clergy, 
but consul and senator of 
Rome. 



1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten 
years old). 

"Peace of God," pub- 
lished by the bishops. 



France, Germany, &c. 



996. Fr. : — R o b e r t II. ,fg' 
— (the Wise,) succeeds his 
father Hugh. 



98. — is excommunicated by 
the pope for marrying his 
cousin Bertha. 



1002. Ger. :— Henry II. Hf 
— (duke of Bavaria). 

Italy : — Ardoin, margrave 
of Ivrea, elected king. 



1004. Italy :— Henry invited by 
the German party — Ardoin 
loses most of Italy and re- 
signs. — Pavia burnt in a 
quarrel between the troops 
and people. 



1015. Germany : — The empe- 
ror receives an annual tri- 
bute from Poland. 



1024. Ger. :-Conrad Il.fjpl 

—(the Salic,) first of the 
Franconian line. 

1025. Expedition into Italy. 



1029. War with the Poles. 

1031. Fr.:— H err y I.flf— 

1032. Burgundy annexed a 
the empire. 



— Charlemagne to William I.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



795 



1000 



Eastern Empire. 



Basil drives the Bulgarians 
from Thessaly. 



1018 Bulgaria again reducad to a 
Grecian province. 



1028 



1031 



1034 



England, &c. 



994. Scotland : — Constantine 
IV. slain by 

995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 



1002. Dreadful massacre of 
all the Danes in England — 
upon which Sweyn lands a 
large armament, and brings 
war and all its miseries upon 
the country. 

1003. Scotland:— Malcolm II., 
an able, renowned prince. 



1012. An annual tribute pro- 
mised to the Danes. 

1013. The Danes, under Sweyn, 
become masters of England. 



1016.— Edmund II.,f|L 
(Ironsides.) fights six battles 
with Canute, king of Den- 
mark, with whom he finally 
divides the kingdom. 

1016.- Canute f§| 

the Great, patronizes litera- 
ture and the church. 



— R omanus III. 
(Argyrus). 

—expels the Saracens from 

Syria. 
— poisoned by his wife Zoe. 



-Michael IV.W — 



1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru 
f — sole monarch. 



The World, elsewhere. 



995. Norway :— Olaf I. 

Christianity introduced. 

997. Drontheim founded. 
Mahmud Sultan ofGhiz* 

ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- 
bul, and part of India to his 
dominions; patronizes litera- 
ture. 

998. Spam :— Division of tha 
Mohammedan kingdom of 
Cordova. 

1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) 
king of Navarre, takes tha 
title of emperor. 

1000. Savoy : — independent un- 
der Bervald, its first count. 

Poland : — Boleslas I. f 
(the Lion-hearted). 



1006. Pestilence in Europe for 
three years. 

1012. Spain: — Suleiman, ca- 
liph. 



1014. Denmark :— Harold III., 
king. 

1015. Norway :— Olaf II. 

1016. Denmark :— Canute II., 
(the Great). 



1019. Norway conquered by 

Canute. 

Venice, G:noa, and Pisa 

rise into importance. 
1025. Poland :— Miecislas II. 



1031. Canute penetrates into 
Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 

1032. — performs a pilgrimage 
to Rome. 

1034. Scotl'd : — Duncan, king. 

1035. —Harold I . ,W — 
(Harefoot,) cruel anci un- 
popular— ruled by Earl 
Godwin. 



1035. Spain : — Ramiro I , king 
of Arragon. 

1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile, 
in right of his wife succeed* 
to Leon ; successful against 
the Mohammedans. 

1036. Denmark : — Hardica* 
nute III. 

1037. Norway : — Magnus L, 
(the Good). 



79 3 THE world's progress. [Period V— (a. d 800-1066.)— 266 years. 



A.d. Progress of Society, etc. 



1055 



Ferdusi, the Persian Homer. 
Franco, mathematician. 
George Cedrenus, historian. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Michael Psellus, a celebrated 
Greek philosopher and his- 
torian. 



English parents prohibited by 
law from selling their chil- 
dren. 



First age of scholastic philoso- 
phy. 



1038. The Pope, for his scan 
dalous conduct, driven from 
Rome, but re-established by 
the emperor, Conrad. 



1044. — again driven from the 
throne, and succeeded by 
Sylvester III. After three 
months Benedict is restored 
by the Counts of Tusculum. 
But finding the people will 
not tolerate his crimes, he 
sells the papal chair to Gre- 
gory. 

—deposed for simony, by 
a council called by Henry 
III. 

1046. Pope Clement II. 

1048. Damascus II., 23 days. 
" Leo IX., the first who 
kept a regular army. 



1053. — is defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Normans. 

1054. The papal chair vacant 
one year. 

Excommunication of the 
Patriarch of Constantinople, 
and the Greeks. 



1055. Pope Victor II. 

Hildebrand, the real 
head of the church from the 
time of Leo IX. The church 
improving in piety and dis- 
cipline. 

1057. Pope Stephen IX. 

1058. Nicholas n. 
Benedict X., (antipope). 
The election of pope 

transferred to a conclave of 
cardinals. 

1059. Quarrel between the 
popes and the German em- 
perors, respecting investi- 
tures and nomination to the 
Holy See. 

1061. Pope Alexander II. 

1062. Berenger, a celebrated 
French ecclesiastic. 

Alexander forbids the 
massacre of the Jews. 

1066. Alexander deposes Ha- 
rold, and gives England to 
William the Conqueror, 
duke of Normandy. 



France, Germany, &c. 



1039. Ger.:-Henry II I. f|| 

— defeats the Bohemians 
and Hungarians — claims ths 
right of nominating to the 
papal chair. 



1046. France : — Disputo be- 
tween William the Con- 
queror and William of 
Arques, for the duchy ol 
Normandy. 



1053. Germany :— Henry HI. 
causes his son, Henry, to be 
proclaimed king of the Ro- 
mans. This tiile was ap- 
plied, for several centuries, 
to the king's eldest son. 



Ger. :-Henry IV.f|f 
— (the Great), aged six years, 
under the tutelage of his 
mother. 
1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, 
becomes a vassal of tha 
pope. 



1060. Fr. :— Philip 1 H?~ 



-Charlemagne to William I. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



797 



H.D. 

1038 
1041 

1042 
1012 

1SM3 



1054 
1054 
1056 
1057 



Eastern Empire. 



Earthquakes and famine at 
Constantinople. 

— Michael V., 1 ^^ 

(Calaphales). 

— Zoe & Theodora. fU— 

Constantine X 

(Monomarchus). 
First invasion of the Seljuk 

Turks. 
The Russians invade Thrace 

with 100,000 men, and are 

repeatedly defeated by the 

Greeks. 



Theodora, iffif 

the last of Macedonian dy- 
nasty. 

The Greek church becomes 
independent. 

Michael VI. ,flf 

(Stra iotichus). 

1 s a a cw? — ■ 



(Comnenus). 



069 — C onstantine 
— (Ducas). 



XI. 



England, &c. 



1039. -Hardicanute.lgg- 
Scot'd. : — Macbeth mur- 
ders Duncan, and usurps the 
throne. 

The Saxon line restored 
under JL 

1042. E d w a r dfHf 

(the Confessor). The coun- 
try prospers under his mild 
sway. 



1051. Rebellion of Earl God- 
win and his sons. 

William, duke of Nor- 
mandy, visits Edward. 

1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. 

Earl Godwin dies. 

The Welch and the Irish 
several times invade Eng- 
land, but are repressed by 
Harold, son of Godwin. 

1054. Macbeth defeated and 
killed at Langfanan, by 
Sivvard, earl of Northum- 
berland. 



1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III 



The World, elsewhere. 



1042. Denmark : — Magnus, 
(the Good,) of Norway, king. 



1066. —Harold II., Hf — 
elected king ; killed at the 
BATTLE of HASTINGS. 

— WILLIAM I , W — 
duke of Normandy, styled 
"the Conqueror." 

End of the Anglo- 
Saxon dvnasty. 

Edgar Atheling flies to 
Scotland. 



1047. Denmark :— Sweyn Ea- 
tritson, or Suenon D. 



1050. The Pisans and Genoese 
take Sardinia and Corsica 
from the Saracens. 



1055. The Turks reduce Bag- 
dad, and overturn the em- 
pire of the caliphs. 



1059. Sweden: — Ingeldus or 
Ingo I., the first Christian 
king. 

1060. Robert Guiscard, the 
Norman, is created by the 
pope, duke of Apulia. 

1062. 70,000 Europeans are 
killed, or made prisoners by 
the Turks in Palestine. 

1065. Jerusalem taken by th« 
Saracens. 

1065. Castile and Leon — At 
phonzo, kir g. 



798 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

PERIOD. VI.— The Middle Ages— (Continued.)- 



d. PitoaRESs op Society, etc. 



1062 



1081 



10*1 



1090 



Feudal System introduced in 
England by the Normans. 



Surnames first used amonj 
the English nobility. 



1073 Knights errant in Spain. 



Ingulphus, historian, secre- 
taiy to William the Con- 
oueror. 



Marianus Scotus. 
Booksellers first heard of. 



London Bkidgs and Westmin- 
ster Hal) tjtAi. 



Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 

Doomsday Book cwapJIed by 
order of Williain J&a Con- 
queror. 



William of Spires, mathema- 
tician. 

A rigid police established in 
England. — The curfew. 

Ncrtnan French taught in &M 
the schools, and made use of 
in all legal proceedings. 

Literature patronized in the 
East by Melek Shah. 



Fortress of Newcastle and of 
Carlisle built. 



Ecclesiastical. 



Popery at the height 
of its power, claiming 
supreme dominion, tem- 
poral and spiritual, over 
all the states of Christen- 
dom. 



France, Germany, & Spain, 



1066. William, Duke of Nor. 
mandy, claims the crown of 
England, and makes war 
upon Harold to obtain it 



1071. Philip engages in a 
war with Robert, count of 
Holland. 



1072. Henry IV. of Germany, 
summoned befpre the pope, 
for selling the investiture of 
bishops. Treats the man- 
date with contempt. 

1073. — summoned again by 
Gregory VII. 



1073. Pope GregoryVII., 
(Hildebrand,) who attempts 
to free all the clergy from 
the civil jurisdiction. He 
quarrels with the emperor. 

1074. Simony and celibacy 
forbidden. 

1075. The pope sends legates 
to the various courts of Eu- 
rope. 

1076. — sends an ambassador to 
to depose the pope — is excom municated by Gregory. Goes 
barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses 
his feet. 

1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by 
the Empress Matilda. 

1076. Spain :— The Cid. 

1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- 
emperor. Rudolph dies in 
1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- 
grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes 
an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be 
elected. The war continues till 

1084, when Henry triumphs 
over Gregory, who flees to Sa lemo. and dies in exile in 1085. 



KF4. The order of the Carthu- 
sians instituted by Bruno. 



1Q8C Pope Victor III. 



1085. Spain :— Toledo taken 
from the Moors, by Don 
Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by 
Raymond, count of Tou- 
louse. 

1086. Spain:— The battle of 
Zalaca. 

1087. France : — War with 
England : Robert, duke ol 
Normandy, opposes Wil- 
liam Rufus. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
1066-1299. — William the Conqueror to Olhman I. 



799 



1067 



1071 



Eastern Empire. 



Eudocia.^f 

She marines 

Romanus III., fly 

(DiDgenes.) He valiantly 
but vainly opposes the 
Turks — is defeated and 
taken prisoner by Alp Ars- 
lan, Emir oi'Omrah. 



Michael VII. 

(Parapinaces). 



Andronicus I.f§sp— 




-Constantine XII 



1074 Syria and Palestine subdued 
by Melek Shah. 



England & Scotland. 



1078 
I.0S1 



Nic.ephorus, W$ 

(Botoniates). 

— Alexius I.fHf (Com- 

nenus). The empire in- 
vaded by Robert Guiscard, 
the Norman, who defeats 
Alexius- at Durazzo. 



1066. —William I.,fgf- 

" THE C0N9,UER0R," first of 

the Norman line. 



1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of 
the Saxon line, takes refuge 
in Scotland. His sister, 
Margaret, marries Malcolm 
III. 

1070. The feudal system in- 
troduced by the king. All 
the offices of the government 
placed in the hands of Nor- 
mans. The Norman lan- 
guage introduced. 

Malcolm III. of Scotland, 
ravages Durham. 

1072. Peace between the Nor- 
mans and the Scots 



After the capture of Jerusa- 
lem, by the Turks, the Chris- 
tian pilgrims are insulted, 
robbed and oppressed, which 
gives rise to the crusades. 
— Great struggle between 
Christianity and Mohamme- 
danism. 



1076. Robert, the king's son 
raises a rebellion in Nor- 
mandy. 



1087. William invades France, 
and is killed at Mantes. 

1037. —William II., fg 
(Rufus). 

Revolt of the Norman 
nobles. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1067. Poland : — Boleslas fl 
— he conquers Russia. 



1068. Poland :— Romanus Di*- 

genes. 



1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 



1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, 
(Emir,) extends his domin- 
ions from the Jaxartes to the 
Mediterranean. 

1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. 

Palestine invaded and 
subdued by Melek Shah.— 
Jerusalem taken. 



1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 

1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- 
shop of Cracow, murdered. 
The king excommunicated 
and dethroned. 

1079. Poland :— Uladislas I. 



1083. Italy : — Rome taken 
after a siege of two years, 
by Henry IV. 

1084. BOHEMIA erected into 
a kingdom by the empereor 
Henry IV. 



1090. Sicily conquered by 
Roger the Norman, after a 
war of thirty years witl. iu 
masters, the Saracens. 



800 the world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 



1095 



1096 



1099 



1100 



1118 



1120 



Ecclesiastical. 



France. Germany & Spain. 



1093. Conrad, son of the em 
peror, rebels. 

The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 

1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. 
— of Navarre and Arragon, 

The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countries cl 
Christendom. ■ . i 

[The Council op Clermont. 

The FIRST CRUSADE ;— Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, sM 
out with a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start. 



Nathan Ben Jechiel, learned 
Jew. 



Knights of St. John insti 
tuted. 

Anna Comnena, daughter of 
Alexius I., Eastern emperor, 
historian. 

William of Poitou, first trou- 
badour. 



Abelard, French scholastic. 
Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo- 



The Knights Templars. 



Tograi, Hairi, and Abdallah 
Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. 

Scholastic Philosophy attains 
its highest point by the 
writings of Peter Abelard. 

Peter, the Lombard, (master 
of sentences). 



The chieftains of the 



1099. Pope Paschal II. 



first crusade were, 

1. Godfrey of Bcuillor 
or Boulogne. 

2. Hugh of Vermandois. 

3. R o b e r t of Normandy 

4. Robert of Flanders. 

5. Stephen of Chartres. 

6. Raymond of Toulouse. 

7. Bohemond. 

8. Tancred. 

600,000 warriors, 100,00fl 
cavalry. 



1118. Pope Gelasius II. 

1119. " Calistus II. 



1123. First Lateran, or ninth 
general council. 

1124. Honorius II. 



1104. Spain : — Alfonzo I., king 
of Navarre and Arragon. 

1106. Ger. :— Henry V .@ 
— maintains the right of in- 
vestiture. 



1108. Fr.:— Louis VI., 'gf 
— Le Gros. Abbe Sugar, 
minister. 

1109. Germany :— Henry en- 
ters Italy, takes the pope 
prisoner, and compels him 
to crown him. 

1114. Henry V. marries Ma 
tilda, of England. 



1118. Spain :— AL'fcmso I. cap- 
tures Saragossa. 



1120. Rivalry between Eng- 
land and France com- 



1125. Germany: — Lothaire 

1 1 .|U opposed by Fre- 

dericj and Conrad, duke of 
Suabia. 



J066-1229, — Continued.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



801 



Eastern Empire. 



1099 



1104 



1109 
1111 



1118 



Order, learning, and com 
merce revive. 

By the courage and talents of 
the Comneni, the empire is 
feared or respected by the 
nations of Asia and Europe. 

Invasion by the crusader; 
great numbers pass through 
Constantinople. 



Battle of Dorylasum, which 
secures the march of the 
crusaders through Asia Mi- 
nor. 



Acre taken by the crusaders. 



England & Scotland. 



Tripolis taken by crusaders. 



Berytus and Sidon taken by the 
crusaders. 



— John I., ^g* (Comne- 

nus),a noble prince ; reforms 
the manners of his people. 



Tyre taker, by the crusaders. 



1093. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 
invades England, and is 
slain near Alnwick Castle by 
Roger de Mowbray. 

1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, 
king. 

William again invades 
Normandy. 

Sct'd. : — Duncan usurps 
the crown. 

William quarrels with 
Anselm, archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 



109S. Scotland :— Edgar puts 
out Donald's eyes and de- 
thrones him. 



1100. William II. accidentally 
shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. 

— H e n r y I . ,^§ — 
(Beauclerc.) grants the Eng 
lish a charter, and marries 
Maud, a Saxon, thus unitin_ 
the Norman and Saxon in- 
terests. 

1101. Robert, duke of Nor 
mandy, invades England. 



1106. Henry invades Norman- 
dy ; takes Robert prisoner 
at the battle of Tinchebrai. 

Scotland : — Alexander I. 

1107. Henry quarrels with An- 
selm. 



1120. Shipwreck and death of 
Prince William and 140 no- 
blemen. 

1124. Insurrection in Norman- 
dy suppressed. 

Scotland :— David I. pro- 
motes civilization. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1095. Hungary : — Colomar„ 



1096. Egypt :— Mustali. th« 
eighth Fatimite caliph. Ha 
takes Jerusalem. 

1097. Baldwin founds ths 
principality of Edessa. 



1099. Jerusalem taken by the 
crusaders, under Godfrey 
who is elected king. 



1102. Poland :— Boleslas III. 



1 105. Denmark : — Nicholas 

1106. Italy: — Venice, Genoa, 
and Pisa greatly enriched 
by the crusades. 



1109. Norway : — Segurd's ex- 
pedition to Palestine. 



1117. Persia :— Sanjar subdues 
Khorasan and Samarkand. 

1119. War between Pisa and 
Genoa. 

1120. Italy: — Rise of th« 
house of Guelph. 

Zengi, governor of M 
sul, a great prince 



34" 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period VI — The Middle Ages.— 



A.D Proorbss op Society, etc. 



1137 



1558 



Aristotle's logic comes into 
repute. 



Pandects of the Roman law 
(Justinian,) discovered at 
Amain, and the study oi the 
civil law revived. 



Gratian collects the canon law. 

William of Malmsbury, Eng- 
lish historian. 

Vacarius teaches civil law at 
Oxford. 

Otho, bishop of Friesengen, 
historian, introduces thep 
ripatetic philosophy into 
Germany. 

Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, 
travels from Spain to India, 
by Constantinople, and re- 
turns through Egypt. 



The magnetic needle known 

in Italy. 
Suidas, lexicographer. 
Eben Ezra, ofToledo, Jewish 

historian. 



Arnold, of Brescia, condemn- 
ed and burnt. 

Eustalhius, commentator on 
Homer and Pionysius Per. 



Bank of Vsnire established. — 
fairs at Leipsic. 

London eintains 40,000 inha- 
bitants 



Poem of the Cid. 



Colleges 3f theology, philoso- 
phy and law at Paris. 

English commerce confined to 
the exportation of wool. — A 
woollen manufactory esta- 
blished at Worsted, and soon 
after at Norwich. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1127. — makes war against 
Roger, king of Sicily. 

1130. Innocent II. and Anacle- 
tus, rival popes. 



1137. A pretended Messiah in 
France. 

1138. — another in Persia. 



1139. Second Lateran, or tenth 
general council. 



1143. Pope Celestin II. 

1 144. " Lucius II. 

1145. " Eugenius III. 



1112. Spain- — Alfonzo VII., 
kin?, Leon and Castile. 



1134. Spain :— Garcia IV., king 
of Navarre. 

Rami ro II., king of Arra- 
gon. 

1135. Lothaire in Italy — cap. 
ture of Amalfi. 

1137. Fr. :-Louis VII.® 

— (le Jeune). 
1133. Germany : — Hot s e 

of Suabia: 

— Conrad I.fjf 

1139. Portugal becomes a king- 
dom. — Henry of Besancon, 
king. 
1141. Germany and Italy. — 
Dissensions of the G u e J fs 
and G h i b e 1 i n e s . 



1147.The Second Crusade excited by St. Bernard, 
and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- 
deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. 

1149. France: — Louis divorces 
his queen, Eleanor, who 
marries Henry of Anjou, af- 
terwards king of England; 
thus Guienne and Poitou are 
lost to France. 

1150. Spain : — Sancho V., king 
ot Navarre. 

1152. Germany and Italy : — 



1 153. Pope Anastasius IV. 

1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- 
lishman, Nicholas Breaks- 
peare). 



1159. Pope Alexander III. 
Victor IV., antipope. 

1160. Order of the Carmelites 
instituted. 

The Waldenses and 
Albigenses begin to ap- 
peal* 
1164. Pascal HI., antipope. 



1167. Rome taken by Frederic Babarossa. 



1168. "Jalistus III., antipope. 



Frederic I . 
(Barbarossa). 



1157. Spain: — Castile and 
Leon divided under Ferdi- 
nand II. and Sancho II. 

1158. Germany: — The empe- 
ror Frederic receives the 
title of king of Bohemia al 
the diet of Ratisbon: — con- 
quers Poland, and makes it 
tributary. 



1162. Frederic destroys Milan. 
Spain : — Alfonic H, 
king of Arragon. 



1066-1229.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



803 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. 



1H3 



IMS 



—Manuel Commenus. 



Edessa being retaken by the 
Turks, gives rise to the 
second crusade. 

The Normans, under Roger, 
arrive before Constantino- 
ple ; are repulsed by Manuel. 



1155 
1156 



The Greeks reduce Apulia 
and Calabria. 

Manuel forms the desien of 
conquering Italy an5 the 
western empire, but fails 



Kelso, Melrose, and Holy- 
rood house founded. 
1127. Matilda, the king's 
daughter, marries Geoffrey 
Plantagenet. 



1135. Stephenflf 

of Blois. 

1136. Matilda asserts her right 
to the throne ; 

David, king of Scotland, 
assists her. 
1138. —is defeated in the " bat- 
tle of the Standard." 



1141. Stephen made prisoner 
at the battle of Lincoln. 



Civil war : Stephen and 
Matilda. 



1149. Henry Plantagenet in- 
vades England. 



The World, elsewhere: 



1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald I 
1133. " Magnus I. 



1154. —Henry II. 
(Plantagenet). 



1158' Thomas a Becket intro- 
duced to the king's notice by 
Theobold, archbishop of 
Canterbury — becomes chan- 
cellor and preceptor of the 
prince. 

1159. Becket sent as ambassa- 
dor to Fiance. 



1162. —made archbishop of 

Canterbury — opposes the 

king. 
1164. —resists the constitutions 

of Clarendon — flies to 

France. 
1166. Scotland :— William. 



1139. PORTUGAL becomes a 
kingdom, under Alfonso I.f|| 

Sweden :— Suercher II. 



1147. Russia : — the city ol 
Moscow founded. 



1150. Denmark : — The coasta 

infested with pirates. 
1150. Sweden :— Eric X 



1157. Denmark : Waldemar I. 



1158. Venice a great maritima 
power. 



1162. Sweden :— Charles VH 



1167. Italy :— League of tha 
Italian cities to preserrf 
their liberties. 



804 the world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.d. Progress op Society, etc. 



1175 
1177 



1178 



Ecclesiastical. 



Foundation of the military 
order of Santiago. 

Circuit Judges appointed in 
England. 

1178. Innocent III., antipope. 

The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy 
of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks 
during his visitation. 

The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They 
circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- 
runners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- 
ral Council, and severely per secuted. 

1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- 
venth General Council. 

Robert Wace, first French 
poet. Translation of his 
Mist, des Rois d' Angleterre, 
by Layaraon, the first Eng- 
lish composition. 



1189 
1190 



1196 



John Tzetes, Greek gramma- 
rian. 

Maimonides, of Cordova, one 
of the most learned of the 
Jews. 

Henry, of Huntington, and 
William, of Newbury, his- 
torians. 

Rainulph de Glanville makes 
a digest of laws and customs 
of England. 



Dreadful massacre of the Jews 
at the coronation of Richard 
I. 

Teutonic order instituted. 

Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author 
of a /.life of galadin, in Ara- 
bic. 



The Jews become the princi- 
pal bankers of the world. 

Order of the Holy Trinity in- 
stituted in Germany. 



1181. Pope Lucius III. 



1185. Pope Urban III. 



1187. Pope Gregory VIII. 
1187. " Clement III. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1170. France:— The Walden> 
ses. They derived theif 
name from Peter Waldo, a 
merchant of Lyons. 



1174. Frederick's fourth expe 
dition into Italy. 



1176. Frederick defeated al ttu 
battle of Legnano. 



1178. Henry, the Lion, duke 
of Saxony, deposed, and 
Saxony divided. 



1180. Fr.:— Philip II., \ 
(Auguste). 



1183. The Peace of Constancy 
re-establishes the independ- 
ence of Italian republics. 



1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX. 
king of Leon. 



1190. Third Crusade led by Philip Augustus, of 
France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- 
rossa. 

1190. Ger. :— Henry VI. 



1191. Pope Celestine III. 



1198. Pope Innocent III. 



emperor and king o' 
and the Sicilies. 



Italy 



1196. Richard Cosur de Lion 
seized and retained in cap 
tivitv. 

1198. Philip, of Suabia, and 
Otho, of Saxony, dispute the 
crown; the former sup- 
ported by the GhibelineSj 
and the latter by the Guelfs, 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



805 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1170. Becket returns to Eng- 
land, and is murdered at the 
altar. 

1172. Henry conquers 
Ireland. 



1174. Treaty of Falaise, in 
which William agrees to do 
homage lor Scotland. 

Henry makes a pilgri- 
mage to the shrine of Becket. 



1180 



1183 



1171. Egypt :— Saladin, sm\ 
tan. 

. — He extends his domi- 
nions in Egypt, and con- 
quers Syria, Assyria, Meso- 
potamia, and Arabia. 

1174. Poland :— Miecislaus III. 

1175. Portugal— a fief of Use 
Holy See. 



1178. Poland :~Casimir, (the 

Just: 



-Alexius II.' 



■ Andronicus I. 



-Isaac II. 



1190 



1195 



(Angelus). 



The empire invaded by the 
Bulgarians. 



Iconium taken by Frederick 
Barbarossa, but afterwards 
restored. 



— — Alexius Angelus,^ 
usurper and tyrant. 



1189.— Richard I.® 

(Coeur de Lion). He en- 
gages in the third crusade. 



1182. Denmark :— Canute. 

1183. Saladin takes Aleppo, 
and deposes the sultan of 
Mosul. 



1185. Portugal :— Sancho I. 

1186. Saladin directs all hia 
efforts against the crusaders. 



1187. —gains the. victory of 
Tiberias, and takes Jerusa. 
lem, which leads to 

1190. The third crusade. 



1191. Kingdom of Cyprus 
founded. 

1191. Acre taken by the cru- 
saders. 

1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon ; but, 
abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of thie* 
years. 



1193. John attempts to seize 
the crown in the absence of 
Richard. 



1193. Saladin dies. 



808 THE world's PROGRESS. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.B. Progress op Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany & Spam 



The power of the pope supre me — Rome mistress of the world, and kings ber vassals 



1-200 



1203 



1206 



1209 



1222 



The University of Bologna 
contains 10,000 students. 



Ville Hardouin, historian. 
Saxo Grammaticus,hislo):ian. 



University of Paris founded. 



The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted. 



1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France. 

1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, end 
Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They take 
Constantinople. , 



1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce. 



The works of Aristotle, im- 
ported from Constantinople, 
condemned by the council 
of Paris. 



Period of the Troubadours in 
France ; the Minstrels in 
England ; and the Minne- 
singers in Germany. 



University of Padua founded. 



Stephen Langton, archbishop 
of Canterbury. 



Bitter persecution of the 
Albigenses. 



The doctrine of transub- 
stantiation and auricular 
confession established. 



1215. Fourth Lateran, and 
twelfth General Council 
against the Albigenses, and 
all heretics. 

1216. Pope Honorius III. 

1217. The fifth crusade by 
Andrew II., king of Hun- 
gary. 



1227. Pope Gregory IX. 



1229. The Inquisition at Tou- 
louse. 

The Scriptures forbid- 
den to all laymen. 



Normandy reunited to 
France. 



1210. Germany :— Otho placed 
under the ban of the pope. 



1212. — F rederickll. 



Spain :— The Christiana 
gain the battle of Navas de 
Tolosa. 



1215. Otho loses the battle of 
Bovines. 



1217. Spain •—Ferdinand, king 
of Castile. 



1223. Fr. : Louis V. .I.H? 

(The Lion). 

Crusade against the Al- 
bigenses. 

1226. Fr. : L o u s X . ® 

(Saint). 

1227. Germany : — Crusade ol 
the emperor after being ex 
communicated. 

1230. Spain: — Castile and 
Leon united by Ferdinand 
III., who takes Cordova Se- 
ville. ddiz, &c. from the 
Moors. 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



807 



1204 



1206 



221 



J228 



123V 



Eastern Empire. 



Alexius IV. ^pf — — 

The crusaders plunder Con- 
stantinople. 
Baldwin, count of Flanders. 

Henry II. f§J 



— John of Brienne 1 'ppf 

king of Jerusalem, and em- 
peror. 



-Baldwin II.' 



England <fe Scotland. 



Richard, returning home 
in disguise, through Ger- 
many, is imprisoned. Is 
ransomed by his subjects for 
10,000 marks. 

— declares war against 
France. 
1199. Richard c'ies. 



1200. John, 

(Lackland.) 



1201. Prince Arthur supported 
by France. 



1207. The kingdom laid under 
an interdict. 

1208. John excommunicated. 
London obtains the right 

to elect its own Lord Mayor. 



1213. The pope declares John 
a usurper. John submits to 
hold his crown as a vassal of 
the pope. 

1214. Scotland : — Alexander II. 



1215. Magna Charta signed at 
Runnymede. 

1216. —Henry III.f|? 

(4th Plantagenet.) 

Earl of Pembroke, pro- 
tector. 



1224. Henry's province of 
Poitou seized by the king of 
France. 



1229. First expedition of Henry 
into France for the recovery 
of his estates. 

1233. First discovery of coal 
at Newcastle. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1202. Denmark : — Waldemaf 
II. 

Poland : — Lesco, (the 

white). 

Livonia :— Institution ol 
the order of short swords to 
conquer the Prussians. 



1206. Genghis Khan 
subdues the north of China 



1210. Italy :— First war of Ve- 
nice and Genoa. 



1213. Russia :— Jurje II. 



1214. Frederick cedes to Den- 
mark all the provinces be- 
yond the Elbe and Eiser. 



1216. Tartary :— Overrun by 
the hordes of Genghis Khan. 

1217. Norway :— Haco V. 



1222. Two Greek kingdoms in 
Asia, Nice and Trebizond. 

John Ducas, emperor of 
Nice. 

Hungary : — Charter of 
Andrew "II. Foundation ol 
the national liberty. 



1234. Italy .-—War of the Lom- 
bard cities with Frederick ol 
Germany. 

1236. Dreadful invasion ol 
Europe by the Mongoh, vn 
der Batu Khan. 



S08 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages — 



A.». Prqoress op Society, etc. 



Robert, of Gloucester, the first 
English writer in rhyme. 



VU7 



1249 
1250 



1261 



1261 



First war fleet in Spain at the 
conquest of Seville. 

Foundation of the Alhambra 
near Granada. 

St. Edmund, of Canterbury, 
dies. 

The University of Salaman- 
ca founded. 



Silk manufactory in Lucca ; 
woollen in Milan and Tus- 
cany. 

Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
physician, and naturalist. 

Rubruquis travels among the 
Mongols. 



Private war and judicial com- 
bats suppressed in France 
by the laws of St. Louis. 



Parliament in England. 



The monastic orders, by their 
wealth, rigid discipline, 
and popular influence, be- 
come powerful aids to pon- 
tifical ambition. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1241. Pope Celestine IV. 



1243. Pope Innocent IV. 

Continual struggles with 
the emperor Frederic. 

Sect of the Flagellants. 



1254. Pope Alexander IV. 
• The Jews every where 
persecuted. 



1261. Pope Urban IV. 

The popes claim the 
right of presenting t.o every 
benefice in the world. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1238. Germany : — Frederie 
again excommunicated. 



1243. The HanseatU 
1 e a g u e — the chief towns 
are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns- 
wick, and Dantzic. 

1246. Henry of Thuringia set. 
up for emperor by the pope, 
and 

1247. William, of Holland. 

1248. France : — Louis sets out 
on the seventh crusade. 



1250. Germany: 

Conrad IV.fg — 

1252. Spain: — Alfonso X. 
king of Castile and Leon. 



1261. France :— Burgundy falls 
to the crown. 



1265. The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do- 
minion of Italy, and places Charles of Anjou on the thron« 

of Naples. 

1265. Pope Clement IV. 

1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator . 

126S. Pragmatic sanction- 
foundation of the liberties of 
the Gallican church. 



1268. No pope for about three 
years. 

1271. Pope Gregory X. 



1270. France :— Louis IX. sets 
out on the eighth and last 
crusade, and dies befora 
Tunis — succeeded by 

— Philip Ill.ff — 
(The Hardy). 



1068-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



809 



Eastern Empire. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere 



1260 
261 



1240. Richard, earl of Corn- 
wall, heads the sixth cru- 
sade, and redeems Jerusa- 
lem. 



1242. Second expedition into 
France — defeated and com 
pelled to make peace. 



1246. Henry marries -Eleanor, 
of Provence. 



1249. Scot. : Alexander EI. 

— Repulses Haco, king 
of Norway — obtains the 
Scottish Isles. 



1241. Denmark :— Eric VI 



1258. Famous parliament at 

Oxford. Simon d e 

Montfort. 

1259. Peace with France. 



1X8 



— Michael Palaeologus. fjpf — 
— recovers Constantinople. 



The Mongols in Asia Minor. 



The Mongols take Antiocb, 



1265. First regular parlia- 
ment. — Civil war — the king 
made prisoner at Lewes — is 
released, and gains the bat- 
tle of Evesham. 



1270. Prince Edward joins the 
eighth crusade. 



1249. The Hanse towns cap- 
ture Copenhagen. 

1250. Egypt:— The M a m e- 
lakes rule — take Damas- 
cus and Aleppo. 

1255. Nice :— Theodore Lasca- 
ris, emperor. 

1256. Hulaku enters Persia, 
becomes sultan — takes Bag- 
dad, and puts an end to 
the caliphate. 

1258. Italy :— Dreadful naval 
war between Venice and 
Genoa. 

1259. China :— Kublai Khan 
builds Pekin, and makes it 
his capital. 



1261. Norway : — Iceland sub- 
jected. 

Italy : — Charles I. 

1262. — becomes a papal fief. 
Greenland tributary to 

Norway. 

Norway : — 

Magnus II. 



1265. Abaka Khan of Persia. 



1266 Magnus, of Norway, 
cedes to Scotland the He 
brides and the Isle erf Man. 



1270. Hungary: 

Stephen V 



810 the world's progress. 



[Period VI.— The Middle Ages.' 



a.d. Progress of Society, etc. 



1272 



1273 



1276 



1279 



1:285 



Marco Polo travels in the 
East as far as Pekin. 



First patent of nobility grant- 
ed to his goldsmith by the 
kii;g of France. This was 
desifned as an attack upon 
the feudal barons, and all 
the landed and hereditary 
aristucracy. 



Literature and science flourish 
in Spain, under Alfonzo, the 
learned. 



Chivalry and the tournaments 
introduced into Sweden. 



University of Li bon founded. 



Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the 
most learned man of the 
middle ages. 



Institution of the. three great 
courts of law in England. 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany, & Spain 



1272. Languedoc falls to the 
crown. 



1273. Ger. :— Rodolph.^ 

founds the house o I 
Hapsburg. 



1274. 14th General Council at Lyons ; first re-union of 
the Eastern and Western Churches. 



1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos. 
" Adrian V., 1 mo. 
" John XXI., 8 mos. 



1277. Nicholas III., enriching 
his family at the expense of 
the church — he introduces 
Nepotism. 



1281. Pope Martin IV. 



1285. Pope Honorius IV. 



1288. Pope Nicholas IV. 



Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, ana 
improves and embellishes Rome. 



Albert, the mathematician, and 
Pre venial poet. 



1276 France at war with Cas- 
tile. 



1283. Germany Roac .p& 

makes his son, Albert, duke 
of Austria. 



1285. Fr. :— P h i 1 i p IV. 
-(the Fair.) 



1286. Spain :— Alfonzo ID 
king of Arragon. 



1066-1299.— Continued.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



811 



Eastern Empire. 



1373 



1274 



Andionicas, 

(the Elder.) 



Union with the Latin church. 



England & Scotland. I The World, elsewhere. 



1272. — Edward I.flf — 



1272. Hungary :- 

— Vladislas VI. |§| — 



i277 



Persecution of the Greeks. 



1276. War between England 
and Wales. 



T-2S1 



Othman establishes an inde 
pendent rule, as chief of 
400 families, in the north of 
Af'a Minor. 



1276. Sweden : — Magnus L 



Russia :— Hanseatic set- 
tlement at Novogorod. 

1279. China:— Kublia Khan 
subdues the southern king- 
dom, and becomes the Great 

China visited by Marco 
Polo. Jk 

1279. Poland :— Lesco II. T§f -~ 

1279. Portugal :— Dennis,!!! 
— -the father of his coun- 
try- . 

1280. Norway :— Eric 11.®— 



1283. Edward has a son born 
at Caernarvon, from which 
the title, Prince of Wales, 
descends to the eldest son of 
the king. 

Scotland -.—Robert Bruce and 
John Balliol contend for the 
crown. 



1282. Sicilian vespers. 
1282. Denmark :— Parliament 
at Wurtemuurg. 
First Handveste. 



1286. Denmark -.—Eric VI. ] 



1289. Last payment of ttib ite 
to the pope. 



1289. The Mongols invade 
Hungary and Poland. 

1290. Hungary : —Andrew Ul 



the Venetian. 

Poland : Wenceslas, 

king of Bohemia, takes Cra- 
cow, and becomes duke o 
Lesser Poland. 



812 the world's progress. 



[Period VI — The Middle Ages.- 



a.d. Progress op Society, etc. 



1299 



Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
physician, and naturalist. 



John Holywood. of England 
astronomer. 



Richard Middleton. 



Cimabue, the first of modern 
painters at Florence. 



Arnolf di Lapo, the father of 
modern Italian architecture. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1292. Celestine V.— he abdi- 
cates. 

1292. The papal chair vacant 
two years and three months. 
Institution of the order 
of the Celestines. 



1294. Pope Boniface VIII. 



1297. Canonization of Louis 
IX. 



The Influence of the 129e - Struggles with France. 
crusades was great 

expanding the 

mind of Eur op e — r e - 
fining the general 
manner s — exciting 
a spirit of geogra- 
phical research and 
adventur e — a nd pro- 
moting impr ovement 
in the arts and sci- 
ences — thus under mining instead of 
strengthening the 

First letters of rnarque grant- power ofp apal Rome, 
ed by Edward III. against by advancing Z Wie- 
the Portuguese, ral ideas and free- 
dom of thought . 



France, Germany <fe Spain. 



1291. Germany : — 

— Adolphus ,fj§f — 
of Nassau. 



Spain: — James II. k. of 

Arrason. 



1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV. 
in Castile ar d Leon. 



Philip successfully in- 
vades Flanders. 



1298. Germany : — Adolphus 
deposed by a Diet, which 
elects 

— Albert I.|ff — 
son of Rodolph. — Adolphus 
slain in the struggle whidl 
ensues. 



1066-1299— Continued.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



813 



1291 



1292 



Eastern Empire. 



Capture of Acre by the Ma- 
melukes — end of the king- 
dom of Jerusalem. 

The Mongols drive the last 
sultan of Iconium from his 
throne. 



The Genoese obtain the trade 
of the Black Sea, and rise to 
great power. 



England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 



1291. Edward decides the 
Scottish dispute in favor of 
Baliol. 

1292. A piratical warfare be- 
tween England and France. 
— Philip gets possession of 
Guienne. 



129) Othman invades Nicomedia, 1299. —they are defeated at 
and establishes the Ottoman Falkirk by king Edward I. 
empire 



1292. Hungary:— The pops 
sets up Charles Martel, 
crown prince of Naples, as 
king. 



1294. China:— Tymui Chan 



1295. Poland :- 



1296. Ball; 1 defeated ; 
mits to Edward. 



1297. Scotland :— S i r Wil- 
liam Wallace .— S i r 
William Douglas, 
Robert Bruce, and 
other chiefs head a rebellion 
against the English. 



— Premislas II.' 



1296. Poland :— Less II. W — 



1299. Foundation of the 
OTTOMAN or TURKISH 
EMPIRE in Bythinia, un- 
der Othman I. 



814 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD VII.— The Middle Ages.— 1299 to 1453.— 



a.d. Pkogrbss of Society, etc. 



1300 



1302 
1303 



1308 



1310 
1311 



University at Lyons founded. 
— Rapid advances in civili- 
zation. — Revival of ancient 
learning. — Improvements in 
the arts and sciences — and 
progress of liberty. 

The Mariner's Com- 
pass invented at Naples, 
by Gioia, native of Amalti. 

University at Avignon. 

D an I, e , the father of modern 
Italian poetry, flourishes. 

Amid the struggles of the 
Guelfs and Ghibelines, 
Italy becomes the cradle of 
modern literature and im- 
proving civilization. 

University at Orleans. 



University at Perugia. 



University at Coimbra. 



Knights of St. John at 
Rhodes. 

Order of Knights Templar 
abolished.— The barons in 
England extort from Ed- 
ward II. a reformation of 
abuses. Parliaments are to 
be held every year, and to 
appoint to all important 
offices. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1303 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1302. First convocation of th« 
States-general in France. 

Guienne restored to Eng- 
land. 



1304. France at war with 
Flanders. 

Germany: — The Swiss 
towns rise into importance 
— oppressed by the House of 
Hapsburg. 



Pope Boniface VIII. 

Council of Paris. 

Bull unam sanctum. 

Pope Benedict XI. 

Vacancy in the papal 
chair nearly eleven mon:hs. 

— The papal power de- 
clines. 

1305. Pope Clement V. 

Seatof the popes transferred to Avig- 
non. 
1306. Persecution of the Jews 
in France. 

Germany ■ — R u d o 1 1 



1311. General Council at Vien- 
na. 

Another vacancy in the 
papal chair of more than 
two years. 



1316. Pope John XXII. 

Taxes imposed upon all 
the countries of Europe, to 
enrich the treasury of the 
church. 



of Austria 1 



the 



1307. Persecution of 
Knights Temp'ar. 

Ger. : — William Tell 
shoots Gesler. 

1308. Germany : H e n r y 

of Luxemburg. fH? • 

General insurrection in 
Swilzerland. 

1309. Spain:— Ferdinand IV. 
takes Gibraltar. 



1311. Lyons united to Fiance. 

1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XI. 
of Castile and Leon. 

1314. Fr. :— Louis X.f§— 
(Hutin.) 

Ger. : — Louis of Bava- 
ria, and Frederick of A us 
tria. contend for the crown. 

1315. Fr. :— Edict for the en- 
franchisement of slaves. 

Battle oI'Morgarten— the 
Austrians defeated by tha 
Swiss. 

1316. Fr. :— P h i 1 i p V. W— 

(the Long.) He succee Is by 
virtue of the Salique .aw 
now first established. 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
154 years. — Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. 



815 



1303 



Eastern Empire. 



War of the Catalans, under 
Roger de Flor. 

Othman increases his posses- 
sions ; abandons the pasto- 
ral life, and fortifies towns 
and castles. 



England & Scotland. 



1303. Edward invades Scot- 
land. — Wallace betrayed 
and beheaded. — Scotland 
submits. 

Edward recovers Gui- 
enne. 



1310 1 The Knights of St. John of 
Jerusalem, established 
Rh ides. 



1306. Scotland : — R o b e r t 
Bruce proclaimed king 
— is obliged to flee ; but, 
Edward dying, resumes his 
position. 

1307. Eng. : Edward II. If 

Scot. : — Bruce strength- 
ens himself by repeated ad- 
vawages and prudent con- 
du v.. 



1314. Edward invades Scot- 
land, and is defeated at the 
Battle of Bannock- 
burn 

The Scots invade Eng- 
land and Ireland. 



The World, elsewhere. 




1301. Hungary : — Andrew, the 

Venetian. f||f 

Extinction of the houst 
of Arpad. 

— Wenceslas III. of BO' 



of Bavv 



1305. Polai rl :— Vladislas IV., 
in Little Poland, and 

Duke Henry, of Glogau, 
in Great Poland. 

Russia subject to the 
Khan of Tartary. 



1307. Switzerland: 

W m . Tell escapes from 
Gesler : 

SWISS Republics 
founded, Nov. 7. 

1308. Hungary :— Carobert, of 

Anjou.fHf 

1309. Poland united into one 
monarchy under Vladislas 
IV. 

Naples : — Robert, the 
Good. He aspires to the 
dominion of Italy. 

1310. Italy :— The Council of 
Ten established at Venice. 



1313. Italy;— Matteo Visconti. 

1314. Tunis made tributary to 
Spain. 



1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord 
of Lucca and Pisa. 

1317. Robert, the Good, a sena- 
tor of Rome, and 

1318. —lord of Genoa. 

1319. Final establishmea of 
the oligarchy at Venica 



816 



THE world's PROGRESS. [Period VII.— The Middle Age*.— 



a.d. Progress op Society, etc. 



1321 



1323 



1325 



1326 



Ecclesiastical. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



Dante, dies. 



John de Muris introduces 
notes of different length into 
music — and the method of 
distinguishing them. 

Romance poetry of the middle 
ages flourishes. 

Mayronis commences the cele- 
brated disputations in the 
Sorbonne. 

Clock constructed on mathe- 
matical principles, by Rich- 
ard Valigfort. 

Linna, a monk, and astrono- 
mer of Oxford, constructs a 
map of the northern seas. 

Thomas,of Bradwardine, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. 



1334 



1337 



>340 



5345 



1347 



1350 



1356 



Giotto, a shepherd boy, the 
first who drew portraits 
from life. 

Greek literature revives. — 
Barlaain teaches Petrarch. 
— Leontius lectures on Ho- 
mer at Florence. 

First comet, whose course has 
been accurately described. 

GUNPOWDER in use at 

the battle of Cressy. 
Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo- 
rentine painter. 

First bank at Genoa. 



1324. Contest of the popes 
with Louis of Bavaria. 



1328. Crusade preached againsn 
Louis, who sets up Nicholas 
V. as anti-pope. 



1334. Pope Benedict XII. 



1339. Struggles in Rome be- 
tween the Colonna and the 
Ursini. 



1342. Pope Clement VI. 



Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri- 
bunes. 



Manufactures improve in 
England. — Commerce in- 
creases. 

Bartolus and Baldus, cele- 
brated j urists 



Merino sheep introduced into 
Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- 
gon. 

Sir John Mandeville's Tra- 
vels, the first English book 
in prose. 



1322. France : — C h a r 1 s 

I V.fj|f — (the Fair.) 

Germany :— Frederic, of 
A i.jstria defeated and taken 
prisoner. 
1324. Germany : — Louie ex- 
communicated by John XII 
— appeals to a general coun- 
cil. 



1328. France :— P h i 1 i p VI 
of Valois.'g 



1332. France :— The Flemings 
revolt and acknowledge Ed- 
ward III. as king or France. 



1338. France :-War with Eng- 
land. 

Germany :— Declaration 
of the Diet of Frankfort, 
that the pope had no tempo- 
ral power in the empire. 

Louis sides with the 
English against France. 

1346. France : — Normandy 
overrun by Edward, with 
his son, the Black Prince.— 
French defeated at Cressy. 

Germany :— C harlea 
IV., king of Bohemia. 

The empire offered to 
Edward III., who declines. 

1350. France :— .T o h n ,Hs — 
(the Good.) 



1352. Pope Innocent VI 

1354. Rienzi killed.— Albernoz, 
cardinal legate, restores the 
papal dominion. 



1355. Germany : — Promulgv 
tion of the golden Bull. 

1356. France:— King John de- 
feated and taken prisonor ai 
Poitiers. — Charles the dau- 
phin regent. 

Insurrection in Paris. 



1360. France:— John regains 
his liberty— cedes much ter- 
1 ritory to England 



1299-1453— 154 years.— Continued.] THE world's progress. 817 



1320 



Eastern Empire. 



Disputes and civil war be- 
tween the emperor and his 
son, Michael. 



England & Scotland. 



1326 

1328 



Orkhan, sultan of the Turks, 
makes Prusa his capital. 

Andronicus, ffj^ — 

(the younger.) 



1322. Lancaster executed. 

1323. Conspiracy against the 
king. 



The World, elsewhere. 



L320. Russia: — The grand 
duchy of Wladimir confer- 
red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 



1341 



1343 



— John Cantacuzene. W$ — 



1327. Peace between Scotland 
and England. — The inde- 
pendence of Scotland ac- 
knowledged. 

— E dward III. %J_ 
1329. Scotland :— David it. 

1332. Edward invades Scot- 
land.— Balliol crowned, but 
soon expelled. 

1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. 
— Balliol restored — does ho- 
mage to Edward. 



1338. Struggle for the French 
crown,which lasts 120 years. 



War with the Genoese, defeat 
of the Greeks and Venetians 



I iiEif i —John Palasologus. 1 



1360 Amurath I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 

35 



Sluys — gives spirit to the 
English navy. 

David, of Scotland, in 
vades England. 

1346. Battle of Cress y. 

IW. Siege and capture oi 
Calais. 



1350. Viciery over the Spanish 
fleet. — Parliament divided 
into two chambers, lords 
spiritual and temporal. 



1356. Edward, the 
Black Prince, 
gains the battle of 
Poitiers.— John made 
prisoner.— Two years' truce. 
— Edward again invades 
Scotland— is obliged to re- 
treat. 

1353. — again invades France. 

1360. Peace of Bretigni. 



1326. Tartary ; — Tamer- 
lane born at Kesh. 

1327. Italy .-—Invaded by Louis, 
emperor of Germany. 



1333. Poland : — Casimir the 

Great. fsBf 



1339. Italy:— Simon Bocane- 
gra, doge of Genoa. 



1340. The victory of Helvoet 1340. Denmark : — Waldemar 



IV. restorer of the kingdom. 

1342. Hungary : — Louis the 
G reat. 

1343. Italy : Commercial 

treaty between Venice and 
the sultan of Egypt and 
Syria. 

1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the 
last of the Tribunes, rules 
at Rome. 



1350. Italy :— Naval war be- 
tween Venice and Genoa. 

1353. Establishment of the Ot- 
tomans in Europe. 

1354. Italy :— Rienzi killed — 
papal power restored. 

1356. First war between Hun- 
gary and Venice. 



13o9. Hungary :— Conquest ol 
the principalities lying on 
the Danube. 



818 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 



A.d. Progress of Society, etc. 



:364 



i365 



138(1 



Petrarch and Boccacio. 



Charles V. founds a college of 
medicine and astrology at 
Paris. 



Foundation of the University 
vf Vienna. 



Geof. Chaucer, fath er 
of English poetry. 



Mysteries played in France. 



1383 Wickliffc's translation of the 
Bible. 



University of Heidelberg 

founded. 
Froissart's, Chronicles. 
John Van Eyck, invented oil 

painting — founder of the 

Flemish school. 



1390 
1392 



1400 



Ecclesiastical. 



1362. Pope Urban V. at Avig- 
non — beautifies the city of 
Rome — presents the right 
arm of Thomas Aquinas to 
Charles V. of France, as an 
object of worship. 



1370. Pope Gregory IX. 



1378. " Schism of the West:" 
Pope Urban VI. ac- 
knowledged in the empire 
and England. 

Clement VII. acknow- 
ledged in France, Spain, and 
Scotland. 



France, Germany & Spain, 



1364. Fr. :— Charles V. 

— (the Wise.) 



1365. War with Navarre—bat- 
tle of Amoy. t 



1378. Germany :— Wesnces- 
las, (king of Bohemia), 
emperor. 



1380. Fr.: Charles VI. f|| 
(the Maniac). 

1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the 
Flemings defeated — Arte- 
velde killed. 



1386. France :— Fruitless at- 
tempt to invade England. 



The first mill in Germany for 
the manufacture of linen 
paper. 

Chaucer's Astrolabe written. 



Revival of Greek literature in 
Italy. 



1389. Pope Boniface IX. at 
Rome. 

1391. The English clergy for- 
bidden to cross the sea for 
benefices. 

1394 Tope Benedict XIII. 



Chaucer dies. 



John Qo%eer, English poet. 



1392. — Charles seized with 
madness. 

1394. Germany :— The emper- 
or imprisoned by the people 
of Prague. 



1400. Ger. :— R o b e r t ,1 
(Count Palatine), 



1299-1453,— 154 years.— Continued.] the world's progress. 



819 



Eastern Empire. 



1373 



1389 



1391 



1396 



1402 



Treaty with Murad, the Otto- 
man emperor. 



Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks. 



• Manuel II. 



England & Scotland. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- 
mond, of Hungary, defeated 
by Bajazet I. 



Bajazet defeated and made 
prisoner by Tamerlane, at 
the battle of Angora. 



1362. The Black Prince aids 
Peter the Cruel, of Castile, 
to recover his throne. 



1369. A new war with France ; 
unsuccessful. 



1371. Scotland :— Robert li- 
the House of Stuart. 

1376. Death of the Black 
Prince. 

1377.— Richard II. fgg— 
First Speaker of the House 
of Commons. 



1378. Fruitless invasion of 
France. 

Insurrection of Wat Ty- 
ler. 



1382. The king marries Anne, 
daughter of Charles IV. 

1384. The Scots, assisted by 
France, invade England. 

1385. The English burn Edin- 
burgh. 



1388, Battle of Otterbourne. 

1390, Scotland : Robert III. 
Persecution of the Wick- 
lifites. 



1398. Henry, of Lancaster, 
banished. 

House of Lancas- 

1399. —Henry IV.fg — 
Richard II. deposed. 

1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- 
dower, and 

1403. of the Percys, who are 
defeated at the battle of 
Shrewsbury. 



1362. Italy : — War betwtes 
Pisa and Florence. 



1369. Tartary : — Tamerlane 
makes Samarcand the capi- 
tal of his new empire. 

1370. Poland :— Extinction ol 
the royal race of Piasts. 



1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me- 
dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- 
rence. 



1380. Russia : — Dimitri Ivano- 
vitsch victorious over the 
Tartars, near the Don. 

1382. The Tartars sack Mos- 
cow. 

1384. Persia: — Invaded by 
Tamerlane ; Ispahan taken. 
— Pyramids of human heads. 

1385. War between Austria 
and Switzerland. 

1386. Battle of Sempach:— 
the Austrians defeated. 

1387. Denmark & Norway :— 

Margaret, f§f the Semi- 

ramis of the north. 
1391. Italy:— Pisa falls under 
the yoke of the Visconti. 



1395. Tamerlane overruns 
Kipchak and Russia 

1397. Union of Calmar, form- 
ing Denmark, Sweden, and 
Norway into a single mo- 
narchy. 

1399. Invasion of India bj 
Tamerlane. 



820 



THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period VII. -The Middle Ages. 



A..D. Progress of Society, etc. 



1407 
1409 



1420 



1423 



1425 



1430 



1434 



Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish 
historian. 

University of Leipsic found- 
ed. 



Thomas a Kempis. 
John Suss. 
Jerome, of Prague. 



First Portuguese colonies on 
the coast of Africa, Madei- 
ra, &c. 



George of Peurbach, astrono- 
mer at Vienna. 



Peter d'Ailly, theologian. 



The arts promoted in Italy by 
Cosmo de Medici. 



England increases her trade 
with the Mediterranean. 



Michael Walhgemuth, Ger- 
man painter,' (teacher of 
Durer). 

Fra. Filippo Lippi, painter. 



INVENTION OF PRINT- 
ING at Mayence. 

John Midler Regiomontanus, 
German astronomer and 
mathematician. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1404. Pope Innocent VII. 
1406. " Gregory XII. 



1409. The council of Pisa de- 
poses Gregory and Bene- 
dict, and elects Alexander 
V. ; — neither will yield, so 
that there are three popes at 
once. 

1410. Pope John XXIII. 



1414. Council of Constance. 



1416. John Huss, and Jerome, 
of Prague, burnt by the 
Council of Constance. 

1417. Pope Martin V. 



1429. Pope Clement VIII. at 
Avignon, resigns, and ends 
the "Schism of the West." 



1431. Pope Eugenius IV. 
Council of Basle. 



France, Germany, & Spain. 



1407. France : — Murder of 
Louis, Duke of Orleans. 

Spain: — John II., king 
of Castile. 



1410. Spain : —Ferdinand, king 
of Arragon. — Yustef III., 
king of Granada. 

1410. Fr. : — Civil war between 
the parties of Orleans and 
Burgundy. 

Germany : — Death of 
Robert. 

1411. S i g i s m u n d , (king 



of Hungary),^ 



-empe- 



1413. France: — The French 
defeated by Henry V., of 
England, at Agincourt. 

1416. Spain : — Alfonzo V., king 
of Arragon and Sicily. 



1419. Sigismund succeeds to 
the Bohemian crown. 



1422. France :— Death of Char 
les VI — Henry VI. pro- 
claimed at Paris king of 
France and England. 

— Charles Vll.ff? — 
at Poitiers. 

1427. Orleans besieged by tho 
English. 

1429. — saved by J o a n o 1 
Arc. 

Charles crowned at 
Rheims ; makes a vain at- 
tempt to gain Paris. 

1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- 
soner and burnt as a witch. 

1431. Germany : — Sigismund 
visits Italy, and is crowned 
emperor by Pope Eugenius 
IV. 

1435. Peace of Arras, between 
France and Burgundy. 



1436. France :— Recovery of 

Paris. 



1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, establishes the liber- 
ties of the French church. 



1299-1453 : — 154 years.— Continued.] THE world's PROGRESS. 



821 



1403 



Eastern Empire. 



Solyinan I., Sultan of the 
Turks. 



1413 



1421 



1425 



England & Scotland. 



1406. Scotland :— James I. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1406. Italy : - Pisa cor quered 
by Florei ce.— Subjugation 
of Padua and Verona by 
Venice. 



Mohammed I., Sultan of tba 
Turks. 



1433 



Amurath II. Sultan of the 
Turks. 



John VII. 

peror. 



1413. —Henry V .f§f — 

1414. — claims the French 
crown. 

1415. — gains the battle 
of Agincourt. 



The emperor visits Italy to 
obtain help against the 
Turks— submits to the pope. 



1420. Treaty of Troy es.-Henry 
marries Catharine, daughter 
of Charles VI., and is de 
clared heir to the French 
crown. 

1422. Death of Henry V. 

— H e n r y VI .^g— 

1424. The Duke of Bedford 
defeats the French at Ver 
neuil. 



1427. — besieges Orleans. 

1429. The siege raised by the 
Maid of Orleans. 



1431. — she is taken prisoner 
and burnt. 



1435. Death of the Duke of 
Bedford, followed by the 
loss of all the English pos- 
sessions in France, except 
Calais. 

1436. War with Scotland. 

1437. Scotland .-—James II. 



1412. Italy:— Sack of Rome 
by Ladislas, king of Naples. 
Denmark, Norway, &c. : 

Eric VII., of Pomerania.flj 
1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by 

the Portuguese. 
1419. Bohemia : — Hussite war. 



1420. Discovery of Madeira 
by the Portuguese. 



1424. Bohemia : -Death of John 
Ziska, the Hussite leader. 

Italy :— War of the Duke 
of Milan against Florence. 



1429. Florence:— Cosmo di 
Medici, patron of the 
arts and sciences. 



1431. Italy :— Second war of 
Venice and Milan. 



1434. Poland :— Vladislas in. 



1436. Italy:— Third war be. 
tween Venice and Milan. 

1437. Portugal : — Expedition 
into Africa. 

1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V., 



king.fH 



822 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period VII.— The Middle Ages.— 



Proqress of Society, etc. 



Ecclesiastical. 



1414 



1446 



1147 



1448 



1460 



Leonardo da Vinci } sculptor, 
architect, and painter — dis- 
covers perspective. 



Pet. Perugino, founder of the 
Roman school of painting. 
teacher of Raphael. 



Library of the Vatican, found- 
ed. 



The Azores discovered. 
Alain Chartica. French poet, 



Flourishing period of Flan- 
ders' trade. — All European 
nations have warehouses at 
Bruges and Ghent. — Book 
trade at Mayence. 



ler. 



1447. Pope Nicholas V. 



1448. Concordat of Aschaflfen- 
berg, by which the liberties 
of the German church are 
compromised. 



France, Germany & Spain. 



1438. Germany : — House 
of Austria: 

— Albert II. W — 
(king of Bohemia and Hun- 
gary.) 



1440. Ger. :-F rede ric III. 



France :—■ The dauphin, 
(Louis XI.), rebels — but is 
pardoned. 



1444. — establishment of the 
companies of Archers, the 
first national standing army. 



1446. Germany : — War with 
Hungary, for refusing to 
give up the young prince, 
Vladislas. 



1451. Expedition of Frederic 
to Rome. 



1453. Austria made an hersdi- 
tary duchy by Frederic. 

End of the French eod 
English wars. 



1299-1453.— 154 years.— Continued.] the world's progress. 823 



Eastern Empire. 



1443 



144-1 



Insurrection of Scandeberg — 
victory over tha Turks near 
Nissa. 



Battle of Varna — Vladislas, 
king of Poland, defeated and 
killed by the Tarks. 



England <fc Scotland. 



1444. Truce with France.—- 
Marriage of Henry to Mar- 
garet, of Anjou. 



1447. Gloucester : arrested for 
treason — dies suddenly. 



1453 



— Constantine XII. ^§f 

(Palaeologus,) the last of the 
Greek emperors. 



Mohammed II., Sultafi of the 
Turks. 



Siege and capture 
of Constantinople 
by the Turks: 

END OF THE EAST- 
ERN EMPIRE. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1450. Insurrection of Jack 
Cade— calling himself Mor- 
timer. 

Civil Wars of 
"the Roses:'' 

Richard, duke of York 
claims the throne. 



Scotland :— Struggles be- 
tween the king and aristo- 
cracy for power. 



1440. Hungary : — v IadiBlafi 
chosen king.ffjg— — 

1441. Italy :- Peace of Marti. 

nego. 
1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon, 
unites the crown of the Two 
Sicilies. 



1445. Poland : Casimir IV. gf 

1446. Tartary: — Ulugh Beg, 
patron of astronomy and 
geography. 



1448. Denmark :— Christian L 
of Odenburg.fHf 

Sweden :— Charles VIII. ^J 

1450. Italy : — Francesco Sfor- 
za, duke of Milan. 

Norway : Christian 

crowned at Drontheim.lBI? 

Delhf:— Behol Lodi en- 
larges the kingdom. 
1453. Poland : — Confirmation 
of the national liberty in tha 
Diet of Petrikan. 



824 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

PERIOD VIII.— 1453-1 -698.- 













Spain and 


AD. 


Prdgresjs op Society, etc. 


England. 


Scotland. 


France. 


Portugal. 




Philip de Comities, French 








1454. Spain : — 




historian. 


1455. Battle of 
St. Albans. 






Henry IV. of 

Castile. fHf 


146C 


Wood engraving invented. 


House 
of York: 


1460. James 










1461. —Ed- 


HI. 


1461. Louis 








ward IV. 




JL 


1469. Marriags 


1464 


Post- Offices in France and 


J?L 




XI. fjjf ' ofFerdinand, 




England. 


Hjf — gains 




Civil war. — : of Arragon, 






thu battle of 




— Peace of 


with Isabel- 






Towton. 




Conflans. 


la, of Cas- 


»466 


Faust dies at Paris, whither 
.ie journeys twice to sell his 
Latin Bible. 








tile. 


1470 


Beerhard invents the pedal to 
the organ. 


1469.Warwick 








1471 


Printing in England — Cax- 
ton. 


banished. 

1471. Battle of 
Barnet : 








U73 


Printed musical notes. 
Hungary : — Mathias patroni- 
zes literature and the arts. 


Warwick 
slain. — Hen- 
ry VI. dies in 










Large library at Qfen— 300 


the Tower. 




1475. War be- 






copyists of manuscripts. 






tween Louis 
and Charles 




1476 


German ballads— war songs of 


1483. Ed- 




of Burgun- 
dy, 






Veit Weber. 


ward V . 


1479. War with 


1476. — who is 


1479. Union 






$8$ 


England . — 


defeated at 


of Castil e 


1477 


Watches first made at Nurem- 


TH 


Conspiracy 
of the no- 


Granson and 
Morat, and 


and A r r a - 

g o n under 

Ferdinand 




burg. 


Pvichard, 


bles ; — they 
take the king 


1477. —slain at 




Mikrond and Rondemir, great 


Protector. — 


Nancy. — — 


1 1 . and Isa- 




Persian historians. 


The king & 
his brother 


prisoner. 


Artois and 
Burgundy 


bella. 
1480. The In- 






murdered in 




united to the 


q u isi tion. 
— X i m e 


J 481 


Lady Juliana Bemers, one of 


the Tower. 




French 




the earliest female writers 






crown. 


n e s , bishop 
of Toledo. 




of England. 


— R i c h - 










ard III . 






1481. Port. :— 




Hans Holbein, painter. 


133 






is 






1485. -Henry, 




1483.— Char- 


John II. Hf 


1481 


Franchino Gafurid, teacher in 


earl of Rich- 




les VIII. 


1484. First au. 




the first public school of 


mond, lands 




jt 


da-fe at So 




music at Milan. 


at Milford 
Haven. 




m — 


villa 




Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- 


Battle 
o f B o s- 
worth 










sical genius of his age. 












Field: 












Richard 












defeated and 












slain. 


• 







THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
Dtkman to the Edict of Nantes. 



825 



1462 



The emperor besieged in his 
court at Vienna — delivered 
by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe- 
mia. 



1469 



1472 



Invasions of the Turks. 



University of Ingoldstodt. 



.477 Marriage of Maximilian and 
Maria of Burgundy. 



Italy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. The World, elsewhere. 



1455. Turb-s re- 
pulsed at Bel- 
grade. 



1454. Struggle 
between Cos- 
mod da Me- 
dici and the 
aristocracy. 

1455. The 
French rule 
in Genoa. 

Pope Pi- 
us II. 
1463. War of! 
Venice with the Turks. 



1464. Pietro de 
Medici at 
Florence. 

Pope Paul 
II. 

1406. Galeaz- 
zo, duke of 
Milan. 

1469. Loren- 
zo d e Me- 
dici, suc- 
ceeds i?ietro. 

1471. Sixtus 
IV. pope. 

Power of 
the Medici 
increases. 

Learning 
flourishes. 



1478. Conspi- 
racy of the 
Pazzi at Flo- 
rence.— Giu- 
lio, brother 
of Lorenzo 
de Medici, 
slain. 



1464. War with 
Hungary. 



1454. Poland :— War with the 
Teutonic Order. 



1458. Hungary : — — Mathias 

Corvin,f|J ::iakes his 

country formidable to her 
neighbors. 

1462. Russia:— Ivan I.fff-- 
the Great— takes the title »f 
Czar. 

1466. Peace of Thorn.— East 
Prussia a fief of Poland.— 
West Prussia ceded to Po- 
land. 

1468. Uzun Hasan, master of 
all Persia. 



1470. — forms an alliance with 
the Venetians and the duke 
of Burgu.i dy against the Turks— con- 
quers Uagdad. 

1472. Russia : — Ivan marries 
Sophia, niece of the Greek 
emperor. 

1474. —shakes off the Tartar 
yoke, and captures Novo- 
gorod. 



1484. Innocent 
VIII., pope 



1479. Fruitless 
attempt upon 
Rhodes. 



1480. -capture 
and destroy 
Otranto. 

1481. Bajazet 

the first un- 
wa.rlike sul- 
tan. 



1477. Hungary - 
Frederic III. 



-War with 



1481. Denmark :— Jorm,|j|f — 
partially acknowledged in 
Sweden. 



1488. Hungary: Mathiaa 

takes Vienna. 



35* 



826 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period VIII.— 



1490 

1492 
1493 



1497 
-8 



1493 



1499 
1302 



1515 



1517 



1522 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Martini Behaim, (Nurem- 
burg,) publishes a map of 
the world. 

DISCO V E R Y OF 

AMERICA. 

First printing press at Copen- 
hagen. 

The second voyage of Colum- 
bus.— Pi. Spanish colony at 
Hispaniola. 

The discoveries of John and 
Sebastian Cabot. 

Third voyage of Columbus. 
He iliscovers Trinidad and 
the Continent. 

Lisbon, the great seat of trade. 
— Venice declines. 

Maritime enterprises greatly 
extended. 

Sir Thomas Mare's Utopia, 
published. 

Nicholas Machiavelli, states- 
man and historian. 

Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. 

Fourth voyage of Columbus. 

Raphael, Michael Angela, Ti- 
tian, Corregio, painters. 

St. Peter's, and other magni- 
ficent churches built. 



The cele' rated tapestry, after 
Raphael ; — Cartoons woven 
in the Netherlands. 

L UTHE R, Erasmus, 
Melanethou , and other 
reformers. 

Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 
Elizabeth. 

Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- 
man drama. 

Copernicus, discovers 
the true system of the Uni- 
verse—his great work, De 
Orbium Coslastium Revolu- 
tionibus. 

First complete circumnavi- 
gation of the globe, by Ma- 
gellan 



House of 
Tudor:— 
— H e n r y VII 



1486. Imposture of 
Lambert Symnel. 
The Star Cham- 
ber established. 



1493. Perkin War- 
beck, pretends to 
be Richard, duke 
of York — defeated 
on Blackheath. 



1497. Cabot makes 
discoveries in A- 
merica. 

1499. Earl of 
Warwick, last 
of the Plantage- 
nets, executed. 



1509. H e n r y 

VIII .f§ — 



Scot- 
land. 



1487. : - 

James 

IV. 



joins the League 
of Cambray. 

1513. Invasion of the 
Scots. — Battle of 
Flodden — the king 
and chief Scots 
killed. 

1515. W o I s e y , 
chancellor and car- 
dinal. 

1520. The Emperor 
visits England. — 
Meeting of Henry 
and Francis at the 
"Field of the Cloth 
of Gold." 

1521. The Reformed 
doctrines opposed 
by Henry, in his 
book on the Seven 
Sacraruents — he 
receives the title 
of " Defender of 
the Faith." 



1503.: — 
James 
marries 
Marga- 
ret, of 
Eng- 
land. 



1513.:- 

James 

V. 



1491. Bretag- 
ne united to 
the crown 
by the king's 
marriage 
with Anne. 

1494. Invasion 
of Italy. 



1493.— Lou is 

XI I. If— 




1500. Treaty 
with Ferdi- 
nand, of Ara- 
gon, for the 
conquest and 
partition of 
Naples. 



1510. The 
Council of 
Tours, to 
support the 
king against 
the Holy 
League. 



1515.— Fran - 




Spain anb 

PORT0QAL. 



1492. Con 
quest o 
Granada, 
by Gonzala 
de Cordova. 

Discovery 
o f Ame r i- 
ca, by Co- 
lumbus. 

1498. Vasco 
d e G a m a 
doubles the 
Cape of 
Good Hope, 
and reaches 
India. 



1506. Colum- 
bus dies at 
Valladolid. 

1507. Cardinal 
Ximenes. 

Board of 
American 
trade at Se- 
ville. 



1516.— Char 

king ot all 
Spain, and 
the Nether- 
lands. 
1519. Con. 
quest of 
Mexico 
by C o 1 1 e s . 



1453-1598.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



827 



14SJ 



Italy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



-Maximilian I.W— 



University of Wittenburg. 



.'.503 1 Maximilian enters Italy to be 
crowned by the pope, 
-joins the League of Cam- 
bray. 

1512 —divides the empire into ten 
circles. 



1517 
1518 

1519 
1*31 



Commencement op 
the Reformation. 

Luther summoned before the 
diet of Augsburg. 

— Charles V .f§g — 
of Spain. 

The archduke Ferdinand, mar- 
ries Anne, sister of Louis — 
whence the accession of 
Bohemia and Hungary to 
the House of Hapsburg. 

Diet of Worms. 



1492. Pietro II 
succeeds his 
father, Lo- 
renzo, in Flo- 
rence. 

Pope Alex- 
ander VI, 
(Boreia.) 

1494. Expedi- 
tion of Char- 
les VIII. in- 
to Italy. 

1499. Amerigo 
Vespucius's 
voyage to 
America. 

1500. Partition 
of Naples 
between 
France and 
Spain. 

1502. Florence : 
MachiaveiU, 
Secretary of 
State. 

1503. Naples 
annexed to 
the Spanish 
Crown. 

Pope Pius 
III. 

Pope Ju- 
lius II. 
1508. League 
of Cambray 
against Ve- 
nice. 

1510. Holy 
League to 
expel the 
French. 

1511. Council 
of Pisa. 

1513. Pope 
Leo X . 
(de Medici,) 
patron of li- 
terature and 
arts. 

The build- 
ing of St. 
Peter's com- 
menced. 

1519. Cardinal 
de Medici 
holds rule in 
Florence. 

1522. Po.pe 
Adrian VI. 



J 



The World, elsewhere. 



1493. Wars 
with Egypt 
Hungary, 
and Venice. 



1503. Peace 
with Venice. 

1505. War with 
Persia. 



1512. Selim I., 




Tim (the 

Magnificent.) 

1521. Belgrade 
taken by 
storm. 

1522. Rhodes 
capitulates. 



14S8. India : — Sekander Lodi, 

king of Delhi. 
1492. Poland:— John Albert. 



AMERICA discovered by Co- 

lumbus. 



1493. Spanish colony at Ilia 
paniola. 



1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- 
pucius. — South American 
coast explored. 



1501. Poland :— Alexander. 



1502. Ismail Shah Soofi makea 
himself sole sovereign of 
Persia. 



1506. Poland : — Sigismund I. 
W$ (the Great.) 



1509. Bohemia: — Louis,fHf— . 
3 years old. 

1510. America : — Settlement 
at Darien. 

1511. America: — Cuba con- 
quered. 

1512. America: — Florida 
discovered. 

1513. South Sea first reached 
by Balboa. 

1516. Hungary and Bohemia : 
— Louis Il.fHf 

1517. India :— Ibrahim Lodi, 

king oi Delhi 

1 517. America -.—First patent 
for importing Negroes — 
granted by Spain. 

1518. Corsairs in Algiers. 

1519. MEXICO conquered by 
the Spaniard, under Co* 
tea. 



328 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[1 triod VIIL— 



1527 



1530 



1533 



1535 



1533 
153'J 



1542 



i64£ 



1547 



1548 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Xavier plants Christianity in 
India. 



Ariosto, Italian poet. 



Albert Durer. 

FLrst work on military archi- 
tecture. 



Jorgens invents the spinning 

wheel for spinning flax. 
Rabelais, French humorist. 



Botanic Gardens at Padua. 



Ignatius Loyola founds the 
order of the Jesuits. 



Papal bull declaring the Ame- 
rican natives to be rational 
beings. 

The diving bell invented. 

Calvin founds the Univer- 
sity of Geneva. 

Pins first used by Catharine 
Howard, queen of England. 

John Knox, Scottish Refor- 
mer. 

A commercial treaty between 
Portugal and Japan. 



Needles first made. 
Vasalius's work on Anatomy. 



Revival of Stoicism, by Justus 

Lipsius. 
Palestrina, founder of Italian 

church music. 

Giacomo Carisimi. 

Orange trees introduced into 
Europe. 



1529. Sir Thomas 
More, Lord Chan- 
cellor. — - Rise of 
Cranmer, archbi- 
shop of Canter- 
bury. 



1532. The king mar- 
ries Anne Boleyn. 



1535. Bishop Fisher 
and Sir Thomas 
More beheaded. 

Henry excom- 
municated by the 
Pope 

1536. — marries Jane 
Seymour. — Sup- 
pression of the 
smaller monaste- 
ries. 



1543. Henry invades 

France ■ takes 

Boulogne. 

1544. French fleet 
gain a victory over 
the English, off 
the Isle of Wight. 



1547. 



■ E dward 



vi. Hf — 

Somerset invades 
Scotland — defeats 
the Scots at Pin- 
kie. 

Formal esta- 
blishment of Pro- 
testantism. 



Scot- 
land. 



1536. : — 
Spread 
of the 
Refor- 
mation. 
—Pro- 
testants 
persecu- 
ted. 

1542. : — 
Mary. 



Earl of 

Arran, 

regent. 



Spain ami* 
Portugal. 



1525. Francis 
defeated and 
taken pri- 
soner at Pa- 
via. 

1527. Second 
war with 
Charles V. 

1529. Treaty of 
Cambray. — 
Great en- 
couragement 
given to arts 
and sciences. 
—The Lou- 
vre com- 
menced. 

1532. Calvin 
preaches. 
Third 
French war. 
— Siege of 
Marseilles. 



1538. Truce of 
Nice— for 10 
years. 

Attempt to 
recover pow- 
er in Italy ; 
hence the 

1542. Fourth 
French war. 



1544. Peace oi 
Crespy. 
France gives 
up Italy. 

1547. Henry 

' The fa- 
mous Catha- 
rine d e 
M e d i c i , 
queen. 



1536. Acquisi 
tion of Mi' 
Ian. 



1540. Portu- 
gal : — Lis- 
bon,the mar- 
ket of tha 
world. 

1542. Com- 
mercial trea- 
ty between 
Portugal and 
Japan. 



1453-1598.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



829 



1525 



1526 



1529 



Germany. 



1538 



'643 



1545 

1546 



1647 



General insurrections of the 
peasantry, under Thomas 
Miinzer. 



Charles marries Isabella, of 

Portugal. 
Death of Frederic, of Saxony. 

The Turks invade Germany. 
— Diet of Spires.— Luther- 
ans first called Protestants. 

League of Smalcald. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



Congress of Nice between the 
Emperor, the Pope, and the 
king of France. 



War in alliance with England 
against France. 

Diet of Worms. 

War of the Sraalcaldists. 

Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- 
ny. 



1523. Clement 
VII., pope. 



1525. Spain ac- 
quires the 
ascendency 
by the victo- 
ry of Pavia. 



1527. The Me- 
dici expelled 
from Flo- 
rence. 



1530. Medici 
restored. — 
Charles V. 
crowned at 
Bologna. 



1534. Paul III., 
pope. 



1537. Cosmo 
de Medici, 
duke of Tus- 
cany. 

1540. Investi- 
ture of Mi- 
lan confer- 
red by Char- 
ges V. on 
Philip. 



1545. Council 
of Trent. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1526. Invasion 
of Hungary. 



1529. Invasion 
ofGermany. 
— Siege of 
Vienna. 

The Otto- 
man navy 
formidable 
under the 
command of 
Barbarossa : 



1535. — who 
seizes Tu 
nis. — The 
emperor, 
Charles V., 
restores the 
Moorish 
king. 



1541. Destruc- 
tion of an ar- 
mament, led 
by Charles 
V. agaiast 
Algiers. 



1523. Sweden :— Revolt under 
Gustavus Vasa . — The 
Danes expelled. — Union of 
Calmar dissolved. 

Denmark and Norway ■ 

— Frederic I. j§§? 

1525. Albert, duke of Prussia 



1547. The 
Turks in- 
vade Persia, 
and capture 
Ispahan. 



1530. Malta givec to the 
knights of Rhodes 



1532. Union of Norway and 
Denmark. 



1533. Conquest of Pe- 
ru, by Cortes. 



Russia : — Ivan IV., (the 
Terrible). 



1536. Cortes discovers Califor- 
nia. 



1543. First standing army in 
Sweden. 



1545. South America: — Mines 
of Potosi discovered. 



1548. Poland :— Sigismund H, 

fU (A JgUStUB). 



830 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period VIII- 



Scot. Spain and 

A.D. Progress of Society, etc. Ensland. land. Prance. Portugal. 



i 558 



1560 



Scaliger, Philologist. 
Montaigne, French Essayist. 



Cardan, Italian philosopher. 



Sealing wax comes into use 
in Europe. 



Foundation of Jesuit Colleges 
in opposition to Protestant 
Schools. The first at Co- 
imbra, in Portugal. 



Only two carriages in Paris — 
horses and litters generally 
used. 



Snuff first brought into France. 
— Knives first made in Eng- 
land. 



Torquata Tasso Guarini, 
poets. 



Camoens, Portuguese poet 



Thomas Tallis, English mu- 
sician. 



1519. The English 
fcturgy comple- 
ted and establish- 
ed by act of Par- 
liament. 

1553. Northumber- 
land intrigues to 
settle the crown on 
Lady .lane Grey, 
his daughcer-in- 



— Mary . fig — 

Catholicism re- 
stored. 

1554. The queen 
marries Philip, of 

Spain.— Lord Dud- 
ley and Lady Jane 
Grey executed. 

1555. Bloody perse- 
cution of Protes- 
tants. 

1557. War with 
France to support 
Spain. — Calais 
lost. 

1558. — Eliza- 
beth. f§? 



Cecil, Lord 

Burleigh, Secreta- 
tary of State. 

Protestantism 
established. 

The Puritans 
begin to rise. 



1568. —Mary, queen 
of Scots, takes re- 
fuge in England— 
and is imprisoned. 

1570. Civil wars of 
the Desmonds in 
in Ireland. 



1560. Ca- 
tholic- 
ism abo- 
lished 
by par- 
liament. 
1565. : — 
Mary 
marries 
Lord 
Darn- 
ley. 

1565. : — 
Revolt 
of Pro- 
testants . 
1567. : — 
Darnley 
murder- 
ed — the 
queen 
marries 
earl of 
Both- 
well — is 
dethron- 
ed and 
impri- 
soned at 
Lochle- 
ven. 

James 



1570. :— 
Lennox, 
regent. 



1552. Fifth war 
with Char 
lesV. 



1557. The 
French defeat 

ed at St. 
Quentin. 
1558.— at Gra^ 

velines. 
1559. Peace of 
Chateau — 
Cambresis. 

F r a n c i s 

Duke of 
Guise, min- 
ister. 
1560.— Char - 

lesIX.flf 

1562. Religious 
liberty grant- 
ed lo the Hu- 
guenots. 

First civil 
religious war 

Huguenots 
supported by 
England — de- 

feated at 
Dreux. 

1567. The se- 
cond war. — 
Huguenots 
defeated at 
St. Denys. 



1569. — routed 
at Jarnac. — 
C o n d e 
killed. 



1554. Ccrcar., 
in India, lost. 

1556. Charles 
abdicates — 

Philip II.fl? 

1557. Portu- 
gal : — Sebas- 
tian. §§f — 



1564. Acquisi- 
tion of the 
Philippines. 



1567. Duke of 
Alva, gover- 
nor of the 
Netherlands. 



1570. War 
with the 
Turks.— Na- 
val victory 
at Lepanta 



i463-1598.] 



THE WORLD S PK OGRESS. 



831 



Germany. 



1551 Treaty of Passau secures reli- 
gious liberty to the Protes- 
tants. 
Fruitless siege of Mentz. 



£556 



1558 



15G4 



Charles abdicates. 



-Ferdinand I .fU — 

king of Hungary and Bohe- 
mia. 
Coronation by the pope relin- 
quished. 



-Maximilian II. 



Italy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. The Wjrld, elsewhere. 



1550. Julius 
III., pope. 



1555. Marcel- 
lusll., pope. 
Paul IV., 
(Caraffa) 
rope. 



1551. Tripoli 
taken from 
the Maltese 
knights. 

1552. Invasion 
of Hungary. 

1553. War with 
Persia. 

Building of 
the mosque 
of Solyman- 
yah, at Con 
stantinople. 



1559. Pius IV. 
(Medici) 
pope. 

Peace of 
Chateau — 
Cambresis 
terminates 
the French 
wars in Italy. 
Tranquil- 
lity for 66 
years. 

1562. Council 
of Trent re- 
assembled. 

1566. Pius V., 
pope. 

1569. Florence, 
a grand du- 
chy. 

Cosmo 
d e M e d i - 
c i , declared 
grand duke 
of Tuscany, 
by Pius V. 



1570. War of Venice with 
the Porte. 

1571. Cyprus reduced by the 
, Turks. 

Battle of 
Lepanto. 



1559. Naval 
victory of 
Galves, gain- 
ed by Dra- 
gut. 

Military 
power of 
the Turks at 
its greatest 
height, un 
derSoiiman 



1565. Unsuc- 
cessful siege 
of Malta. 

1566. Death of 
Soliman 
the siege of 
Sigeih. 

Selim II 



1553. Iv ew Mexico discovered 
by t! ie Spaniards. 



1453. India :— Jelaleddin Ak- 
oar, a patron of science and 
literature, aided by his min- 
isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh 
Faizi. 

—raises the Mogul em 
pire to its greatest splendor. 



1559. Denmark and Norway 

— Frederic H.f|lf 

Decrease of the influence 
of the Hanse towns. 

1560. Sweden :— Eric XIV. ^ 



1562. War with Russia and 
Poland.— An Fnglish am- 
bassador in Petaia. 

1564. Coligny sends a colony 
of Huguenotp to Florida — 
destroyed by the Spaniards. 

1568. Prussia :— Albert Frede- 



Sweden:- John 171.' 



1270. Peace of Stetin, between 

Denmark, Norway, and 

Sweden. 
157 1 Russia devastated by tha 

khan of Crim Tartary.- 

Moscow burnt. 



832 



THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period VIII.~ 



1573 



1577 



1552 



1585 
1586 



1590 



Prooress op Society, etc. 



Cervantes, author of Don 

Quixotte. 
Titian, and Paolo Veronese, 

painters. 



Sir Francis Drake's voyage 
round the world. 



Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia. 



Gregorian Reformation of the 
Calendar. 



Greenland discovered by Sir 
Francis Drake. 

Tobacco first brought to Eu- 
rope. 



First newspaper in England. 



Telescopes invented by Jan- 
sen, a German. 



Tasso, Italian poet. 
The Carracci, celebrated pain- 
ters. 

In England : — Spenser, 
Shaicspeare, Beau- 
mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- 
son. — Napier invents loga- 
rithms. 



Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- 
losopher. 

Lope de Vega, dramas and 
novels. 

Kepler, Tycho Brahe, astro- 
nomers. 



1578. The queen 
sends help to the 
revolted Nether- 
lands. 



1583. Levant Com- 
pany chartered. 

1584. Raleigh's co- 
lony in Virginia. 

1585. War with 
Spain. 

1586. Sir Philip 
Sidney killed at 
Zutphen. 

1587. The Queen of 
Scots beheaded. 

1588. The Spanish 
armada destroyed. 

1589. Alliance with 
Henry II. in aid 
of Protestantism. 
— Troops sent to 
France. 



1593. Act for reli- 
gious conformity. 



1594. Sir John Haw- 
kins's Vovages. 



1596. Cadiz taken, 
and the Spanish 
fleet burnt, by the 
earl of Essex. 

Sir Robert Cecil, 
minister. 



1599. Troubles in 
Ireland : — Revolt 
of O'Neill, earl of 
Tyrone. 



Scot- 


1 


Spain and 


land. 


1 Framoe. 


Portugal, 




1572. Massacre 






of St. Bar- 






tholomew. 






1573. Peace of 






Rochelle. 






1574. -Hen- 






rylll.g 






Fifth war 






with the Hu- 






guenots. 






1576. The Ca- 






tholic 






League. 






1577. Sixth re- 






ligious war. 


£578. Port. :— 

Henry. flgg-- 

1580. Portugal 


1581. :— 




falls undei 


Gow- 




Spanish do- 


rie'a 




minion. 


conspi- 






racy 






against 






the king. 








1588. Revolt of 


1588. Defeat o! 




Paris. 


the Spanish 
armada. 




1589. House 


1589. English 




of Bour- 


volunteers 




bon: 


under Drake 




— II E N R Y 


and Norns, 
repulsed 




I V.^|lf 


from Lisbon. 


1590. :— 


1590. Siege of 




The 


Paris, raised 




king 


by the Spa- 




marries 


niards. 




Anne, of 


1593. Henry 




Den- 


abjures Pro- 




mark. 


testantism. 

1594. Jesuits 
banished. 

1595. War with 
Spain con- 
tinued. 

1598. Peace of 






Vervius. 


1598. Phfi p 




Ministry of 




Sully: — 


III fls — 




restoration 






of order. 






Edict op 






Nantes 






— granting 






toleration to 






Protestants. 





1153-1598.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



833 



Germany. 



1676 



■— Rodolph Il.flf — 
king of Bohemia and Hun- 
gary. 



1572. Gregory 
XIII., pope. 

1573. Cyprus 

yielded t 
the Porte , 
1574. Florence: 
— Frances Ma- 
ria succeed: 
Cosmo. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



peace with Ve- 
nice. 
1574. — Murad 



1576. War with thori. 
Persia. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1574 Poland:— Henry, of V* 

1575 Poland :— Stephen Ba- 



The imperial authority disre- 
garded by the princes of the 
empire, who wage war 
among the nselves. 



1534 



Union of Protestants at Heil- 
bronn. 



1580. Charles 
Emmanuel, 
duke of Sa- 
voy. 



1585. Sixtus 
V., pope, 
active and 
energetic — 
corrects 
abuses in 
the church ; 
restores the 
Vatican li- 
brary. 



1580. War with 
the Druses 
in Syria. 

1553. First 
trade with 
England. 



1590. Urban 
VII., pope. 

Gregory 
XIV., pope 

1591. Innocent 
IX., pope, 
two months. 

Clement 
VIII., pope. 

1592. The Ri- 
alto and Pi- 
azza di San 
Marco built 
at Venice. 



1589. Predato- 
ry incur- 
sions of the 
Cossacks. 

Revolt of 
the Janiza- 
ries. 

1593. War with 
the Empire 
in Hungary. 

1594. The~ 
Grand Vi- 
zier takes 
Raab. 

1595. Moham- 
med III.® 

Turkish 
power in 
Hungary de- 
clines; de- 
feated at 
Gran — re- 
volt of Wal- 
lachia. 
1597. Moham- 
med leads his 
troops, and 
defeats the 
Germans at 
Agria. 



1578. Alliance of Sweden and 
Poland against Russia. 

1979. Commencement 
ofthe Republic of 
HOLLAND, by the union 
at Utrecht: 

William, Prince 
of Orange, stadthol- 
der. 

1584. North America: 
—First English colony found- 
ed in Virginia, by Sir W. 
Raleigh. 

1585. Persia acquires power 
under Abbas the Great. 

Holland : — Maurice, of 
Orange, stadtholder. 

1586. Battle of Zuiphen: death 
of Sir Philip Sidney. 

1588. Denmark : — Christian 



1592. Sweden : — Sigismund, 
king of Poland. 

India :— Mizam Shah, re- 
pulsed from Choul, by tha 
Portuguese. 

1594. The Falkland Isles die. 
covered by Hawkins. 

1595. The Dutch first in Indii, 
Sweden : — The regent as> 

sumes independent authiv 
rity. 



1598. Russia: — Boris Goda- 

n°v,fj|f begirt a n.;w 

dynasLy. 

Sigismund lands in Swe 
den, to re-establish his pow- 
er — but is defeated, and ra 
turns to Poland. 



834 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD IX— 120 years.— 



AD. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


America. 


England. 


France. 








1601. Earl of Essex be- 




1G02 


English East India Compa- 
ny founde_ 




headed. 

1603. — James I.^Hf — 
Union of the 






Exportation oi. Eng.ish wool 


1604.— Acadia co- 


English and 






prohibited. 


lonized by the 
French. 


Scotch crowns. 




1603 


Conference at Hampton Court. 




1605. The Gunpowder 




1604 


New Translation of the Bi- 
ble begun; (published 1611). 




Plot. 




1606 


Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- 
er of electricity, and of con- 
ductors and non-conductors. 


1606. — Discovery 
of Hudson's Bay. 

1607.— E n g 1 i s h 
settlement at 
Jamestown, 
(1st permanent 
one in N. Ame- 
rica.) 

1608. —Quebec 
founded. 

1609. — Jesuit mis- 






1610 


Telescopes invented by Gali- 


sions in Para- 
guay. 




1610. Assassi- 




leo. 


1612. English factories at 


nation of 








Surat. 


Henry IV., 
by Ravail- 
lac. 
Louis 


1615 


Coffee at Venice. 






XIII, -W 


1616 


Tobacco in Virginia. 


1616.— The Tobac- 


16115. Ministry of Villiers, 


(9 years old). 






co plant introdu- 


duke of Buckingham. 


Mary de Me- 




Bacon's Inductive Philoso- 


ced into Virgi- 




dici, regent. 




phy. 


nia. 


1617. Sir Francis Bacon, 
lord chancellor. 


1614. Last as- 
sembly of the 


16 IS 


Harvey discovers the circula- 




1618. Sir Walter Ra- 


States-gene- 




tion of the blood. 




leigh's unsuccessful 


ral. 


1620 


Thermometers invented by 


1620.— Negro 


voyage to America — 


1615. The king 




' Drebel. 


slaves first im- 


he is beheaded on his 


marries 




lnigo Jones, celebrated archi- 


ported to Virgi- 


return. 


Anne, of 




tect. 


nia. 




Austria. 




Martin Opitz, German poet. 


Emigra- 




Civil war:— 




Negro /Slavery co 'naienced in 
Virginia. 


tion of Pu- 




C o n d e 




ritans to 




heads the 






New Eng- 




Hugue- 






land. 




nots. 






1621. —John Car- 










ver, 1st Gover- 










nor of N. E. 






1624 


Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 


1624. New Am- 


jft 


1624 Ministry 


1625 


Massinger, the dramatist. 


sterdam set- 


1625.— C h a r 1 e s I.f|f 


of Carding 


1626 


Kepler's " Ast: Dnomia Nova 


' led by the Dutch. 




Rich) 




Celestis." 




Buckingham, prime 


lieu. 




Torricelli invents the barome- 




minister. 




16'C 


ter. 
The Parian marbles brought 


1627. Boston found- 


1627. War with Prance, 


in support ot 




to England by the earl of 


ed. 




the Hugue- 




Ar rodei. 






nots. 

Rochelle 






J 629. Wouter Van 


1629. No parliament for 


reduced by 


1630 


Gasettes first published in 


Twiller, gover- 


eleven years. 


famine — af- 




Venice. 


nor of New Am- 
sterdam. 


1630. Peace with France. 


ter a siege o| 
ten moa'.ha. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
\598-1718.— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 



835 



1609 



1613 



1621 



1625 



1625 



1630 



Spain 
and 

Portu- 
gal. 



Expul- 
sion of 

the 
Moors. 

War of 

the 
Mont- 
ferrat 
succes- 
sion ' in 
Italy. 



1606. Truce of Co- 
morra, for twenty 
years, with the 
Porte. 

1608. Protestant 
union, under Fre- 
deric, the elector 
palatine. 

1610. The Catholic 
League, under the 
duke of Bavaria. 

1612. Matthias. 



1615. Truce of Co. 

morra confirmed. 
1618. The Thirty 

Years' War 

begins. 
1619.— Ferdinand 

1620. Victory of the 
White Mountain, 
near Prague. - 
Massacre of 
Prague.— The Pro- 
testant religion to. 
tally suppressed. 



1626. Victory of Ti 
ly over Christian 
IV., of Denmark, 
at Lutter. 

1628.Wallenstein 
recovers all the 
shores of the Bal- 
tic, except Stral- 
sund. 

1629. Gustavus Adol- 
phus lands in Ger- 
many. — Diet of 
Ratisbon. — Wal- 
lenstein dismissed, 
succeeded by Til- 



Italy. 



1605. Leo XI., 
pope. 

Paul V., 
pope. 



1609.Tuscany 
— Cosmo II 



Leghorn, 

the empori 

um of the 

Levant trade 



1618. Conspi 
racy of Bed- 
mar, the 
Spanish en 
voy, to re 
duce Venice 
under sub- 
jection to 
Spain. 

1621. Gregory 
XV., pope 
Tuscany : — 
Ferdinand II 

1623. The fa- 
mous library 
of the Pala- 
tine at Hei- 
delberg, sent 
to Rome. 

1628. Genera 
Italian war 
on the death 
of the duke 
of Mantua. 



Ottoman 

Empire. 



1605. Revolt in 
Syria and 
Caramania, 
under the 
pasha of 
Aleppo. 

1606. Com- 
mercial 
treaty with 
France and 
Holland. 

Tobacco 
first brought 
to Turkey. 



1617. — Musta- 




II 

Great Per- 
sian victory 
at Shibli. 
1620 War with 
Poland, and 
unsuccess- 
ful invasion 
of Poland. 

1623. Murad 



1625. Truce 
with the em- 
pire renew- 
ed. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1604. Sweden : Charles IX. 



1605. India : —Jehangir, sul- 
tan. 



1609. India :— Arrival of Haw- 
kins, first English envoy 
from the East India Com- 
pany. 
Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3 

A d o 1 p h u s . fHf 

16U. Sweden: — War with 
Denmark.— Calmar and Ris- 
by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, 
minister. — Russia devasta- 
ted by Poles and Tartars. 

Russia : — Michael Ro- 
manoff, czar. 

1615. Denmark :— First stand 
ing army 

1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe 
ambassador from James I. 
of England. 

Sweden predominates in 
the north. 
1618. The Synod of Dor I- 
Arminius condemned. 

Settlement of Tanquebar, 
in Coromandel. 

1621. Dutch West India Com- 
pany incorporated. 

1622. Persia :— Ormuz gained 
from the Portuguese by .he 
help of the English. 

1625. Netherlands : — He-.ry 
Frederic— Breda, taken by 
Spincla. 

1627. Persia:— Shah Soofi I. 
1629. Peace of Lubeck. 



83G 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period IX.— 



a.d. Progress of Society, etc. 



1G30 
1631 



1.636 



1638 
1639 



1641 



1643 



Lotteries for money first men- 
tioned. 

Calico first imported into Eng- 
land. 



Edward Com, the great ju- 
rist. 

Pedro Calderon de la Barca, 
Spanish dramatist. 

Flourishing period of flower 
trade in the Dutch cities. 



Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- 
ters. 



The Jansenists, founded by 
Jansenius, bishop of Ypres. 
Printing in America. 

First Swedish manufactories. 
Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and 

Claude Lorraine, French 

painters. 



Coffee brought to England by 
Nat. Conopius. 



Cond6 and Turenne, the great- 
est generals of the age. 



The Dutch sole 
masters of Bra- 
zil. 
1632. Maryland 
settled by a colo- 
ny under Lord 
Baltimore. 



1635. Connecticut 
settled. — Guada- 
loupe and Mar- 
tinique, by the 
French. 



1637. Maine and 
New Hampshire 
colonized. 

Harvard Col- 
lege founded. 



1639. First print- 
ing office in Ame- 
rica, at Cam- 
bridge, by Sam. 
Green. 

1640. Whole num- 
ber of emigrants 
to New England 
previous to this, 
21,000. 



1643. Confedera- 
tion of the colo- 
nies of New 
England, for 
mutual defence. 



1630. Wentworth, earl of 

Strafford, minister. 
Laud, archbishop of 

Canterbury. 
1633. The king visits 

Scotland — is crowned 

at Edinburgh. 



1637. Trembles in Scot- 
land, caused by Char- 
les's plan to overthrow 
the Scotch presbyterian 
church, and enforce 
episcopacy. 

1639. War with Scotland. 

1640. Parliament assem- 
bled — dissolved with- 
out effecting any thing. 

The Scotch invade 
England— take posses- 
sion of Newcastle. 

The Long Parlia- 
ment, Nov. 3. 
Impeachment of Straf- 
ford and Laud. 



1641. Strafford beheaded. 
— Courts of Star Cham- 
ber and High Commis- 
sion abolished. — Rebel- 
lion of Roger Moore in 
Ireland. — Massacre of 
Protestants by Irish Ca- 
tholics. 

1642. C i v i 1 W a r and 

Revolution . 

Rise of Roundheads 
and Cavaliers, both of 
the popular party. — 
Battle of Edgehill, inde- 
cisive. 

1643. Royalists victorious 
at Carlsgrane — defeated 
at Newbury.— Solemn 
league and covenant be- 
tween the Scotch and 
English parliaments. 



France. 



1631. Treaty 
with Swe- 
den and the 
popular prin- 
ces against 
the emper- 
or. 

1635. Alliance 
with Holland 

against Spain, 
for the par- 
tition of the 
Austrian Ne- 
therlands. 

1636. Alliance 
with Sweden 
against Aus- 
tria. 

Invasion of 
Gascony by 
the Span- 
iards, and of 
Picardy, by 
the Impe- 
rialists, who 
threaten Pa- 
ris. 
1638. Invasion 
of Spain, 
siege of Fon- 
tarabia. 

1640. Turin ta- 
ken by the 
French. 

The first 
Louis d'ors 
struck. 
164L. Alliance 
with Portu- 
gal against 
Spain. — Ca- 
talonia and 
Rousillon re- 
volt, and sub- 
mit to France. 
1642. Cinq 
Mars and de 
Thou be- 
headed. 
1643.- L o ui 3 

xiv.fif— 

(the Great.) 
Anne, of 
Austria, re- 
gent. 

Victory of 
Roscroi over 
the Span- 
iards, by 
Conde. 

Ministry o 
Cardinal Ma 



1598-1718.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



837 



Spain 
and 

Portu- 
gal. 



1640 




1631. Sack of Mag- 
deburg, by Tilly. 
' — Gustavus Adol- 
phus takes May- 

1632. Defeat and 
death of Tilly, at 
Lech. — Gustavus 
takes Munich. — 
Wallenstein again 
in command. — Bat- 
tle of Lutzen. — 
Victory and death 
of Gustavus Adol- 
phus. 

1635.Peace of Prague 
with Saxony. 

1636. Swedes victo- 
rious atWittstock. 

1637.— Ferdinand 

Galas successful 
against the Swedes. 

1638. Bernhard. of 
Saxe Weimar, de- 
feats the Imperial- 
ists at Bheinfield — 
takes Brisac. 

1639. Battles of Ol- 
nitz and Brandiez, 
gained by the Swe- 
dish general, Bau- 
ner. 

1640. Prussia- — Fre- 
deric William. 



1642. The Swedes de- 
feat the Austrians 
at Leipsic. 



1643. — invade Hol- 
stein, and compel 
the Danes to desert 
Austria. 



1631. Peace of 
Chierasco. — 
The influ- 
ence of France 
increases. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1634.Murad ir 
vades Per- 
sia — take e 
Falreeze. 



1636. Peace 
with Poland 
renewed. 

1637. Troubles 
on the Tar- 
tar frontier; 
Azoph taken 
by the Cos- 
sacks. 

Bagdad ta- 
ken by the 
Turks. 
All the con- 
quests of Ab- 
bas recover- 
ed. 



1640. Ibrahim. 



1642. Recap- 
ture of Azoph 
from the Cos- 
sacks. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1632. Sweden '. — Christina, 

queen f®f 

1632. Sweden : — OxenstierUj 
regent. 

Russia: — War with Po- 
land; twc years' siege oi 
Smolensko. — Russian army 
capitulates, and the Polish 
king advances to Moscow. 

1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- 
vantageous to Russia. 



1639. Holland. —Great na tal 
victory by Van Tromp, ever 
the Spanish fleet in the 
Downs. 



1640. India : — Madras foo&cted 



838 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Peiiod IX.— 120 yews.— 



}-<M 



XfriS 



1650 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Des Cartes, French philoso- 
pher. 

Air guns invented. 



Engraving in mezzotints, im- 
proved by Prince Rupert. 



1656 



Railroads with wooden rails, 
near Newcastle. 



Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- 
ney, English writers. 



Le Seur and Le Brun, French 
painters. 



Air pumps invented. 



About this time flourish Mo- 
Here, La Fontaine, Cor- 
neille, Madame de Sevig- 
ne, Rochefoucault, Racnie, 
Boileau, and Pascal, in 
France. 

Velasquez and MuriUo, Span- 
ish painters. 



Great Britain. 



1646. Thomas 
Mayhew, preach- 
er to the Indians, 
shipwrecked. 

1647. Peter Stuy- 
vesanl, governor 
of New Amster- 
dam. 



1645. Cambridge 
platform adopt- 
ed. 



1649. J. Winthrop, 
governor of Con- 
necticut. 



1650. Settlement of 
North Carolina. 



1652. John Cotton 
died. 



1655. E. Winslow 
died. 



1644. Battle of Marston 
Moor — royalists defeat- 
ed. 

1645. Battle of Naseby. 

1646. The king seeks re- 
fuge in the Scottish 
camp. 

1647. — is delivered up to 
parliament for £400,000. 



164S. Cromwell routs the 
Scotch, under Hamil- 
ton. The presbyte- 
rians expelled from 
parliament, which re- 
ceives the name of " the 
Rump." 

1649. Trial and execution 
of the king. 

The Commonwealth. 

1650. Cromwell subdues 
Ireland. 

The Scots proclaim 
Charles II. He 

1651. enters England — is 
defeated at Worcester, 
and escapes to France. 

1652. Naval war with 

Holland. Blake, 

A s c o u g h , and 

P e n n , English ad- 
mirals. 

1653. Long parliament 
dissolved by Crom- 
well. — " Barebone's par- 
liament " summoned. 

Oliver Crom- 
well, Lord Pro- 
tector. 

Milton, private secre- 
tary to Cromwell. 

1654. Peace of Westmin- 
ster.- — -Alliance with 
Holland. 



1655. War with Spain. — 
Jamaica conquered by 
Penn. 

1658. Death of Cromwell. 
— R i c h a r d Crom- 
well, Protector. 



1645. : — Mar. 
shal Turenn* 
takes Treves* 



1648. Factions 
of the Fron 
de ; dissen- 
sions foment- 
ed by Cardi- 
nal d e R e t z . 

1649. Court re- 
moves to St. 
Germains.- 
Siege of Pa- 
ris. 

1650. Conde, 
C o n t i , and 
Long ue- 
v i 1 1 e , im- 
prisoned.— T— 
Turenne 
flees to the 
Spaniards. 

1652. Maza- 
rine retires 
to Sedan. 
Conde flies 
to Spain. 

1653. Mazarine 
enters Paris 
in triumph. 



1659. Peace of 
the Pyre- 
nees. — Mar- 
•riage of Lou- 
is XIV. to 
Maria The- 
resa, of Spain. 



1598 4718.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



839 





Spain 










A.D 


and 
Portu- 
gal. 


Germany. 


Italy. 


Ottoman 
Empire. 


The W orld, elsewhere. 






1644. Invasion of 


1644. Innocent 




1644. Naval victory of the 






Hungary, by Ra- 


X., pope. 




Swedes over the Danish 






coezi — the empe- 






fleet. 






ror forced to yield 




1645. War with 


1645. Sweden :— Peace of 






to the demands of 




Venice. 


Bromsebro with Denmark. 






the protestants. 


1646. Revolt of 
Naples, un- 
der Mas- 
saniello. 


Candia, the 
theatre of 
war. 


1647. Netherlands:-— Wiiliam 
11. 

China: — The Tartara 
place a prince of their own 
on the throne — the first ot 
the present dynasty of Tsing. 






1648. Peace of 




1648. Moham- 


1648. Poland:— The Ukraine 






Westpha- 




med IV. 


Cossacks revolt, and cut the 






lia, signed at 






Polish army to pieces. 






Munster, between 






elltei 






France, the em- 






— John Cassimir. j§§f — 






pire, and Sweden. 












— The principle of 












a balance of pow- 












er in Europe first 












recognized. 




1650. Moham- 
med Riopri- 
li, grand vi- 
zier. 

1653.Naval de- 
feat by the 
Venetians in 
the Archipe- 
lago. 


1653. Holland : — J o h n da 
Witt, Grand Pensionary ; 
De Ruytei, admiral. 

1654. Defeat and death ol 


iG54 


Brazil 








Tromp. 




recover- 








Sweden : — Christina re- 




ed from 








signs. — Charles X., 1st o' 




the 








jl 




Dutch. 




1655. Alexan- 




the House of Deux Ponts.f§§ 


1605 


War 




der VII,, 




Poland: — War with Rus- 




with 


1657. —Leopold 


pope. 


1657. War with 


sia. 




Eng- 


ji 


Racoezi, for 


1657. Denmark :— War against'. 




land. 






aiding Swe- 
den against 
Poland. 


the Swedes, Who overrun 
Denmark, and menace Co- 
penhagen. 
1658. Denmark: — Naval vie 
tory over the Swedes. 

Denmark : — Peace of Ros 
kilde. 



840 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period IX.— 120 years.- 



1662 




1665 
1666 
1666 



1667 



i670 
1671 



1675 



Logwood first cut in the bay 
of Honduras. 



Salvator Rosa, landscape 
painter. 



Huygens, Dutch astronomer. 

Persecution of Jansenists in 
France. 

Chain shot invented by De 
Witt. 

Canal of Languedoc, from the 
Mediterranean to the Atlan- 
tic. 



Gobelin tapestry manufactory 
in Paris. 



Bayonets invented at Bay- 
onne. 

Orrery invented. 

Foundation of the Academy 
of Architecture, and the 
Hutel des Invalides, at Pa- 
ris. 

Cassini, Italian astronomer 
and mathematician. 

D Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- 
daloue, La Bruyire, Mai- 
branche, French writers. 

Christopher Wren, architect, 
commences St. Paul's. 

Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch 
painter. 

William Temple, historian. 

Butler, Waller, and Dryden, 
English poets; Henry 
More, Leighton, Baxter, 
Boyle. 

Mansart, architect ; Giradon, 
sculptor, of France. 



1663. Canada made 
a royal colony. 



1663. Elliot's In- 
dian Bible prin- 
ted. 

1664. New York 
occupied by the 
English. 



1667. — ceded to 
them by the 
peace of Breda 



1670. Conclusion of 
the ' American 
treaty ' betweei 
England and 
Spain. 



1675. King Phi 
lip's War in 
New England. 



1677. Maine pur- 
chased by Massa- 
chusetts. 



1659. Richard resigns. — 
Rump parliament call- 
ed, but soon expelled. 

Restoration of 
the Stuarts. 

1660.— Charles II. fH 
Hyde, earl of 
Clarendon, chancellor 
and prime minister. 

1661. New parliament. — 
Alliance with Portugal. 

1662. Marriage with Ca- 
therine, of Portugal. 

Act ol Uniformity. 
Dunkirk sold to 
France. 

1661. War with Holland. 

1665. Naval victory by the 
duke of York. 

Great Plague in 
London. 

1666. Great Fire in Lon- 
don. 



1667. Peace of Breda. — 
New York ceded to 
England. 

Banishment of the 
earl of Clarendon. 

1668.Tnple league— Eng- 
land, Sweden, and Hol- 
land, against France. 

1670. The Cabal min- 
istry. — Secret treaty 
with France. 



1672. War with Holland 
in conjunction with 
France. 

1673. Ministry of Danby. 
Test Act passed. 

1674. Peace with Holland. 



1678 The Popish Plot. 



1661. Death ol 
Mazarine. 

Colbert, 
comptroller- 
general of 
finance. 

Lyonr.e, 
Le Tellier. ' 

1662. Disputes 
with the pope. 

— 60U0 troops 
sent against 
the Turks in 
Hungary. 
1664. French 
East India 
Company. 

1666. Acade' 
mie des Sci 

encesLouvois 

1667. War with 
Spain. Lou- 
is claims 
Spanish Ne- 
therlands for 
his wife — in- 
vades Bel- 
gium. 

1668. Peace o 
Aix la. Cha 
pelle with 
Spain. 

1672. War with 
Holland. 

1673. French 
ambassador 
at Ispahan. 

1674. The 
Dutch de- 
feated at the 
battles of 
Sinsheim 
and Mulhau- 
sen.— Tu- 
renne rava- 
ges the Pala- 
tinate. 

1675. Death ol 
Turenne at 
Sasbach. 

Influence 
of Pere la 
Chaise, the 
king's con- 
fessor. 

1677. Victory 
over the 
Prince of 
Orange at 
Mont-Cassel. 

1678. Peace 
of Ni me- 
guen with 
Holland and 
Spain — re- 
stores ti ar> 
quillity to 
Europe. 



1598-1718.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



841 



Spain 
and 

Portu- 
gal. 



1661 Invasion 
of Por- 
tugual. 



l663 



665 



1667 



1669 



1673 



Italy. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1663. The Diet per- 
manent at Ratis 
bon. 

1664. Montecuculi 
victorious over the 
Turks at St. Go- 
thard. 



1665. The Tyrol uni- 
ted to Austria. 



1673. War of Austria 
and France. 

1675. Turenne and 
Montecuculi op- 
posed on the 
Rhine. — Victory 
of Consarbruck 
over the French, 
under Crequi. — 
Treves taken. 

1676. General revolt 
of Hungarians un- 
der Emeric. 



1661. War 
with Aus- 
tria. 



1662. Invasion 
of Hungary. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1667. Clement 

IX., pope. 
1669. Candia taken from Ve- 
I nice by Kio- 
prili. 

Peace with the Porte. 



1670. Cosmo 
HI., grand 
duke of Tus- 
cany. — War 
between Ge- 
noa and Sa- 
voy. 

Clement X., 
pope. 

1674. Revolt of 
Messina in 
favor of 
France. 

1676. Messina 
blockaded by 
the Dutch 
and Spanish 
fleets. 

Death of De 
Ruyter. 
Innocent XI. 
pope. 

Death of the 
atheist, Spi- 
noza 



1672. The Sul- 
tan invades 
Poland. 

1673. — defeat- 
ed by Zo- 
briski, at 
Choezim. 



1676. Peace of 
Zurawno 
with Poland. 



1678 First war 
with Russia, 
on account 
of the Cos- 
sacks. 



1660. Demark : — Peace of Co 
penhagen. — The Swede! 
restore Bomholm, and Dron- 
theim. 
Revolution in Denmark. 

Sweden :— Charles XI. "Hi 

Peace of Oliva. 

Prussia acknowledged in- 
dependent. 
1660. Poland :— Great victory 
of Marshal John So 
b i.e s k i over the Tartars 



1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre- 
da : loss of New Nether- 
lands. 

1668. First embassies from 
Russia to France and Spain. 

India :— Rise of the Mah- 
ratta power. — Sevajee takes 
and sacks Surat. 

1670. Den. :— Christian V. W 



1672. Sea fight between the 
Dutch fleet, under De Witt 
and De Ruyter, and the 
English and French fleets- 
Dutch defeated. 

Den. :— William HI.© 

1674. Poland : — Jolir Sobies- 



1675. The Swede? invade 

Brandenburg. 
1677. Battle of the 7 \mti, N* 

tween (he Swedes and Pane* 



Q.& 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period IX.— 120 ycars.- 



1081 



$83 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Bernini, Italian sculptor. 

Museum for Natural History, 
at London. 

Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. 

Penny post established in Lon- 
don. 

Kempfer's travels in Japan. 

John Banyan, " Pilgrim's 
Progress." 



1696 
1687 



1690 



1692 



1693 
1692 



1692 



1693 



1699 



Otto Von Guericke, inven- 
tor of the air-pump and 
electrical machine, died. 

Telegraphs invented. 

Newton's Principia, publish- 
ed. 

G. Batt. Lully, from Flo- 
rence, founder of French 
opera music. 

Arch. Corelli, celebrated vio- 
linist and composer at Rome. 

White paper first made in 
England. 

Leibnitz, German philoso- 
pher, founds the Academy of 
Sciences a( Berlin. 

First opera in London. 

Purcell, English musician. 

Bank of England. 

Telescopes, first refiecling 
one made on the principles 
of Sir Isaac Newton. 



1686. Sir Edmund 
Andros, governor 
of New England. 

1683. General sup- 
pression of char- 
ter governments. 

1689. Montreal de- 
stroyed by the 
Five nations. 

Leister usurps the 
government of 
New York. 

1690. The English 
settlements of 
Schenectady, N. 
York,Casco, Me. 

and Salmon Falls, 
N. H, destroyod 
by a party of 
French. 

Port Royal, No- 
va Scotia, redu- 
ced by Sir Wil- 
liam Phipps. — 
Expedition against 
Canada, unsuc- 
cessful. 

1691. Schuyler 
defeats the French 

at La Prairie. 



Witchcraft superstition in New-England. 



John Locke and Sir Isaac 

Newton in England. 
Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, 

in France. 
Bank of England. 



Phc»2'horus discovered. 



1692. New Hamp- 
shire purchased 
by Allen. 

N. York: Leis- 
ler executed. 

1693. N. York :— 
Episcopacy in- 
troduced. 

William and 
Mary's College 
founded- 
1697. Kidd's pira- 
cies. 



1699. French colo. 
ny in Louisiana, 
— Gold mines in 
Brazil. 



Great Britain. 



Rise of the names of 
Whigs and Tories. 



1633. "RyehousePlot." 
Execution of Lord 
Russel and Algernon 
Sydney. 

In this reign the Roy- 
al Society of London 
was instituted by Wil- 
kins, bishop of Chester. 
— Bombay ceded to 
England. 

1685.— James 11.® 

Rebellion of Mon- 
mouth, in England, and 
Argyle, in Scotland, 
both defeated and exe- 
cuted. 
Judge Jeffries. 

1686. The king favors the 
Catholics. 

1687. — re-establishes the 
Court of High Com- 
mission. 

16S8. "Revolution 
of 1688."— The Whigs 
and Tories unite in ap- 
plying to the Prince of 
Orange, who lands in 
England with 15,0U0 
men — the king flees to 
France. 

1639. -William III. 

and M a r y I I .HI? — 
War with France. 
James II. lands in 
Ireland— besieges Lon- 
donderry. 

1690. William in Ireland. 
— Battle of the Boyne. 
James defeated, returns 
to France. 

1691. Limerick taken, and 
William acknowledged. 

1692. Invasion of Eng- 
land undertaken by the 
French in favor of 
James. — Naval victory 
bv the Dutch and Eng- 
lish. 

1693. Bunk of England in- 
corporated. 

1694. Death of queen 
Mary. 

1697. General peace 
1698.First partition treaty, 
between France, Eng 
land, and the Empire to 
dispose of the crown of 
Spain. 
1699. Visit of Peter the 
Great. 



France, the 
most formi- 
dable powel 
in Europe. 

1683. Invasi )n 
of the Span- 
ish Nether- 
lands. 

1681. Truce of 
Ratisbon fsr 
twenty years 
with Spain. 



1635. Revo- 
cation of 
the Edict 

of Nantes. 



1688. War of 
Spain — the 
Empire, Hol- 
land, Savoy, 
and England 
against 
France. 

16S9. Grand al- 
liance against 
France, head- 
ed by Wil- 
liam HI. 

1690. Naval 
victory over 
the Dutch 
and English 
off Dieppe. 
Victory of 
Luxemburg, 
at Fleurus. 

1692. Marshal 
Luxem- 
burg de- 
feats William 

at Steenkirk, 
and 

1693. —at Ne- 
uvinden. 
Institution of 
the order of 
St. Louis. 

ofRyswick 
— between 
France an« 
the allies. 



598-1718.J 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



843 



1689 



1691 



1697 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1680. Great part of 
Alsace seized by 
France. 

1683. Turkish war, 
siege of Vienna by 
the Turks — victory 
of the Germans 
and Poles, under 
Charles, of Lor- 
raine, and John 
Sobieski. 

Treaty of the 
Hague against 
France. 



1686. League of 
Augsburg against 
France. 

1686. Buda taken af- 
ter being held by 
the Turks 145 
years. 

1687. Decisive victo- 
ry of Mohaez : 
Croatia and Tran- 
sylvania subdued. 

Joseph I. crown- 
ed king of Hun- 
gary. 
1689. Grand alliance 
ratified at Vienna. 
The Palatinate 
desolated by the 
French. 



1690 Joseph I. elect- 
ed king of the Ro- 
mans by the Diet 
of Augsburg. — 
Victories over the 
Turks. 



Revolt 
of Cata- 
lonia in 
favor of 
France. 



Incur- 
sion of 

the 
French 

into 
Araeon. 



Peace of Ryswick 

In- 

tiigues 1697. Victory over 
for the the Sultan Musta- 
succes- pha at Zenta, by 
Bion. the Prince Eugene. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1682. War with 
Austria. 

1683. Total 
rout before 
Vienna. 

1684. Alliance of Venice with 
Poland, and the Empire 
against the Porte. 



1689. Alexan- 
der via., 
pope. 



1691. Innocent 
XII., pope. 



1693. Battle of 
Marsaglia — 
the allies in 
Italy defeat- 
ed by the 
Marshal Ca- 
tinat. 



1686. Russia 
declares war. 
1637. Revolu- 
tion in Con- 
stantinople, 
Mohammed 
dethroned. 
Solyman 



1689. Defeat at 
Nisa. 

1690. Musta- 
pha Kiopri- 
li drives the 
Austrians 
across the 
Danube — re- 
covers Bel- 
grade. 

1691. Ahmud 




The Would, elsewhere. 



1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock 
holm. 

1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe 

ter,gg their sister, S» 

] hia, regent. 

1683. Denmark :— The Code o 
king Christian published 



1686. India : — The Deskin con. 
quered. 
Golconda and Besapore. 



1687. —The English factories 
in Bengal suppressed— after- 
wards restored. 

1688. Prussia :— Frederic III 



Russia : — Ivan resigns — 
Sophia is confined in a con- 
vent : 
1689. Peter the 

Great .f|p 

1692. Russia: — First trade 
with China. 

India : — Height of the Mo- 
gul power, annual revenue 
.£32,000,000. 

China: — Great influence 
of Jesuits. 

1693. Sweden :— The king de- 
clared absolute. 

1695. Holland : Bombard- 
ment of Brussels by the 
French, under Villeroi. 

1696. Poland :— Death oi So- 
bieski — succeeded by 

1697. — Frederic Augustus I. 
Sweden :— C h a r l g a 



XI 1.1 



-(15 years old.) 



Russia :— Introduction oi 
various manufactures — 
equipment of a fleet, etc. 

1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ff| 

Alliance of Denmark, Rus- 
sia, and Poland, agaiost 
Charles XII. of Sweden. 



844 THE WORLD'S FROGRLSS. 



[Period IX— 120 years.— 



1704 



1709 
1710 



1713 
1714 



1715 



1716 
1/18 



Progress op Society, etc. 



First manufactories in Russia 
and Denmark 

Fenelon, Bossuet, Masillon, 
in France. 

National Debt of England 
commenced. 

Godfrey Kneller, English 
painter. 

First Russian newspaper. — 
St. Petersburg!! founded. 



Flourishing period of French 
literature. — Great splendor 
in the French court. 

A newspaper in America. 



Incorporation of the United 
British East India Com- 
pany. 

Prussia acid discovered by 
Diesbach. 

A post-office in America. 



The famous bull " Unigeni- 
tus" against the French Jan- 
senists. 

Rise of commerce in Austria ; 
first manufactories. 



Law's bank at Paris. 



The monastery of Mafra, ' the 
wonder of Portugal,' built. 

Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- 
son, flourish in England. 

First standing army in Eng- 
land. 

The coffee tree brought from 
•'ava to Surinam. 



1701. Yale College 
founded. 

1702. Rice intro- 
duced into Caro- 
lina from Mada- 
gascar. 

1703. Apalachian 
Indians subdued. 

Maine ravaged 
by French and 
Indians. 

1704. Captain 
Church's expe- 
dition against the 
Indians. 

Boston News- 
Letter, first Ame- 
rican periodical. 
1706. Carolina in- 
vaded by the 
French and Span- 
ish. 



1707. Unsuccessful 
expedition against 
Port Royal. 

1708.The Saybrook 
platform, form- 
ed. 

1709. First paper 
money in New- 
Jersey. 

1710. First post- 
office at New 
York. 

Fruitless expe- 
dition against Ca- 
nada. 
1713. "Queen 
Anne's War " 
closed by the 
treaty of Utrecht. 



1715. Indian war in 
South Carolina. 

1717. New- Orleans 
settled by the 
French. 



Great Britain. 



1700. A British fleet sent 
to assist Charles XII., 
of Sweden. 

Foundation of the 
national debt in this 
reign. 

1701. War of the Spanish succession. 

1702. The French invade Holland, «i 
der Boufflers — repulsed by Marl 
borough. 



A nne .|gf 

1703. Methuen treaty of 
commerce with Portu- 
gal. 

1704. Marlborough enters 
gains the battle of 

Gibraltar taken by 
Rooke. 
1706. T reatyofunion 
with Scotland. 

Battle of Ramillies, 
feated. 

1707. Victory of Almanza 
lish and Portuguese. 

The first United 
Parliament of 
Great Britain 
meets. 

1708. Battle of Oudenarde, 
feated. 

Sardinia and Minor 
the English. 

Unsuccessful attempt 
of the Pretender to land 
in Scotland. 
1710. Victory of Vendome 
Dr. Sacheverell's trial. 
— Collision of Whig 
and Tory principles. 

1713. Peace of Ot 
Perpetual separation 

of France and Spain — 
quires Newfoundland, 
Hudson's Bay, also Mi 
bialtar. The Rhine is 
between Germany and 

1714. Factions at court — 
disgrace of Harley, 
chancellor of the exche- 
quer. 

Death of the queen. 
— H ouseof Ha.no- 
v e r : — 

G eorge I .^§§f — 

Robert Walpole, pre- 
mier. 

1715. Insurrection of Ja- 
cobites. — Battles of She- 

riffmuir and Preston. 
War against Sweden. 



1718. Quadruple al 
Emperor, England, Ho 
France against the desi 



1702. Revolt oi 
the Hugue- 
nots suppress- 
ed by Mar- 
shal Villars. 
Germany, 
Blenheim. 



Villeroi de- 
over the Eng- 



— French de- 
ca captured by 



atVillaviciosa 



r e c h t . 

of the crown? 
England ac 
Acatfla, and 
norca and Gi 
the boundarc 
France. 

1714. Peace o- 
Radstadt : tin 

Emperor ac 
knowledges 
Philip on 
the cession 
of Lombar- 
dy, Naples 
and Sardinia. 

1715. Louis 

Duke of 
Orleans re- 
gent. — Du 
bois, minis- 
ter. 
1 i a n c e : th» 
Hand, and 
gns of Spain. 



1598-1718.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



845 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



Death of 
the king, 
who 
names 
the duke 
ol'Anjou 
as his 
success- 
or. 
Philip 

The" 
arch- 
duke 
Charles 
lands at 
Lisbon, 
and en- 
ters 
Spain. 
Barcelo- 
na taken 
by the 
allies. 
Port. :— 
John V. 



English 

and Por- 
tuguese 
enter 
Madrid. 



Charles 
leaves 
Spain on 
becom 
ing Em- 
peror. 



Barcelo- 
na taken 
by Ber- 
wick. 
Albero- 

ni, 
prime 
minis- 
ter of 
Spam. 



1701. Grand alliance of the Hague, 
between England, Holland, and 
the Empire, to pre vent the union 
of France and Spa in. 



1702. Battles of Stol 
hafen, Hochstedt. 
and Spires, gained 
by the French. 



1710. Treaty of the 
Hague between 
England. Holland, 
and the Empire. 

1711. — Charles 

Ministry of Count 
Linzendorf. 

1713. Pragmatic 
sanction, vesting 
the succession to 
Austria in the 
daughters of Char- 
les. 

1714. Peace of Ras- 
tadt and Baden 
with France. . 



1718. Quadru- 
ple alliance 
against Spain. 



1702. Victory 
of Luzzace 
rained by the 
Fiench over 
the Impe- 
rialists. 



1706. French 
driven from 
Italy by 
prince Eu- 
gene. 

1707. All the 
Spanish pos- 
sessions in 
Italy aban- 
doned to the 
allies. 



Ottoman 
Empire. 



1703. 
111. 



1709. Charles 
XII. takes 
refuge at 
Bender— 
hence war 
with Russia. 



1714. War of Venice with 
the Porte. I 



1715. Corinth taken by the 
Turks — the Emperor joins 
Venice — sie ge of Corfu 
raised on the news of their 

1716. deleat at 
the battle of 
Peterwar- 
den. 

1717. Defeat of 
Crusca — loss 
ol Belgrade. 

1718. Peace of Passarowitz, 
between the Porte, Venice, 
and Hunga ry. , 



The World, elsewhere. 



1700. Russia :— Peter the Great 
invades Ingria — defeated bj 
Charles XII., at Narva. 

War of the Northern 
Powers. 

1701. PRUSSIA erected into a 
kingdom under 

Frederic I. iff— 

Charles XII. invades Po- 
land — is victorious at Riga. 

1702. —enters Warsaw— takes 
Cracow. 

1703. Victory of Pultusk - 
Poland :— The throne de- 
clared vacant, and 

1704. Stanislas Leetzinskt 

elected king-flg 

1706. The Swedes victorious 
over the Saxons and Rus- 
sians at Traverstadt. 



1707. Russia :— Revolt of the 
Cossack Mazeppa. 

1708. Charles invades Russia, 
crosses the Dnieper, and ia 

1709. defeated at Pultowa. 
Sweden at war with Den- 
mark. 

Poland :— Frederic Augus- 
tus re-ascends the throne. 

1712. Victory of the Swedes at 
Gadebusche. 

1713. Prussia :— Frederic Wil 

liam I.fBf 



1714. Russia:— Naval victory 
over the Swedes.— Aland and 
Finland conquered. 

1715. Netherlands Barrier 

treaty of Antwerp with Aus- 
tria. 

Sweden : — Return of Char- 
les—Prussia and England 
join the alliance against him. 



1718. Charles XII. invade* 
Norway ; is killed at th& 
siege of Fredericshall. 
Sweden:— Ulrica Eleo 



846 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



PERIOD X.— 97 years.— 



1721 



1728 



1729 



1733 

1740 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Cotton Mather, " Magnolia," 
and Increase Mather, Hist, 
of War with Indians. 



Inoculation introduced by 
Lady Montague. The same 
year introduced into Boston 
by Dr. Boylston. 



Academy of Sciences at Peters- 
burg. 



The " Appellants," in France, 
headed by the Cardinal de 
Noailles, appeal from the 
bull '• Unigenitus," to a ge- 
neral council ; but without 
effect. 



Behring's Strait discovered. 



Balloons invented by Gusmac. 



In England : In France : 
Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous 

Young, 

Thompson 



seau, Le 
Sage, Rollin. 
Montesquieu. 



1732. Birth of Washington. 

1733. Savannah founded. 



Watts, Lord 
Bolinf 'iroke, 
Doddridge, 
Chesterfield. 

Halley, astronomer. 

First Lodge of Freemasons in . America, at Boston. 

1740. Tennessee first explored. 



1719. First Philadelphia news- 
paper. 



1721. First New-York news- 
paper. 



1723. Vermont settled. 

Increase Mather, died. 



1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 



1727. Great earthquake in 
New-England. 



1728. Cotton Mather, died. 

Discovery of diamond 
mines in Brazil. 



1729. The Carolinas separated. 



Irish linen manufactories, 
and English steel and cutlery 
flourish. 



L. Holberg, Danish drama- 
tiat. 



1742 Invasion of Florida by 
Indians and Spaniards — re- 
pulsed. 



England. 



1719. Unsuccessful attempt to 
invade Scotland by tlie Span- 
iards. 

"The South Sea Scheme." 

1720. " Bursting of the South 
Sea bubble." 

1721. Sir Robert Walpole'a 
ministry continues. 



1725. Leag/i e of Herrenhauser., 

1727. George I. dies at Osna- 
burg. 

George 1 1 .flf — - 



1728. Peace of Pardo wita 
Spain 



1729. Treaty of Seville, be 

1731. Treaty of Vienna with 
Holland and the Empire. 



1739. War with fepaln. 

1740. Porto Bello taken by Ad- 
miral Vernon. — Anson's voy- 
age round the world, and 
capture of the Manilla gftl' 
leon. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



847 



1718-1815.— Death of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 



France. 



to*" 1 ? The ihig assumes 

the government. 

'Duke de Bourbon, 

mirjister. 



Congress of Cam- 
bray 

between England. 
Tranc?, Prussia, 
and Holland. 

Ministry of Cardi- 
nal F 1 e u r y . 



.•728 



Congress of Sois- 
sons dissolved, 
without effecting 
any thing. 

tween England. 
France, and Hol- 
land. 



?:::; 



■ 734 

i no 



ira 



War of the Polish 
succession : 
France, Spain, 
and Sardi tia. 

Conquest of Lor- 
raine. 

War of the Aus- 
trian succession 
— Marshals Belle 
isle and Broglio : 



— defeated by the 
allies at Dettin- 
gcn. 



Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 



1725. :- 

Alliance of Vienna, Spain, 



1734. :— 
Con- 
quest of 
Nap;j.s 
and Sic' 
Iv by 
Don 
Carlos?. 



1739. :— 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land, for 
infrac- 
tions of 
the Asi- 
ento 
treaty. 



rtnd Austria. 



1733. War of the Po- 
lish succession ; 
Austria, Russia, 
and Denmark. 

1735. Preliminaries 
of Vienna:not con- 
cluded till 1738 

1740. Warof the Aus- 
trian succession. 
Maria The- 
resa succeeds to 
the he-reditary 
States. 

1741. The .French, 
Saxons, and Bava- 
rians, overrun Aus- 
tria, take Prague, 
and crown Charles 

VI. emperor. iH? 
Treaty of Bres- 
lau with Austria. 
1743. The French 
driven across the 
Rhine. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the 

Spanish. 
17:4.) .• Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity 

restored in the n.rth. 

Sweden : — The queer* abdicates in 

favor of her husband. 
1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope. 

Frederic. ^ggf 

Peace of Nystadt wnh Russia. 
Russia: — Peter assumes the title 
"Emperor of all the Russias." 
1721. Turkey :— Mahommed Effendi, am- 
bassador to Paris. 
1723. China:— Christians expelled. 
1723 Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici), 
grand duke of Tuscany. 

1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians 
attempt to dismember Persia. 

1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope. 

1725. Russia: — Catharine I., widow of 

Peter, flf 

1725. Turkey :— Partition treaty for sew- 
ing the north and west provinces A 
Persia. 

1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria. 

1726. Turkey : — First printing press 
brought from Paris to Turkey. 

1727. Russia :— Treaty with China. 

Peter II. ^g 

1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 

1728. Denmark:— Fire at Copenhagen, 
destroys the public library. 

— colony of Danes in Greenland. 

1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.© 

1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. 

Russia : — Anne.fH? 

1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus II fgf 
The diet elect Stanislaus, but are 

compelled by the Russian army to elect 
Frederic. 

1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- 
capes to Koningsberg. 

1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- 
sia by Nadir Shah. 

1736, — war with Russia and Austria. 

1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, gram 
duke of Tuscany. 

1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shab 
who takes and plunders Delhi. 

1739. Turkey :— Turks defeatttl nea 
Choezim. 

1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope. 
Turkey:— The Turks invade Persi 

— are repulsed by Ashraf. 
-peace of Belgrade. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period X. — 97 years. ■ 



1747 



Prooress of Society, etc. 



1748 
■750 
1752 
1753 



1761 



1764 
1766 



Frederic the Great makes 
great improvements in mili- 
tary tactics— imroducesjly- 
ing horse artillery. 

Durante and Leo, celebrated 
musicians. 

Handel, and Seb. Bach, musi- 
cal composers. 

indigo first produced in Caro- 
lina. 



Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- 
rian. 

Dr. Franklin's discoveries in 
electricity. 

England introduces the " New 
Style " Calendar. 

British Museum founded. 



British. 
A Ian Ram- 
say, 

•S/n'iistone, 

Gray, 

Collins, 

Akenside, 

Churchill. 



Ilelvetius, Fr. 
Racine, Fr. 
Gellert, Ger. 
Winckle- 
mann, Ger- 



John Rysbrach, sculptor. 
Hogarth, Wilson, $■ Joshua 

Reynolds, painters. 
Potatoes first planted in 

France, by Turgot. 
Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. 

Wesley 8? Whitefield preach. 
Philadelphia Medical School, 

first in America. 
Wallis and Carteret's voyage 

of discovery in the South 



1745. Louisburg and Cape 
Breton taken from France 
1 by the English. 



1747. David Brainerd and 
Benjamin Coleman, died. 



1749. English settlement in 
Nova Scotia. 



1752. Hostilities between Eng 

1754. Washington's mission to 
the French. 

1755. Defeat of Braddock. 

1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby 
taken by the French. 



1757. Fort VVm. Henry cap- 
tured. 

1758. Repulse of Abercrombie 
at Ticonderoga. 

Fort Du Quesne taken. 

1759. Invasion of Canada — 
death of Wolfe — Quebec 
taken. 

Capture of Niagara. 
Crown Point, and Ticonde- 
roga. 



1763. End of the " Old French 

War." 
1765. " American Stamp Act " 

resisted in Massachusetts 

and Virginia. 
First Colonial Congress at 

New-York. 



Great Britain. 



1744. Naval victory over the 
French and Spanish fleets in 
the bay of Hieres. 

1745. Scotch rebellion — Char- 
les Edward lands in Scot- 
land. 

1746. he is defeated at Cul- 
loden. 
1747. Victories over the French 
off Belle-isle and Cape 
Finisterre. 



1748. Peace of Aix la 

mutual restitution of con 



1752. The new style intro- 
duced; the year hereafter 
commences Jan. 1. 

land and France on the boun 



1756 "Seven Years' 
Subsidiary alliance with 
Prussia. 

Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m 
Pitt, the elder. 
1757. Victory of Plassey, in 
India. 



1759. Naval victories over the 
Lagros, and off Brest. 

Surat, in India, taken, 
from the Dutch. 

1760.— G e o r g e III .f§?— 

1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 

1762. War with Spain. 
Conquest of Havana, 

Trinidad, and Manilla. 

1763. Peace of Parii 



1765. Bengal ceded to the East. 
India Company by tli« 
treaty of Allahabad. 



1718-1815.] 



THB WORLDS PROGRESS. 



849 



France. 




Germany. 



1744 

1745 
•746 

1747 



War declared 
against England 
and Austria. 

Battle of Fontenoy , 
allies defeated. 

The French victo- 
rious by land, 
but unsuccessful 
by sea. 

War with Holland. 



C h a p e 1 1 e 

quests. 



dariesof NovaSco- 

Itia. 
Influence of Ma- 
dame de Pompa- 
dour. 
War." 
Capture of Minor- 
ca from the Eng- 
lish. 



1757 
1758 



1760 
J7M 



Invasion of Hano- 
ver. 

Defeat at Crefeldt. 
on the Rhine. 

French off" Cape 

Attempt to invade 
Ireland. 

Loss of all Canada. 

The Bourbon Fa- 
mily Compact. 

Siege and capture 
of Belleisle, by 
the English. 



between France, 
Spain and Eng- 
■ land. 
1764 Expulsion of the 
Jesuits. 



1745. Charles dies at 
Munich. 

House of 
L o r r a i-n e : 

— F r a n c i s I . \ 

husband of Maria 
Theresa. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1748 
pelle ; 
the on 



Peace of Aix la Cha- 
Spain, and Prussia 
iy gainers by the 
war. 

1756. Seven Years' 
War of Austria 
and Prussia. 

Invasion and 
conquest of Saxo- 
ny, by Frederic II. 

Alliance with 
France. 

1757. Prussians vic- 
torious at Prague. 
Rossbach, Lessa, 
and Breslau. 

The French take 
Verdun and Bre- 
men. 

1758. French defeated 
at Crefeldt, 

1759. and at Mirjden. 
Victory at Max- 
en over the Prus- 
sians. — Dresden re- 
taken. 

1760. Great victory 
at Torgan, by Fre- 
deric. 

1762.Prussians victo- 
rious at Freiburg. 

1763. Peace of Hu- 
bertstrug. 

1765. Joseph II. 



1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .|§J 
(the Great,) Prussia increase* in in? 
ponance. — War with Austria. 

Russia : — Ivan V. 

1741. Sweden : — War with Russia. 
Swedes driven out of Finland. 

Russia : — Elizabeth. |0f 

1743. — Peace of Abo with Sweden. 

1743. Turkey :— War with Persia. 
— Defeat near Erivan. 

1744. India:— Hostilities between French 
and English. 

1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French 
and Spaniards, who take 

1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. 
—Genoa bombarded by the English. 

1746. —French and Spaniards driven frona 
Lombardy. 

1746. Denmark :— Frederic V.g§ 

1747. Netherlands :— William IV. 
Persia: — Revolution: Nadir. 
Shah murdered. 

1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder. 
Denmark : — Ministry of Count Bern- 
storff. 

Sweden: — House of Holstein Got- 
torp : — 

Adolphus Frederic. ^§ 

1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, 
revolt against Genoa. 

1754. Turkey :— Othman III. 

1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- 
tinople. 

1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- 
bob of Bengal. 

1757. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 

1757. Prussia :— Russian invasion. 

1758. — victory of Londorf. 

1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope. 

1759. Prussia :— The king defeated at 
Kunnersdorf. 

1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken. 
India:— Shah Alfm II. 

Siege and capture of Pondicherry, 
by the English. 

Kingdom of Mysore founded by 
H y d e r A 1 i . 



1762. Russia : Peter III, 

months). 



C atharine II. __ 

1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Poniatowski. 

1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. 

— Establishment of a British empire 

1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duke 
of Tuscany. A^ 

1766. Denmark :— Christian VII. Hf 

1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egypt 

revived under Rodvan and Ali Bey. 




36^ 



850 



THE WORXD'S PROGRESS. 



'Period X. — 97 years.- 



Progress of Society, etc. 



1767 First spinning machine in England. 

17C8 Cook's first voyage of discovery. 

Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. 

Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua 
Reynolds, first president. 



United States. 



1769 
1770 



Letters of Junius. 

Whitefield dies at Newburyport. 



.774 
1774 

1774 



Captain Cook discovers New California. 

The Spinning- jenny, invented by Robert 
Arkwright. 

The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt 
and Bolton. 



In England. 

Goldsmith, 

Warburton, 

Johnson, 

Littleton, 

Lowth, 

Garrick, 

Hume, 

Robertson, 

Blackstone. 

Adam Smith, 

Home Tooke, 

Priestley, 

Horsley, 

Burke, 

Pitt, 

Fox, 

Cooper, 

Slieridan, 

McPherson, 

Burns. 

Kaimes, 

Reid. 



France. 
Voltaire, 
Rousseau, 
Diderot, 
Condillac, 
Jussien, 
Lavoisier, 
La Harpe, 
Barth fie ny, 
Buffo . 



Ger. Mosh- 

eim, 
Zimmerman, 
Kant, 

Klopstock, 
Lessing, 
Wieland, 
Herder, 
Goethe, 
Schiller, 
Ste. Linnaeus, 
It. Metastasio. 
Rus. Kheras- 

kov, 
Kostrov. 
Deerhavin, 
Bogdanovich, 
Khemnitzee. 



1768. Boston occupied 
by the British troops. 



1769. Daniel Boone ex- 
plores Kentucky. 



1772. Hancock, S. 
Adams, and P a - 
trick Henry, 
promote the revolu- 
tion. 

1773. Tea destroyed at 
Boston. 

1774. Continental Con- 
gress at Philadelphia. 



1775. AMERICAN 
WAR: 

April 19, Skirmish at 

Lexington. 
June 17, Battle of Bun- 
ker's Hill 

Prescott, Put- 
nam,&Warren. 
WASHINGTON, 
commander-in-chief. 
Montgomery 
Montreal, and falls at 

1776. The British troops 
evacuate Boston. 



Moultrie de 
Sullivan's Island. 

DECLARA- 
TION OF IN- 
DEPENDENCE, 
July 4. 

Americans (S u I 1 i - 
van) defeated at 
Flatbush. Aug. 

Battle of White 
Plains. 

Battle of Trenton, 
Dec. 26-7. 
1777. Arrival of Lafay- 
ette. 
Capture of Ticon 



Great Britain 



1766. American Stamp 
Act repealed. — New 
ministry under the 
Earl of C h a t h a m . 



1767. First war with 
Hyder Ali in My- 
sore. 



1770. Lord N t> r t h , 
prime minister. 

1771. The Falkland 
Islands ceded by 
Spain to Great Bri- 
tain. 



1774. The Boston Port 
Bill passed. 

1774. Warren Hastings, 
governor general of 
India. 

REVOLUTIONARY 

1775. Lord North's 
" conciliatory mea- 
sures " rejected by 
the colonies. 



takes St. Johns and 

Quebec. 

1776. The city of Lon- 
don remonstrates 
against 'he American 
war. 

feats the English at 

The British army 
takes possession of 
New- York. 

Hessians hireiJ for 
service in America. 



deroga by the British 
July 5. 



1718.-1815.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



851 



*.D. 


France. 


Germany. 


The World, elsewhere. 








Discipline of the Ottoman troops im- 
proved by Baron de Tott. 

17G7. Spain :— Jesuits expelled. 

India:— Hyder Ali resists the Eng- 
lish. 


17G8 


Genoa cedes Corsica to France. 




1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman 
Empire. 


1769 


Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. 




1769. Pope Clement XIV. 

The Russian army occupies Wa.lachia 


770 


Marriage of the dauphin with 
Marie Antoinette. 




and Moldavia. 
1771. Sweden :— Gustavus in.^§H 






1772. Joseph 


1772. First Partitionof Polanl. 






II. with the 








Emperors of 








Russia and 








Prussia, dis- 




1773 


Madame du Barri rules the 


member Po- 


1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- 




king. 


land, divid- 


ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi 




JL 


ing it be- 


Hassan. 


1774 


L o u i s XVI .fU 


tween them- 


Pope Clement abolishes the order of 




Marie Antoinette, queen : — 


selves. 


Jesuits. 




Maurepas, prim-3 minister. 




1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British 
governor-general. 

Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- 
scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. 

Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.fHf— 

1775. Pope Pius VI. 

Spain .-—Able ministry of Florida Blan- 
ca. 


3770 


N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- 




1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. 




ral. 




East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-ge" 




Franklin in Paris. 




neral, imprisoned by his own council. 








1777. Portugal :— Maria, qveeau 



852 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period X. — 97 years.-" 



1731 



1782 



1783 



1784 



1785 

1786 
1787 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Herschel's discovery of the 
Georgium Sidus. 



Prussic acid obtained in a se- 
parate state, by Scheele. 

Air balloon of Montgolfier. 



First American vessel in 

China. 
Institution for the deaf and 

dumb at Paris, by the Abbe 

de l'Epee. 
Sunday schools established in 

England, by Robert Raikes. 
Herschel's Telescopes. 



Stenography, by Taylor. 

Panoramas in London. 
First spinning machine in 
France. 



Talnxa, the celebrated trage- 
dian. 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



Battles of Bennington, 
11, and Stillwater. 

Philadelphia taken by 

lis. Battle of German 

ceives Burgoyne's 
Articles of confederation, 
adopted Nov. 15. 

1778. Alliance with France. 
Battle of Monmouth, 

Washington victorious, June 
28. 

Arrival of the French 
fleet under D'Estaing. 
Massacre of Wyoming. 

Savannah taken by the 
English. 

1779. Wayne recovers 
Stoney Point. 

Paul Jones's Victory off 

1780. Battle near Camden: 
D e K a I b killed. 

Treason of Arnold. 

1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- 
ed by Morgan. 

Surrender of Co 
town, Oct. 17. 



1782. Treaty with. Holland, by 
J. Adams, Jay, Frank 

1 i n , and Laurens. 

1783. PEACE OF VERSA 



Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept 

the English, under Cornwal 
town, Oct. 4.— G a t e s re- 
surrender, Oct. 17. 



1778. Capture of Pondicherry, 
in India. 



Scotland. 

1780. War with Hyder All in 
India. 

War with Holland. 



rnwallis at York- 

1781. Victory off the Dogger- 
bank. 



ILLES : 



INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac 

knowledged by Great Bri- 
tain. 



1784. New- York Chamber cf 
Commerce founded. 



1785. John Adams, 1st 
States of America to Great 
Britain. 

1786. Shay's insurrection in 
Massachusetts. 

1787. General Convention at 
Philadelphia. 

Federal Con- 
stitution of the 
United States, adopted. 

1788. Cotton planted in Geor- 
gia. 

1789. George Wash- 
ington, first Presi- 
dent : 

Jefferson, Ha- 
milton, Knox, Ran- 
dolph, and Jay, form 
the cabinet. 

1791. First United States Bank. 

1792. Kentucky admitted 
to the Union. 

Un .ted States Mint esta- 
blishes. 



1784. Pitt, the younger, 
premier. 

Peace with Tippoo Saib. 



ambassador from the United 
1786. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 



1788. The king insane.— Deatn 
of Charles Edward, the last 
pretender. 



Trial of Warren Hast- 
ings. 



1792. Provision for the p ndua, 
abolition of the ,«!«» v* >•. 



1718-1815.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



853 



1778 



France. 



Alliance witlt America. 



1779 Scheme to invade England 
from Normandy. 



178C 



1781 
1782 

1783 



Rochambeau sent to 
aid the Americans. 



Necker resigns. 

Defeat of De Grasse in the 
West Indies, by Rodney. 

Peace of Versail- 
les. 



1787 



17S9 



179. 
1792 



La Perouse's voyage of disco- 
very. 

Financial difficulties — New 
taxation : Colonne, Bnenne, 
and Necker, ministers suc- 
cessively. 

FRENCH REVOLUTION 

begins.— Bastile taken and 
razed, July 1-t. — L a f a y - 
e 1 1 e , commander of the 
national guards. — M i r a - 
beau, leading orator. 



1778. War of the Bavarian 
succession. — Bavaria seized 
by Germany. 



1779. Congress and Peace of 
Teschen. 



1782. Punishment of death 
abolished. 

The Pope visits the em- 
peror, to dissuade him from 

hostilities against the church. 



1785. 2,000 religious houses 
suppressed by the emperor. 



1788. The emperor attempts 
to control the Universities. 



1790. Leopold II .f|f — 
Congress of Reichenbach. 



Flight of the king to Varen- 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. 
nes. — Lafayette resigns. 

' 1792. — F rancis II. fg — 
War with Germany : — The French take Spires, Mentz, 
and Longwy— Lafayette im- 
France declared a prisoned at Olmutz. 

republic. 
Girondists and Mountainists. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1780. Declaration of the arrr.ea 
neutrality — to protect neu- 
tral flags from the right o( 
search claimed by Britain. 



1782. Italy :— Pontine marches 
drained. 

India:— Rise of Sindia— 
Tippoo, Sultan. 

1783. — alliance with the 
French. 



1786. Prussia — Frederic Wil- 
liam II. 

1787. Russia :— War witfi the 
Porte. 

1788. Spain :— Charles IV. 

1789. Ottoman Empire:— Se- 
lim II. 

1790. Tuscany : — Ferdinand 
III. 



1792. Sweden:— Gustavvs IV 



854 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period X. — 97 years. 



1799 



1801 



18)2 



1304 



Progress op Society, etc. 



Tom Paine, Alfieri, Italian 
Fisher Ames. poet. 



HannahMore, 
Gainsboro' , 
Moreland. 

Bognslawski, 
Krasiki, Po- 
lish poets. 



Gluck, 
Haydn, 
Mozart, 
Albrechtsber- 

gen, 
Beethoven. 



Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 
tary education. 

Mungo Park's travels in 
Africa, published. 



Iron railways in England. 
Polytechnic school in Paris. 



First book-fair in New- York, 



First Locomotive Steam En- 

fine used on the Merthyn 
'ydvil road in Wales. 



United States. 



1793. Washington re-elected. 
Neutrality in regard to 
France. 



Grbat Britain. 



1794. Commercial treaty with England. 
Commencement Brit: 

n f » V. n H n 1. 11 fi f V i - Y\0€W Til 



1793. First coalition against 
France, directed by Eng- 
land — all Europe, except 
Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- 
key. 



\_/ u ill ill e !» i< i- in c i 

of the n a v y—6 f r 
gates built, 



1796. Washington resigns. 



1797. John Adams, 2d 
president. 



Difficulties with France. 

1798. Regular army organized, 
Washington commander-in- 
chief. 

1799. Death of Washington. 
Tennessee becomes 

a State. 



1800. Seat of government 
transferred to Washington, 
D. C. 



1801. Thomas Jeffer- 
son, 3d President. 

Exports of United States, 
$93,0(10,000. 

1802. Ohio joins the Union ; 
it has 76,001) inhabitants. 



1803. Purchase of Louisi- 
ana, for $15,000,000. 

U. States frigate Philadel- 
phia, taken by the Tripoli- 
tans. 

1804. Decatur recaptures 
the Philadelphia. 

Preble bombards Tri- 
poli. 

Burr kills Hamilton. 

1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 
sident : George Clin- 
ton, of New- York, Vice- 
President. 



uina. 

British array defeated 
near Dunkirk. 



1795. War with Holland. 



1798. Second coalition against 
France. — Irish rebellion. — 
Nelson's victory at 
the Battle of the 
Nile. 

Wilberforce's motion to 
abolish the slave trade, lost, 
87 to 83. 



1800. Union of Eng- 
land and Ireland. 

— Malta taken. 

1801. Battle of Alexandria.— 
Pitt resigns, succeeded by 
Addington. 

1802. Peace of Amiens. 



Successful war in India. 



1804. Pitt again premier. 



1805. Nelson defeats the 
French and Spanish fleets 
off Trafalgar. 



1718-1815.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



855 



1793 



1794 



1795 



1790 
1797 



1796 
1799 



1800 



1601 



1S02 



1803 



1804 



1806 



The king and queen beheaded. 1793. First Coalitior 

against France 
Reign of Terror. 

Marat assassinated by Char- 
lotte Corday. 

Victories of Pichegm and J o u r d a n —the allies 
every where driven back, i 

Revolution of the 9thThermi- 
dor. 

Robespiere guillotined. 

NAPOLEON BONA- 
PARTE, commander of 
the army ; quells an insur- 
rection in Paris. 

War in Italy. 

Battle of Lodi. 

Bonaparte's Austrian Cam paig n— PI o c h e 
and M o r e a u ' s cele- 
brated passage of the Rhine 

Peace of Campo Formio. 



The World, elsewhere. 



Bonaparte's expedition to 
Egypt is defeated by Nelson 
at Aboukir, Aug. 1. 

The French enter Switzerland 
under Bernadotte and 
Jourdan. — Return of Bona- 
parte. — R evolution of 
the 18th Brum aire 
— B onaparte, first 
consul. 

Battle of Marengo. 



1798. Second Coalition against 
France. 



— M o r e a u ' a victory of 
Hohen linden. 



Veace of Lunevile. 



Bonaparte elected president of 

the Italian republic. 
Peace of Amiens. 
Legion of Honor instituted. 

War with Epp'and. 
Bank of France. 



Duke D'Enghien shot. 
Bonaparte crowned as NA 

POLEON I., Emperor of 

the French. 
Marshals Soult, Murat, 

N e y , &c. 
Austrian Campaign, 



Peace of 
Napoleon Protector of the 



1804. The emperor of Ger- 
many assumes the title of 
emperor of AUSTRIA. 



Batttle of Auster 
1 i t z. 

Presburg. 

Confederation of the Rhine. 



1793. Second Partition of Po- 
land by Russia and Prussia. 

Hay ti independent re- 
public, under Toussaint 
L'Ouverture. 

1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra- 
cow. — K osciusko, go- 
neral-in-chief. — Russians de- 
feated at Warsaw. 



1795. Final partition 
of Poland — extinction 
of the kingdom. 

Batavian Republic :— Shi- 
melpennink. 

1796. Russia :— Paul I. 

1797. Switzerland : — General 
Revolution — The French 
invade Berne — Helvetian 
Republic. 

Prussia : — Frederic Wil- 
liam III.® 

1798. India :— Marquis Welles- 
ley, governor-general. 

1799. Russians, under S u - 
w a r r o w , defeated neatf 
Milan. 



1800. Armed neutrality of the 
north. 

Pope Pius VII. 
Ionian Republic founded. 

1801. Russia: Alexander. ffjf 

1802. Italian Republic— Bona- 
parte president. 



1803. India :— Great MaJiratta 
War. 



1804. Russia :— War witfe F»i 
sia. 



856 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period X. — 97 years.— 



A.D. 


Progress of Society, etc. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 


1806 


Planet Juno discovered. 




180(3. Fourth Coalition against 




Lewis <5" Clark's expedition 




France. 




to the Rocky Mountains. 






!307 


Fulton's first success- 


1807. Embargo on all the 


1807. Bill for the abolition of 




ful trial of Steam- 


ports of the United States. 


the slave trade, passed. 




boats. 


Trial of Aaron Burr for 
treason. 




1808 


General University established 


Slave trade abolished. 


1808. The English, under 




by Napoleon, to superintend 




W e 1 1 e s 1 e y , enter Spain 




national education. 




as allies. 




Lithography invented. 










1809. James Madison, 


1809. Fifth Coalition. 




In England : 


France : 


4th President. 


Walcheren expedition. 




Flaxmaii, 

Westmacott, 

Chanirey. 


La Orange, 

Mange, 

Hauy, 


Embargo repealed ; the 
non-intercourse act passed. 






sculptors. 


Biot. 

B. St. Pierre, 
poet. 






1810 


First steamboat built in Eu- 
rope. 




1810. War with Sweden. 






1811. Engagement between 


1811 George, Prince of Wales, 






the ' President ' and the 


Prince Regent, (the king be- 






' Little Belt.' 


ing insane). 






Indians on the Wabash, 


Population of Great Bri- 






defeated by Gov. Harrison. 


tain, 12,552,144. 






Population of the United 








States, 7,239,903. 




1812 


American Board of Com- 
missioners for Foreign Mis- 


1812. War with Great Britain. 




sions, founded. 


Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. 

Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 


1814 


Steam carriages in England. 


The Constitution captures tie Guer 




Gas used for lighting the 


r i e r e : | 




streets of London. 


(First check of British Lord L ' : >/ e r p o o 1 
naval supremacy.) | premier. 


^15 


Safety lamp invented by Sir 


Wool victorious at Queenstown, O.t. 12. 




Humphrey Davy. 


Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frol ,« 
Oct. 18. 




In England : 






H. K. White, 
Keats, 
Reg. Heber, 


Bilderdyk, 
Dutch. 


The " United States," Captain Decatur, captures the 
British frigate Macedonian. 
The Constitution, Captain Bainbridge, captures the Bri 
tish frigate Java. 




Shelley, 

Crabbe, 

Sir W. Scott, 

Byron, 

Coleridge, 

Lamb, 


German: 


Louisiana admitted into 






W. Schlegel. 


the Union. 






F Schlegel, ' 


1813. Perry's victory 


1813. Sixth Coalition against 




Richter, 


on Lake Erie. 


France — Prussia, Russia, 
Sweden, Great Britain, and 




Kotzebue: 


Battle of the Thames : 




Weber and 


Tecumseh killed. 


Austria. 




Montgomery, 
Higg. 


Spohr, musi- 


1814. City of Washington 


1814. Treaty of Ohaumoct be- 




cal compo- 


burnt by the Bt*''sh. 


tween Austria, Prussia, Rus- 




France : 


sers. 




sia, and Great Britain. 




Mad. de Stael, 


Russia: 


Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 




Mad. deGenlis, 


Karamsin, 








Chateaubriand 


Somorokor, 


1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; 






Ouvier. 


Dmitriev, 


British defeated by General 


1815. Candy and Almora cap- 






Krilov. 


Jackson, Jan. 8. 


tured. 




Melendez Val- 






Wellington vic- 




dez, Spanish 




War against Algiers de- 


torious at Waterloo, June 18, 




poet. 




alared. 





1718-1815.J 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



857 



Victory of Jena over the Prussians. 
Berlin decree. 



War with Russia. 

Battle of Friedland. — P e a c e 
of Tilsit. 

Invasion of Portu- 
gal. 

French ir» Spain defeated at 
Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- 
lesley. 



Battle ofWagram- 



Napoleon marries Maria Lou- 
ise. — Continental peace ex- 
cept with Spain. 

Birth of the emperor's son; 
created king of Rome. 

Soult victorious in Spain — 
takes Badajos ; is defeated 
by the English at Albuesa. 



Russian Campaign. 

Battles of Smolensko and Bo- 
rodino. 

Moscow entered by Napoleon's 
army — and burrsd by the 
Russians. 



Peace of Vienna. 
M e 1 1 e r n i c h , minis- 
ter. 



Victories of L u t z e n , 
Bautzen, and Dres- 
den, over the allies. 

Battle of Leipsic — 
The allies enter Paris. 
Napoleon abdicates, 

and retires to Elba. 
House of Bourbon 

restored: 

Louis XVIII. 

Bjfia parte returns from Elba. 
The hundred days. 
Napoleon victorious at Ligny. 
BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 
The allies enter Paris. 
Bonaparte banish 

ed to St Helena. 



1812. Austria in alliance with 
France against Russia. 



1813. War of German inde- 
pendence. 

Austria joins the Coali- 
lion. 

Bonaparte driven to the 
Rhine, loses his whole army. 



1815. German League. 

Congress of Vien 
na. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1806. Holland :— Louis Napo- 
leon, king. 

Prussia at war with Franc* 
in alliance with Russia. 

1807. Ottoman Empire :— Mus 
tapha IV. 



1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VU. 

" Joseph Napoleon. 
Naples :— Murat. 
Denmark :— Frederic VI. 
Ottoman Empire :— Man 
moud II. 

1809. Sweden :— Charles XIU 



1810. South America : —VE- 
NEZUELA declared inde- 
pendent. 

1811. NEW GRENADA do 
clared independent. 



1812. Invasion of Russia 

by Napoleon.— BURNING 
OF MOSCOW. 

Kutosoff pursues 
the retreating French. 

Poland :— Diet of War- 
saw : the Poles declared a 
nation by Napoleon. 



1813. South America:— B a 
1 i v a r drives the Spaa 
iards from Caraccas. 



1814. Union of Holland and 
Belgium. — Peace of Kiel 
Sweden, and England. 

Union of Sweden ana 
Norway as two kingdoms 
under one monarch. 

1815. Netherlands:— William 



The "Holy Al- 
liance' '--B.uasia, Prus- 
sia, and A ustria. 



858 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 

PERIOD XI.™ 50 years. 



M..O. Progress op Society, etc. United States. 



1815 



1816 



1817 



1819 

1821 

1822 

1823 



1825 



New corn law in England. 

Polytechnic institution at Vi- 
enna. 

Manufactories introduced into 
Poland. 

The family of Rothschilds 
conies into notice at Frank- 
fort. 

Abolition of the slave trade by 
the congress of Vienna. 

Second United States Bank 
chartered for 20 years, capi- 
tal $35,000,000. 

Public schools established 

throughout Russia. 
Belzoni penetrates the second 

pyramid of Gheza. 

Abolition of predial bondage 
in Bavaria and Wirtemberg. 



1816. United States Bank in- 
corporated. 

Indiana admitted. 

1817. James Monroe, 
5th President. 

Mississippi ad- 
mitted! 

1818. Illinois admitted. 
War with the Seminoles. 



First passage of the Atlantic by steam, by the Savannah — 
New-York to Liverpool. 



Rise of mechanic institutions 
in England. 

Hieroglyphics deciphered : — 
Champollion. — Sir William 
Herschel died. 

Huskisson's/ree trade system 

in England. 
First manufactory in Egypt, 

established by Mehemet Ali. 

Inland navigation of the 
United States : the great 
Erie Canal opened. 



Mail-posts in Prussia. — 

Steam navigation on the 

Rhine. 
General financial panic in 

England. 
Vast increase of periodical 
literature in England, France, 

Germany, America, &c. 



Alexander Volta dies, disco- 
Terer of the Voltaic battery. 



1820. Maine admitted. 

1821. Monroe re-elected. 
Missouri admitted. 
Slavery compromise. 



1824. Lafayette's visit. 
Erie canal opened. 
Protective tariff. 



1825. J. Q. A d a m s , 6th 
President. 



Great Britain. 



1816. Bombardment of Algiers 
— The Dey compelled t» 
make peace and abolish 
slavery. 

1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- 
dition to Algiers 



1820.- Seorge IV-Hf— 



1823. Canning ministry. 
The Ashantees in Africa 
defeated. 



1825. Commercial treaty with 
Prussia. 



1827. Treaty of London to 
favor of Greece. 



1828. Wellington ministry ■ 
Disturbances in Ireland 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



859 



1816-1865 



3 as 



1821 



1S24 



Congress of Aix la Chapelle. 
— France joins the " Holy 
Alliance." 



Death of Napoleon at St. He 
lena. 



-Charles X . 



Fleet sent to Algiers. 



Austria, &c. 



1821. Congress of monarchs 
at Laybach. — Insurrection 
in Moldavia and Wallachia. 
— Alexander Ypsilanti de- 
feated and carried prisoner 
to Austria. 



The World, elsewnere. 



1816. Portugal -JchnVlfg? 
in Brazi: 

Union of Naples and 
Sicily. 

1817. Republic of the Ionian 
Islands. 

India : — The cholera com- 
mences its ravages. 

1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV. 
(Bernadotte.) 

India : — The Mahratta 
power completely over- 
thrown, and the British suc- 
ceeds. 
1S19. South America: — Re- 
public of COLOMBIA:- 
Bolivar, President. 

1821. Hayti :— B oyer, em- 
peror. 

South America :— PERU 
and GUATEMALA inde- 
pendent. 

1822. BRAZIL declared inde. 
pendent. 

Mexico : — Iturbide, em- 
peror. 

Greek Revolu- 
tion. 

Declaration of Indepen- 
dence. 

Massacre of Scio. 

1823. Italy :— Leo XII., pope, 

1824. Death of Lord Byron at 
Missolonghi. 

1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a 9 

182G. —War with Persia. 

Greece : — Missolonghi 
taken by the Turks. 

1827. Treaty between Russ:i 
and the Porte respecting 
Greece. 

Greece : — B a 1 1 1 e of 
Navarino. 

Portugal : — Maria de Glo- 
ria, queen. f§§f 

—Rebellion in favor ol 
Don Miguel as regent. 

1828. War between Russia 
and the Porte. 



860 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period XI. — ^50 ijeais.— 



1830 

1831 
1832 

1833 
1834 

1835 

1836 

1836 



Progress op Society, etc. 



In England : 

Jeremy Ben 
tham, 

Thomas Chal 
mers, 

Thomas Dick 

W. Kirby, 

Hallam, 

Lingarrf, 

Wordsworth. 

Southey, 

Campbell, 

Moore, 

Leigh Hunt, 

Mrs. He/nans, 

Bulwer, 

" Barry Corn- 
wall." 

Russia : 
Kuramsin, 
Somorokov, 
Dmietriev, 
Krilov. 

U. 
N. Webster, 
Irving, 
Cooper, 
Flint, 
Wirt, 
Marshall, 



France : 

Cuvier, 

Talma, trage- 
dian, 

Segur, 

La Place, 

Beranger, 

Lamartine. 

Germany : 
Spohr, 
Mayerbeer, 
Kotzebu&, 
Gall, 
Spurzheim. 

Sweden : 
Tegner, 
Dahlyren. 

Italy : 

Rossini, 
Paganini. 

S. A. 

Wheaton, 

Kent, 

Story, 

Gallatin, 

Livingston, 

Charming. 



Liverpool and Manchester 
Railroad opened. 

The two Landers succeed in 
tracing the Niger from Lake 
Tchad to the ocean. 

The first newspaper in Con- 
stantinople. — The Factory 
Bill in England, limning the 
hours of labor for children. 

Reform Bill in England: — 
Extension of Suffrage. 

Trade unions in England, 
France, Germany, Switzer- 
land, <fcc. 

Girard College, at Philadel- 
phia, asd the University of 
New- York, commenced. 

De Tocqueville's History of 
Democracy in America. 

Inquisition abolished in 
Spain. 

Slavery abolished in the 
British colonies. 

Boston and Lowell Railroad 
completed. 

James Smithson, of London, 
bequeathes £100,000 to the 

. United States for the esta- 
blishment of an Institution 
"for the increase and diffu- 
sion of knowledge among 
men." 

The Luxor obelisk erected at 
Paris. 



United States. 



1829. General Jack- 
son, 7th President of the 
United States. 



1830. Treaty between the 
United States and the Porte. 



1831. The king of the Nether 
North Eastern Boundary, be 

1832. War with the Winneba- 
goes and other Indian tribes. 
—Cholera in New-York. — 
Nullification in South Caro- 
lina. — General Jackson's ce- 
lebrated proclamation. 

1833. General Jackson re-elect- 
ed to the Presidency. 

Removal of the Depo- 
sites of the United States 
from the U. S. Bank. 

1834. The President censured 
by the Senate for removing 
the Deposites. 

335. Great Fire in New- York. 



1836. The national debt of the 
United States being paid, the 
surplus revenue is divided 
among the States. 

Treaty with Morocco. 
1337. The independence of 
Texas acknowledged. 

Martin Van Buren, 
3th President. 



Great Britaim. 



1827. Treaty of London in 
favor of Greece. 



328. The Wellington minis- 
try. — Disturbances in Ire- 
land. 



1829. Catholic emancipation. 
Capiain Ross' voyage ta 
discover a North West pas- 
sage. 



1830. — Wi I liam IV.fjf 
Earl Grey, minister. 
Difficulties with. China. 

1831. Lord John Rus- 
sel's Reform Bill intro- 
duced. 

Cholera first appears in 
England. 

lands makes his award on the 
tween the United States and 
the British provinces. 

1832. Reform Bill passed. 



1833. Captain Ross returns 
from his voyage of disco- 
very. 



1834. Sir Robert Peel, 
Premier. — Difficulties ia 
Canada. 



1837. — Victoria, Hf — r 



1815-1865.1 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



861 



1827 



1829 



1830 



1832 



leS5 



i336 



France. 



A French fleet sent to Algiers. 



Algiers tak«n. 



Three Days' Revo- 
lution, July 27, 28, and 
29. 

Lafayette, commander of the 
National Guard. 

Charles X abdicates. 

— L ouis Philippe I . 

(House of Oiieans.)^g 



Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 



Death 3f Lafayette. 



Insurrection attempted by 
Louis Napoleon at Stras- 
burg. 



Austria, &c. 



1833. The Em- 
peror of Rus- 
sia visits the 
Emperor of 
Austria. 



F e r d i 

nand l.flj 



The World, elsewhere. 



1-829. Italy :— Pius VIII., pope. 

Algiers taken by the French. 

VENEZUELA independent, General 
P a e z , President. 



1830. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, and 

is declared independent in August. 

1830. Polish struggle for nation, 
a 1 i t y , begins November 19. 

Brazil : — Revolution ; Don Pedro II. fH? 

1831. Belgium :—L e o p o 1 d I .^g 

The Poles victorious at Prayo. 

Italy :— Gregory XVI., pope. 
Poland : — Warsaw capitulates to Rus- 
sia. 
1S32. The kingdom of GREECE founded : 

— O t h o I .fjf 

Poland:— The Insurrection crushed: 
5000 families sent to Siberia. 

—University of Warsaw abolished. 

1833. Spain :— Isabella.® 

—Don Carlos claims the throne. 
Portugal :— A constitutional monarchy. 
Eeypt :— Mehemet, Ali acknowledged by 

the Sultan. 

Mexico : — Santa Anna, President. 

1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France. 
Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel 
and Don Carlos. 

1835. The Plague in Egypt. 



1836. Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts the 
constitution. 

Texas :— Battle of San Jacinto, Santa 
Anna taken prisoner. 



China:— A decree to expel all llritisJt 
and other barbarian merchants. 



862 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



[Period XI. — 50 years.— 



1837 



1939 



1810 



S . F. B. Mohse takes 
out a patent for his Elec- 
tro-magnetic Tele- 
graph, (invented 1832 ) 

Suspension of specie payments 
by the Banks in the United 
States, in May. 

The Daguerreotype 

invented in Paris. 
Improvement of the condition 

of the Jews in Russia. 
An Antarctic Continent disco 



Penny postage system in Eng- 
land. 



Persecution of the Jews at 
Damascus. 



Wheatstone's Electric Tele- 
graph patented in England. 



1842 



J844 



1845 



The Crotyn Aqueduct in New- 
York completed. 



Bain'.i electro-magnetic Tele- 
graph patented in London. 



" Anti-rentism ' v o.oached in 
the State of New- York. 



1838. The Exploring Expedi- 
tion sails. 

1839. Disturbances on the 
" disputed territory," be- 
tween Maine and New- 
Brunswick. 



vered by the United States 
Exploring Expedition. 



1841. W. H. Harrison, 

9th President. 

He dies April 4, just one 
month after his inaugura- 
tion. 

John Tyler, sue. 
ceedshim, as 10th President. 

Congress meets in extra 
session, May 31. 

Sub-Treasury Act re- 
pealed, Aug. 9. 

Bankrupt Act passed, 
August 18. 

1842. The Dorr Insurrection 
in Rhode Island. 

Treaty between the Uni 



A great defection from the Ro 
mish church, under the 
preaching of Ronge, in Ger- 
many. 

Lord Rosse's Telescope 

Gutta Percha in use. 
1845 Completion of the Thames 

Tunnel. March 25. 
1846 1 The Planet Neptune, pre- 
■ dieted by Le Verrier, dis- 
covered by Dr. Galle, of 
I Berlin, Sept. 23. 



1839. The British take poes** 
sion of Ghuzne. 



1840. The uniform Penng 

Postage system esta', dishes 

Marriage , f Queen Vic- 
toria to Prince Albert o( 
Saxe Cobourg. 

War with Chit a, to en- 
force the opium trade. 

War in Syria : — Great 
Britain taking part with 
Austria and Turkey. Lord 
Palmerston's foreign 
policy excites the ill-will oi 
France. 

1841. The war with China 
ended : $6,000,000 received 
as a ransom for Canton 



1844. Texas annexed to 
the United States. 

Anti-rent riots in New- 
York. 

1845. Treaty with China. 
James K. Polk, 

11th President. 

1846. War with Mexi- 
c o : 

Hostilities commence on 
the Rio Grande, April 24, 

Battle of Palo Alto, 
May 8. 

Battle of Resaca de is 
Palma, May 9. 



ted States and England, settling 
the north-eastern boundary. 

Treaty of peace with 
China. 

1843. Great "Repeal" 
agitation in Ireland. 

The British gain posses- 
sion of Scinde. 

1844. Daniel O'ConnelFs trial 
and imprisonment — the sen- 
tence reversed by the House 
of Lords. 

1845. Sir John Franklin sail* 
in search of the north wwl 
passage. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 



863 



.838 



1W0 



1842 



IBM 



164* 



Talleyrand dies. 
Difficulty with Mexico : cap- 
ture of San Juan d'UUoa. 



Prince Louis Napoleon at- 
tempts a hostile descent on 
the coast of France, near 
Boulogne — is taken prisoner, 
and imprisoned at Ham. 



G u i z e t , minister for fo- 
reign affairs. 

The remains of Napoleon 
removed from St. Helena, 
and deposited with great 
honors at the Invalides, in 
Paris. 



Austria, &c. 



The duke of Orleans, heir to 
the throne, killed by a fall 
from his carriage. 



The. Duke de Nemours ap- 
pointed Regent, in the event 
of the king's death. 



Louis Napoleon escapes ft 3m 
Ham, May 26. 



1838. New 
Treaty of 
commerce 
with Eng- 
land, July 3. 



Ferdinand 
crowned at 
Milan, Sep 
tember 6. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1838. Mexico :— The Castle of San Juaa 
d'UUoa taken by the French. 

1839. Peace between France and Mexico. 
China : — The Opium trade forbidden, 
Turkey at war with Egvct. 

India :— Ghuzne taken by u.e British, 

1840. China : — Canton blockaded by the Eng. 
lish, to compel the renewal of the opium 
trade. 

Holland : — William I. abdicates : 

William II. f!^ 

Syria: — St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the 
English, Austrians, and Turks 



1841. China:— Canton capitulates, $6,000,000 
paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. 

Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- 
tal, and places himself at the head of the 
government. 



1842. India :— Insurrection in Afghanistan. 



1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich 
Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord 
Geo. Paulet. 

Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- 
cept a constitution, Sept. 15. 

The Society Islands seized by a French 
squadron — restored by the government. 

India: — Scinde annexed to the British 
empire. 
1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful 
insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. 

Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; elected June 16, 



Poland : — Cracow deprived of its inde- 
pendence, Nov. 16. 



8G4 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period XI. — 50 year*.— 



Proqress 3p Societv, etc. 



United States. 



1846. The Oregon Trea 
lling the North- Western Bo 

Commodore Sloat takes 
possession of California, 
July 6. 

New Tariff bill passed 
establishing ad valorem du 
ties. 

Battle of Monterey, Sep, 
tember 23. 

Tampico occupied, No- 
vember 14. 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 
Feb. 22. 

Battle of Sacramento 
Feb. 26. 

Vera Cruz surrenders 
March 29. 

Battle of Cerro Gordo 
April 18. 

Battle of Contreras, Au 
gust 20. 

Armistice, Aug. 24. 
Hostilities renewed, Sep 
tember 7. 

Battle of Molino del Rey 
Sept. 8. 

Battle of Chepultepec, 
Sep, 12. 

Mexico surren- 
ders, Sept. 14. 

1848. Treaty of Peace with 
Mexico, signed at Guade- 
loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. 

The cultivation of the Tea' plant in the United States, 
commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- 
lina. 

Postal convention betw 



Great Britain. 



t y with Great Britain, set 
undary, signed at London, 
J une 18. 



Suspension Bridge at Nia- 
gara Falls, opened July 29. 



1847. Severe famine in Ire- 
land. Large supplies ol 
food sent from the United 
States. 

The Bogue forts in China 
taken and destroyed, April 
26. 



First deposit of Califor- 
nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. 



Emigration from Europe to America during ihis year, 
300,000. 



1848. Civil war in Ireland. 

John Mitchell, tried and 
condemned to transporta- 
tion, May 26. 

een the United States and 
Great Britain. 



Habeas Corpus Act sue 
pended in Ireland, Julv 25, 



Smith O'Brien arrested 
and condemned, Aug. 5. 



Return of Roas's esp« 
dition, Nov. 



1515-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



865 



Reform Banquets in Stras- 
burg, Chartres, &c. 



Michelet's Lectures interrupt- 
ed by the ministers, Dec. 

Abd-el-Kader captured, Dec. 
22. 

Debate on the Reform Bill, 
Feb. 8. 

Proposed Banquet at Paris, 
abandoned, Feb. '21. 

Revolution com- 
menced, Feo. 22. 

Barricades erected, Feb. 23. 

Louis Philippe abdicates and 
flies, Feb. 24. 

Provisional government esta- 
blished. 

Lamartine, Provisional 
President, Feb. 24. 

French Republic proclaimed 
Feb. 26. 

Meeting of the National As 
sembly, May 4. 

Bloody Insurrection in Paris 
June 23-25. 

Cavaignac, military dictator, 
June 24. 

Paris in a state of siege. 

New Constitution adopted 
Nov. 4. 



Louis Napoleon Bo- 
naparte, elected Pre- 
sident, Dec. 10. 



Austria, &c. 



1847. Austria 
takes posses- 
sion of Cra- 
cow. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1847. Prussia :— Frederic William grants t 
constitution, Feb. 8. 

Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. 



Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner 
to France, Dec. 22. 

1848. Sardinia :— Charles Albert protests 
against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an 
army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. 

Naples :— Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. 
Sardinia : — Charles Albert proclaims a 
constitution, Feb. 8. 

Bavaria : — Disturbances on account of 
Lola Montes— the king abdicates in favor of 
his son, 



-Maximilian II. 



March 22. 



Charles Albert 



TheBanJella- 
chich ap- 
pointed gov- 
ernor of 
Hungary, 
Oct. 3. 

Insurrection at 
Vienna, Oct. 
6. 

1848. The Em- 
peror leaves 
the city. The 
Hungarian 
army advan- 
ces within 6 
miles of Vi- 
enna, Oct. 11. 

WinoVsch- 
gratz ap- 
pointed com- 
mander of 
the imperial 
army. 



enters Milan, March 23. 

Denmark :— Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, March 26. 

Sicily declared independent, April 3. 
Holland receives a constitution, April 17. 

Poland : — Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- 
cow, April 25. 

Sicily :— The Duke of Genoa elected 
king, July 10. 

India : — Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16. 

Armistice signed between Denmark 
Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. 

India :— The British make an unsuc- 
cessful attempt on Moultan. 

Sicily : — Messina bombarded and taken, 
Sept. 2. 

Hungary :—K ossuth appointed Pre 
sident of the Defence Committee, an i Dicta 
tor, Oct. 



37 



866 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



[Period XI. — 50 years 



A.D. 


Progress op Society, etc. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 


1849 


A new planet discovered by 


1819. Zachary Taylor, 


1849. Moultan, in India. taken, 




Gasparis, at Naples. 


12th President. 


Jan. 3. 




Magnetic Telegraph lines in 


use in the United States in 

1849, 10,000 miles. 
Rail Roads 6,000 " 






Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, 








England. 








Magnetic Clock, invented by 








Dr. Locke, at Cincinnati. 








Emigration from Europe to 


America, during this year, at 
the rate of 1000 a day. 




1350 


Great agitation on the Slavery 


1850. John C. Calhoun died at 


1850. The war m Lahore fio- 




Question in the United 


Washington. 


ished, and th'-. Punjaub an- 




States Congress. 


Attempted invasion of 
Cuba : — 600 adventurers un- 


nexed to the British crawn, 




The Pekin Monitor, a new 


der Lopez, repulsed at Car- 






paper, printed in China. 


denas, May. 






Tlie Sultan of Turkey, grants 


Death of Gen. Taylor, 






permission to the Jews to 


July 9. 






build a temple on Mount 


Millard Fillmore, 






Zion. 


13th President. 






A University founded at Syd- 


California ad- 






ney, New South Wales. 


mitted, 31st State. 

Texas boundary settled, 
by the payment of 10,000,000 






Deaths in 1850 : 


dollars to Texas. 






O. S. A. EUROPE. 


New- Mexico and Utah 






A. Judson, 1 Wordsworth, 
& M. Fuller, Jeffrey, 
M L. Davis. Neander, 


admitted as Territories. 
Bill for the arrest of 

fugitive slaves passed by Con- 
gress. 

Slave trade in the District of 








Zschokke, 
Berzelius, 








Columbia abolished. 










A British fleet blockades 




i 




the ports of Greece, to en- 








force the alleged claims oi 








British subjects. 








Sir Robert Peel dies 








July 2. 








Haynau, " the Austrian 








butcher," chastised by tba 










draymen in London, Sept 



1 816-1865. j 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



867 



•istr 



Louis Philippe dies in Eng- 
land. 



Austria, <fcc 



The World, elsewhere. 



The Emperor 
issues a pro- 
clamation 
against the 
city. 

Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. 



The Imperial- 
ists take pos- 
session ol Vi- 
enna, Nov. 
2. 



Ferdinand ab- 
dicates, Dec. 

— Francis 



Joseph 



1849. A new 
Constitution 
promulgated 
March 4. 

Brescia taken 
by Haynau, 
March 30. 



Rome : — M a z z i n i ' s proclamation, 
Oct. 29. 

Prussia : — The king prorogues the As- 
sembly, Nov. 9. 

—The Burgher Guard of Be-lin»refuse to 
give up their arms. The city in a state of 
siege, Nov. 12. 

Rome : — Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- 
minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. 

India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur, 
Nov. 22. 

Rome : — The Pope escapes in disguise, 
Nov. 24. 

Hungary declared independent, Dec. 
1849. India : — Moultan taken by the British, 
Jan. 3. 

Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany 
flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, 
Feb. 9. 

Rome : — Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. 

Sicily : — A new Constitution conceded 
by Naples, March 6. 

Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by 
Radetsky, March 21 — again totally defeated 
at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the 
throne in favor of his son, 

Victor Emanuel, ^ff 

India : — The Punjaub annexed to tna 
British Empire, March 29. 

Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1, 



Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 
26. 

Rome : — The French arm.y arrives un- 
der the walls of Rome, April.29. 

Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, 
June. 

Rome surrenders^to the French, July 2. 
Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. 

Rome : — The government placed in tha 
hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. 

Gorgey traitor -ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. 
Kossuth escapes into Turkey. 
Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 
1S50. Rome:— The Pope returns, April. 

Greece disputes the claims of Great 
Britain for losses of British subjects: is 
forced to submit. 

China :— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, 
dies: 



Sze-hing ' WJ succeeds. 



r 868 



THE world's PROGRESS. [Perio d XL- 50 years - 



A. d. Progress of Society, etc. 



1850 On the. subject of the Mobbing 
of Marshal Ha/nan during 
a visit to a London brewery, 
notes pass between Austria 
and Great Britain, termi- 
nating in a threat of retalia- 
tion on the part of the latter, 
Sept. — Nov. 



A Memorial for the annexa- 
tion of Canada to the U. S. 
received in five hours tho 
signatures of 300 merchants, 
landowners, and profes- 
sional men, in Montreal, 
Oct. 10. 



Woman's Bights Con- 
vention, held at Worcester, 
Mass., Oct 23. 



North- West Passage discov- 
ered by Capt. McClure (Br. 
Navy) in the Investigator, 
Oct. 26. 



The British Consul at Charles- 
ton calls the attention of 
the Governor of South Ca- 
rolina to a law of that State, 
under which British sea- 
men (colored) are impris- 
oned when they enter her 
ports for trade or in dis- 
tress, Dec. 



Deaths in 1S50 : 

IT. 8. A. 

J". C. Calhoun, Senator, IT. S. 

Sam. Miller, D.D. 

Z. Taylor, President, TJ. S. A. 



United States. 



1350. California admitted as 
a State, Sept. 



Fugitive Slave 
passed, Sept. 



Bill 



Disunionlfeetings held at 
Natchez (many present op- 
posed to disunion); at Yazoo 
City (resolutions proposed 
voted down), Oct. 7; at 
Nashville (this convention 
passed resolutions recom- 
mending a congress of 
slaveholding States), Nov. 
19. 



Union Meetings held at 
Mobile, Dayton, and New 
Tork, in Oct. ; at Philadel- 
phia, and Manchester, N. 
H., in Nov.; and at Bath, 
Me., in Dec. 



The Advance and Eescue, 
American vessels in search 
of Sir J. Franklin, com- 
pletely fastened in the ice, 
Sept. 13. In their northerly 
drift reach lat. 75° 23', Oct. 1. 



Conventions held to 
amend the Constitutions of 
theStates of Indiana (Oct. 7), 
Virginia (Oct. 14), Maryland 
(Nov. 4), New Hampshire 
(Nov. 6). 



Lopez and others tried at 
New Orleans for engaging 
in an expedition against 
Cuba, Dec. 17. 



Webster replies to Hiilse- 
mann on the rights of neu- 
tral nations, Dec. 21. 



Great Britain. 



1850. Great excitement and 
agitation in England respect 
ing a dispute oh doctrine be 
tween the Bishop of Exeter 
and the Rev. Dr. Gorham, 
one of his clergy. The Privy 
Council"s decision in favor 
of the latter afterwards rati- 
fied by the Courts. 



Searches for Sir J. Frank- 
lin — the North Star returns 
to Spithead unsuccessful, 
Sept. 2S. The Prince Albert 
arrives at Aberdeen with the 
intelligence that traces of 
his party had been found at 
Cape Reilly and Beechy 
Island, at the entrance to 
Wellington Channel, Oct. 1. 



Appointment by the 
Pope of several Roman Ca- 
tholic bishops and arch- 
bishops in England, causes 
great excitement, and an 
indignant letter from Lord 
J. Russell, the premier, 
Nov. 



English forces defeated 
by the Caffres in South 
Africa, with considerabk 
loss, and obliged to retreat 
to their fort, Dec. 29. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WOKi^D S PROGRESS. 



869 



FltAXCE. 



1850 President creates his uncle 
Jerome a Marshal of France, 
Jan. 1. 



300 Soldiers drowned at An- 
giers by fall of a bridge, 
Apr. 15. 

French Ambassador recalled 
from London, in conse- 
quence cf a difficulty con- 
nected with an English 
claim on Greece, May 16. 

New Electoral Law, restrict- 
ing the right of suffrage, 
passed, May 31. 

Arrangement with England 
on the Greek dispute, June 
21. 

Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- 
sident 2,160,000 francs 
($405,000) per annum, 
passed, June 24. 



Austria, etc. 



1S50. Prussia:— The King takes 
the oath required by the Con- 
stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to 
assassinate him, May 22. 

Treaty signed at Munich 
between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- 
ony, and Wurtemburg, to main- 
tain the German Union, Feb. 2T. 

Wurtemburg denounces the 
insidious ambition of the King 
of Prussia, and announces a 
league between Wurtemburg, 
Bavaria, and Saxony, under the 
sanction of Austria, March 15. 

Hesse-Darmstadt .withdraws 
from the Prussian league, June 
30. 
Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2, 

A Congress of Deputies from 
the States included in the Prus- 
sian Zollverein opened at Cas- 
sel, July 12. 



The Wokld, elsewhere. 



Prussia refuses to join the 
restricted Diet of Frankfort, 
Aug. 25. 



Difficulties occurring in 
Hesse-Cassel, between the Elec- 
tor and his people, in regard to 
the mode of taxation, Austria 
and Prussia respectively send 
armies to the Electorate, to take 
opposite parts in the struggle, 
Sept.— Nov. 

Austrian ultimatum deliv- 
ered at Berlin, directing that 
Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight 
days, dissolve the ErfurtLeague, 
and recognize the Diet, etc., re- 
plied to by the Prussian King's 
signing the order calling out the 
whole military force of the mo- 
narchy, Nov. 6. 

The Russian Ambassador at 
Vienna announces that the Czar 
" would consider the continu- 
ance of the Prussian policy in 
the Electorate as a casus belli," 
Nov. 11. 

Treaty of Amnesty an- 
nounced at Berlin. Dec. 3. 

France protests, and Great 
Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, 
against the proposed extension 
of the Germanic Confederation 
beyond the Alps, Dec. 



1S50. Denmark : Bloody 
but indecisive battle of 
Idstedt, between the 
Danes and Schleswig 
Holsteiners, July 25 



Yucatan : — Battle, 
near close of the. year, 
between the Whites 
and Indians; latter vic- 
torious; 300 Whites 
killed. 



870 



THE world's PROGRESS. [Period XL — 50 years.— 



D. PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, etc. 



1851 



Jas. Richardson, the African 
traveller, dies at the village 
of Unqurta, six days distant 
from Kouka, the capital of 
Bornou, March 4. 



A Company of Gipsies from 
England arrive in Cecil 
county, Maryland, U. S., 
bringing with them all their 
wandering habits and pecu- 
liarities, March. 



According to the evidence 
of Mr. Baines before a Com- 
mittee of the House of Com' 
mons, there were in Great 
Britain 13,193 places of wor 
ship dissenting from the 
tenets of the Established 
Church, to which may be 
added Roman Catholic Ch, 
pels, 597, minor sects and 
Jews, 550; total noneon- 
formist churches, 14,340. 

Exhibition of the Works 
of Industry of all Nations 
inaugurated by Queen Vic- 
toria, May 1. 

Wyld's monster globe 
erected in London ; em- 
ployed 300 men nearly 30 
days in fitting up the inte 
rior. 



Daguerre, the discoverer of 
the Daguerreoyn or Photo- 
graphic Art, dies, aged 61, 
July 10. 



The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) 
Bill passes the British 
House of Commons, with 
only verbal protests from 
the objecting minority, July 
3; but is refused a second 
reading in the House of 
Lords/july 17. 



United States. 



1851. General Quitman of 
Mississippi arrested for al- 
leged violation of the neu- 
trality law of 1818, by set- 
ting on foot a military ex- 
pedition against Cuba. He 
resigns his office of Gover- 
nor, Feb. 3. 

Erie Canal Enlargement 
Bill defeated in the N. Y. 
Senate by the withdrawal or 
resignation of 12 democratic 
members, Apr. 16 ; but 
afterwards passed by a new 
Legislature. 

• "Minot's Ledge Light- 
house, Boston Harbor, car- 
ried away. It was last seen 
standing about 3 o'clock, 
p.m., April 16. 

Arrest of a notorious 
band of desperadoes in Mi- 
chigan, Apr. 21. 

Initial point of the Boun- 
dary between the United 
States and Mexico establish 
ed on the right bank of the 
Rio Grande del Norte, in 32 
22 north latitude, and 2)9.4 
meters from the center of 
the bed of the river, by the 
American and Mexican 
Commissioners, and a mon- 
ument erected recording 
the same, April 24. 

President issues a procla- 
mation, warning all persons 
within the jurisdiction of 
the United States not to aid 
or engage in any expedition 
against the Island of Cuba, 
Apr. 25. 

Convention of Delegates 
from the Southern Rights 
Associations of South Caro- 
lina meets at Charleston, 
May 5; and adjourns after 
resolving that, "with or 
without cooperation, they 
are for a dissolution of the 
Union," May 8. 

Erie railroad opened 
from New York city to 
Dunkirk, 469 miles, by 
President Fillmore, Daniel 
Webster, etc., May 15, 

Riot, with loss of life, 
at Hoboken, N. J., between 
Germans and " short-boy" 
rowdies from New York, 
May 26. 

Serious conflagrations in 
California. San Francisco 
alone suffers by them in 
May and June to the amount 
of $12,000,000. 



Great Britain. 



1S51. A strong force of Caffres 
attacks Fort White, Cape of 
Good Hope — repulsed, loss 
20 killed. The Caffre chief, 
Hermanus, with a body of 
Caffres and Hottentots, at- 
tacks Fort Beaufort, but is 
repulsed, he and his son 
killed, his band completely 
routed. 3,000 Caffres attack 
the Colonists and their allies 
near Fort Hare ; driven 
back with the loss of 100 
killed, Jan. . Col. Somer- 
set captures and burns Fort 
Armstrong, 90 Caffres killed, 
230 taken prisoners, Feb. 
23. The Hottentots of the 
Theopolis Mission Station 
in Lower Albany, join in 
the insurrection, May 3J. 
They are defeated in actions 
with the English troops on 
the 3d and 5th of June. 

The Russell Ministry re- 
sign, Feb. 22; but after- 
wards resume office, the 
Earl of Derby not having 
succeeded in forming a 
Cabinet. 

The Prohibited Affinity 
Marriage Bill lost in the 
House of Lords, Fob. 25 ; 
Lord Campbell and the Ec- 
clesiastical Bench voting 
against it. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



France. 



Austria, etc. 



The "World, elsewhere. 



Ministry resign, Jan„ 3. 

Presidential Dotation Bill, 
proposing an additional 
grant of 1,800,000 francs, 
rejected in the Assembly, 
Feb. 18. 



The Sub-Committee of the 
Assembly appointed by the 
Committee of Revision to 
authenticate petitions, re- 
ports, that up to July 1, the 
petitions had been signed 
by 1,123,165 persons, thus 
classified : For revision. 
741,011 ; for. revision and 
prolongation of powers, 
370,511 ; for prolongation of 
powers, 12,103 — July 5. 



The question of revision of 
the Constitution again ta- 
ken in the Assembly, when 
a minority was declared 97 
less than the three-fourths 
required by the Constitu- 
tion, July 19. 



S51. Denmark: — The Government oi 
Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Com 
missioners of the Germanic Confedera 
tion.i Jan. 10. 

The Austrians complete their mili- 
tary possession of Hamburg. Jan. 31 , 
and the new government issues its pro- 
clamation, declaring its resumption of 
the seignorial rule of the King of Den- 
mark, Feb. 2. 

Danish mining operations in Green- 
land produce large quantities of copper 
ore, yielding about 60 per cent. 
The Austrian Government and the Ottoman Porte come to 
the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- 
gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not 
attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among 
them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. 17. 



Charles L 
Brace, an Am- 
erican, arrested 
and imprisoned 
in Hungary, on 
a charge of 
" being a mem 
ber of the de- 
mocratic com- 
mittee, an 
agent of TJj- 
hazy and Cretz, 
and of travel- 
ing with revo 
lutionary writ- 
ings, to spread 
revolutionary 
movements," 
May 23. 



Inauguration 
of Bauch's co 
lossal statue of 
Frederick the 
Great at Ber 
lin, May 31. 



The Ger- 
manic Diet, in 
answer to Lord 
Palmerston's 
protest against 
annexing the 
non-Germanic 
provinces of 
Austria to the 
Germanic Fe- 
deration, says, 
" That no fo- 
reign interfe- 
rence should be 
allowed in a 
purely German 
question."July 
17. 



Australia: — Discovery of large gold 
fields near Bathurst, Feb. 

East Indies : — Fort of the celebrated 
pirate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by the 
Spanish Government of Manilla, Feb. 
28. 

Hawaii : — The difficulties betweeiv 
the Hawaiian and French Governments 
are arranged according to the terms of a 
"mutual declaration," published at Ho- 
nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign 
relations and M. Perrin, the French 
commissioner, March 25. 



New Granada: — Congress adjourns. 
It passed a law abolishing slavery in 
the republic, to take effect January 1, 
1852. May 29. 



Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel 
fi, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100 
miles S. E. of Naples, and other towns 
in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred 
within 24 hours. Melfl was separated 
by a ravine from Mount Volture, upon 
which are many extinct craters. Not 
less than 3,000 persons are said to have 
perished. July 14. 



Ecuador: — Gen. Diego Novoa, Presi- 
dent of the Republic, seized and put 
on board a government vessel by Gen. 
Urbina, who assumes the admin stra 
tlon of the Government. Jvily 17. 



872 



THE world's PROGRESS. [Period XL — '50 years- 



1851 



The lord mayor of London, 
with several of the alder- 
men and common council 
men, the royal commission- 
ers of the Exposition of In- 
dustry, etc., and the execu- 
tive committee of the royal 
commissioners, leave Eng- 
land for France, by invita- 
tion of the prefect of the 
Seine. They are entertained 
with dinners, balls, sham 
fights, and reviews of troops 
-Aug. 1. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



The inauguration of the rail- 
way between St. Peters- 
burg and Moscow, in Rus- 
sia, takes place Sept. 1. 



United States. 



1851. " Vigilance committee " 
at San Francisco hang a 
man for stealing, June 10, 
and another, July 11. 

Gov. McDougal of Cali- 
fornia issues his proclama- 
tion, warning the citizens of 
the State against " vigi- 
lance committees," and 
calls upon all persons to aid 
in sustaining the law, July 
21. 

Nicaragua route, be- 
tween New York aud San 
Francisco, opened, Aug. 12. 

The people of Litchfield 
county, Connecticut, cele- 
brate the 200th anniversary 
of its settlement, Aug. 13 
and 14. 

Great riot in New Or- 
leans, growing out of the 
Cuban expedition. Houses 
of Spanish residents at- 
tacked. The Spanish con- 
sul is obliged to ask protec- 
tion, and is placed in the 
city prison for safety, Aug. 
21. 

Riot, with loss of life, at 
Christiana, Pa., upon an at- 
tempt to arrest a fugitive 
slave, Sept. 11. 

U. S. brig Dolphin sails 
on an expedition to run a 
line of soundings for tele 
graphic purposes across the 
Atlantic, Oct. 

Cotton-planters' conven- 
tion (300 members) meets 
at Macon, Ga. Its object 
being to prevent fluctua- 
tions in the price of cotton. 
Little harmony of views or 
concord of action manifest- 
ed. Oct 

U. S. steam frigate Mis- 
sissippi sent to Turkey for 
Kossuth, receives him on 
board in the Dardanelles. 
The French government re- 
fuses to allow Kossuth to 
pass through France. The 
Mississippi proceeds on her 
voyage, with Kossuth's com- 
panions, reaching New 
York Nov. 10. 

Kossuth arrives at Now 
York in December. Ova- 
tions are offered him in the 
principal cities of the Union. 
He has an interview with 
the President, Sept. to Dec. 



Great Britain. 



1851. " The great aggregate 
meeting" of Roman Catho- 
lics, from all parts of the 
United Kingdom, for the 
inauguration of the Catho- 
lic defense association, is 
held at Dublin, Aug. 19. 



The American yacht 
" America," at the regatta 
at Cowes, wins " The cup of 
all nations," Aug. 22. 



Kossuth arrives by Eng 
lish steamer from Gibraltar, 
at Southampton, Eng. Ova- 
tions are offered him in va- 
rious parts of the country 
He leaves for the United 
States, Nov. 



The submarine tele- 
graph between Dover and 
Calais completed, Oct. IT. 
Opened for public use Nov 
13. 



A fourth presidency 
contemplated for British 
India, and a proposal mads 
to remove the seat of go- 
vernment from Calcutta 
to Lahore, Nov. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



873 



Fkanob. 



Austria, etc. 



1351 



Eevo lotion: L. N. Bonaparte 
by a coup d'etai seizes the 
reins of government; dis- 
solves the national assem- 
bly; declares a state of 
siege ; arrests the principal 
red-republicans and social- 
ists ; constitutes an entire 
new ministry. The Presi- 
dent orders an instant 
restoration of universal suf- 
frage; an immediate elec- 
tion by people and army of 
a President to hold office 
for ten years, to be sup- 
ported by a Council of State 
and two houses of Legisla- 
ture. The revolution cre- 
ates an intense excitement. 
The vote of the army shows 
a large majority for L. N. 
Bonaparte. Resistance to 
the usurpation is shown in 
various parts of France, but 
the overwhelming power of 
the army, and a " state of 
siege" in 83 departments, 
crushes all opposition. The 
election, under various con- 
trolling influences, results 
in the confirmation of L. N. 
Bonaparte as President for 
ton years, by a vote of about 
seven out of eight millions. 
Doc. 1-20. 



37' 



1851. Marshal Ra- 
detzky, by pro- 
clamation from 
Monga declares 
the Lombardo- 
Venetian king- 
dom to be in 
state of siege, 
July 19. 

By cabinet 
letters,the Em- 
peror of Austria 
declares that 
his ministers 
" are responsi- 
ble to no other 
political au- 
thority than 
the throne," 
that " the 
Eeichstadtisto 
be considered 
as the council 
of the throne," 
and the minis- 
ter president is 
to take " into 
ripe and seri- 
ous considera- 
tion the possi- 
bility of carry- 
ing out the 
Constitution i 
of March 4, 
1849." Aug. 20. 

Louis Kos- 
suth and 35 of 
his country- 
men sentenced 
to death in 
contumaciam, 
at Pesth, for 
not appearing 
after citation, 
Sept. 22. 

The ques- 
tion of the ad- 
mission of 
Jews to judi- 
cial office in 
Prussia, 
brought to a 
partial termi- 
nation by their 
permission to 
study law. Oct. 



The Worlo, elsewhere. 



1S51. Russia: — Her troops repeatedly do 
feated by the Circassians. June. 



Nicaragua:— Gen. Munoz, ex-minis- 
ter of war, deposes President Pineda, 
and sends him and most of his cabinet 
prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects 
Albaunaz President. The Senate assem- 
bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro 
President. Aug. 4. 



"West Indies : — Volcanic eruptions 
from eight craters in the mountains of 
Martinique, Aug. 5. 



Cuba : — Expedition against Cuba un- 
der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from 
New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West 
10th ; effects a landing at Cubauos, 11th ; 
is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken, 
29th, and publicly garoted, Sep. 1. His 
followers shot or condemned to ten 
years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse- 
quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who 
fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele- 
brated with great pomp at the Cathedral 
in Havana. "$70,000 are subscribed by 
the inhabitants of Havana, for the bene- 
fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9. 



Mexico: — General Mariana Arista 
inaugurated President, Jan. 15; CanaJes, 
Carvajal, and others, issue promoncia- 
mentos against the general govern- 
ment. Some flghtinsr follows, with 
varied success, Sept. — Oct. — Nov. 



Greece :— Lord Palmerston's note to 
the Greek government produces a great 
sensation at Athens. Nov. 



Chili :— Earthquake at Valparaiso— 
the most violent since that of 1822, few 
lives lost, but great destruction of pro- 
perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago,, 
suppressed after two hours' street-fight" 
ing, April 20. Rebels under Cruz de» 
feated by Bulnes at Longomilla, Dec. 8. 



874 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XL — '50 yean 



1851 



1852 



Peogebss of Sooietst, etc. 



The town of Lagos, on the 
coast of Africa, destroyed 
by an English force, with a 
loss of thirty killed, and 69 
wounded, because the na- 
tive chief refused to sign a 
treaty for the effectual sup- 
pression of the slave trade 
in his dominions. The chief 
is deposed, and another sub- 
stituted in his place, Dec. 
26-27. 

Deaths in 1851. 
U. S. I Europe. 



J. J. Audu- 
bon, 

S. OUn, 

J. F. Oooper, 

T. H. Gallau- 
det, 

S. O. Morton. 



J. Pye Smith, 

Bexley, 

JoannaBaillie, 

Codrington, 

Sheil, 

Lingard, 

Daguerre, 

Soult, 

Oersted, 

Jacobi. 



Immigration into California, 
U. S., from Asia is so large 
as to require special Legis- 
lation—April. 



Extensive fires in the Antilles, 
March 2 ; California, U. S., 
June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly 
destroying two cities ;) 
Canada, (at Montreal) July 
& 



United States. 



1S51. Principal room of the 

library of Congress destroy- 
ed by fire, together with 
paintings, statuary, models, 
and about 35,000 volumes 
of books, Dec. 24. 

By joint resolution, the 
Governor of Georgia is 
authorised and requested to 
withdraw the block of mar- 
ble contributed to theWash- 
ington monument by the 
resolution of the General 
Assembly of Febry, 1850, 
with the inscription, " The 
Constitution as it is ; the 
Union as it was," and to 
cause another to be pre- 
pared of Georgia marble, 
with the State arms thereon, 
and to be sent to the monu- 
ment, Dec. 31. 

Immigration, June 1, 
1850, to Dec. 31, 1851, 

558,000. 

1852. Deputations from the 
various States, in behalf of 
the Irish exiles, wait upon 
President Filmore — Jan. 23. 

The Ohio State House 
entirely consumed by fire. 
Some of the papers saved, 
but a large mass of docu- 
ments destroyed — Feb. 1. 

Senor Laborde, the 
Spanish Consul at New 
Orleans at the time of the 
Cuban riots, and who fled 
the city from fear of vio- 
lence, arrives at New Or- 
leans, is saluted, and re- 
sumes his dulies as consul — 
Feb. 9. 

Gold Medal piesented 
to Henry Clay by citizens of 
New York. Feb. 10. 

Memorial presented to 
House of Representatives 
of California, from 1,218 cit- 
izens, of South Carolina and 
Florida, asking permission 
" to colonize a rural district 
with a population of not 
less than 2,000 slaves." Feb. 
10. 

Homoeopathic College 
at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed 
and interior destroyed, in 
consequence of remains of 
subjects, taken from the 
burial-ground, being dis- 
covered near the College. 
Feb. 16. 



Gkeat Britain. 



1852. Lord Granville, by his 
note to the American mi- 
nister, in relation to the 
firing into the American 
steamer Prometheus by the 
British man-of-war Ex- 
press, states to Mr. Law- 
rence, for the information 
of his government, that 
her majesty's government 
entirely disavow the act, 
and has no hesitation in 
offering ample apology for 
that which they consider 
to have been an infraction 
of treaty engagements. Jan. 
10. 



Dr. Rae returns unsuc- 
cessful from his search for 
Sir John Franklin, down 
the McKenzie river, and 
from its mouth eastward, 
500 miles. He was sent out 
in the spring of 1851 by ti'a 
Hudson's Bay CompMiT, 
Feb. 



1S15-1S65.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



875 



ISM 



\m 



V*esi(L>tt$ Bomp.uie oilers 
^be wnftscaticn tf tho Oi - 
leans pro^tTty, Jan. J2. 



Austria, etc. 



1852. The Ernpe 
ror of Russia 
visits the Em- 
peror of Aus- 
tria at Vienna, 
May 8. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1851. China: — Imperial court seriously 
alarmed at the progress of the disturb- 
ance in the Southern provinces. June. 
A large portion of the Chinese part of 
Hong Kong destroyed br ih - e : from 470 
to 500 houses destroyed, including all 
the printing oi"8ces and the finest edi- 
fices and public buildings. Many lives 
lost. Dec. 26-28. 



1S52. Argentine Confederation : — General 
Urquiza, Commander of the liberating 
army, completes the passage of the 
Parana with 28,000 men, 50^000 horse, 
and 50 pieces of artillery, and prepares 
to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- 
tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from 
Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza with 
30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops 
of Rosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- 
sults in the total defeat of Rosas and his 
flight to England. During the night, the 
city is saved from pillage by detach- 
ments from the various ships of war of 
all nations in the harbor, Feb. 3. The 
allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. 

— Urquiza, Director of the Argentine 
Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10. 

— The Chamber of Representatives 
of Buenos Ayres declares the rivei 
Parana open to the navigation of all na- 
tions, Oct. 13. 

Belgium: — Formation of a new mi- 
nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party 
under M. de Brouckere, Nov. 1. The 
law against the liberty of the press is 
adopted in the Chamber of Representa- 
tives, Dec. 1. 

Cuba: — The police of Havana disco- 
ver and capture the press of the paper, 
" The Voice of the People," with the 
materials and forms for the fourth num- 
ber. The proprietors and employes are 
arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, 
having cleared at Havana, is brought to 
and boarded at the mouth of The harbor, 
and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few 
days after, the United States mail steam- 
ship Crescent City is refused permission 
to land her passengers and mails at Ha- 
vana, and ordered to quit the port— 
Captain-General Canedo objecting to the 
purser of the vessel, Mr. Smith, alleged 
to be the reporter of false news to the 
New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- 
cent City again enters Havana harbor, 
with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Canedo 
refuses to allow passengers or mails to be 
landed, and forbids all intercourse be- 
tween the ship and shore. The Captain 
protests to the American Consul, and 
leaves the harbor. 



876 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period XL — 50 year3.- 



Proqress of Society, etc. 



Great floods in the United 
States, March, April, Sept., 
and Dec. ; in England, Nov. 
and Dec. ; on the conti- 
nent of Europe, Sept. 



Telegraphs across the Eng- 
lish Channel. 



Earthquakes in Cuba August 
2 and Nov. 26; in Manilla 
and adjacent parts, Sept. 16, 
Oct. 18; at Acapulco, Dec. 
4; in the Eastern Archipe- 
Is-'o, Nov. 27 and Dec. 21. 

At Stafford House, in London, 
some English ladies, headed 
by the Duchess of Suther- 
land, adopt an address to 
the women of America on 
the subject of negro slavery. 
It subsequently receives 
576,000 signatures. Nov. 
26. 



Punishment of Death re- 
stored in Tuscany. 



Fall in England of the protec- 
tionist ministry of Lord 
Derby and Mr. Disraeli, 
after an existence of nine 
months — Dec. 20. 



Deaths in 1852. 
U. S. Europe. 



H. Clay, 
8. Nott, 
M. Stuart, 
D. Drake, 
J. H. Paine, 
M. Greenough. 
Amos Law- 
rence, 
Milledoler, 
J. Yanderlyn, 
D. Webster, 
J.L. Kingsley, 
J. P. Norton. 



Thos. Moore, 
Schwartzen- 

berg, 
Pradier, 
"Wellington, 
Dr. Mantell, 
D'Orsay, 
Lee. 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



1852. Southern Eights conven- 
tion at Montgomery, Ala., 
passes resolutions against 
making resistance to tho 
compromise measures 
issue of their party, and 
against intervention, March 
5. 

Riot during election at 
St. Louis, April 5. 

First national agricultu- 
ral convention assembles at 
"Washington, D. C, consist- 
ing of 151 members, repre- 
senting 22 States, and the 
District of Columbia, orga- 
nised by the choice "of 
Marshal P. "Wilder, of Mass., 
president. June 24. 

Convention for revising 
the Constitution of Louisi- 
ana, July 5. 

Kossuth continues to be 
feted in different cities, and 
finally quits the country 
under the name of Alexan- 
der Smith, July 16. 

Henry Clay dies, June 
29. Obsequies celebrated 
at New York with great 
pomp and magnificence, 
July 20. 

Great Britain insists upon the convention of ISIS, re- 
specting North American fisheries, being carried out by 
the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast 
of New Brunswick, etc. The United States government 
dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore 
Perry on board," to the disputed fishing grounds ; some 
sixty fishing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- 
formation and advice. July — Aug. 

Commodore McCauley, 
commander of the United 
States naval forces in the 
Pacific, by proclamation, 
withdraws his protection 
from American vessels pro- 
ceeding to the Lobos Is- 
lands for guano, Oct. IS. 
This difficulty with Peru 
settled by the withdrawal 
of American pretensions, 
Nov. 15. 



1852. Submarine telegraph 
wires coated with gutta 
percha, laid across St. 
George's Channel from Ho- 
lyhead, a distance of eighty 
miles, completing the com- 
munication between Lon- 
don and Dublin. June 1. 



Queen Victoria issues 
her proclamation against 
" Koman Catholic ecclesias- 
tics' wearing the habit of 
their order, exercising tho 
rites and ceremonies of toe 
Roman Catholic religion in 
highways and places ol 
public resort." June 15. 



Daniel "Webster dies, 
Oct. 24. Funeral solemni- 
ties celebrated at Boston 
with much state, Nov. 15. 

The United States de- 
clines the tri-partite con- 
vention respecting Cuba 
proposed by England and 
France, Dec. 1. 

Immigration, 375,000. 



Duke of Wellington dies, 
Sept. 14. His funeral obse- 
quies take place in London 
with great pomp, Nov. 18. 



Fall of the Protectionist 
ministry of Lord Derby and 
Mr. D'Israeli, after an exist- 
ence of nine months, Dec. 
20. 



By a decree of the Go- 
vernor General of British 
India, thti province of Po 
gu is ann vt<)d to the British 
dominion^ Dec. 20. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



877 



Fkanok. 



President Bonaparte com- 
mences his tour through 
Southern France, Sept. 16. 
Visits the Chateau D'Am- 
boise, and releases Abd-el- 
Kader, who had been a 
prisoner for five years, Oct. 
10. Eeturns to Paris, ma- 
king a pompous entry into 
the city, Oct. 16. 



A decree of the President 
convokes the Senate for 
Nov. 4, for the purpose of 
deliberating on the restora 
tion of the empire. Oct. 19. 

The Senate decrcos the re- 
establishment of the em- 
pire, s abject to the ratifica- 
tion of the people, Nov. 7 
The vote is taken through- 
out France and Algeria 
Nov. 21 and 22; result- 
7,824.189 in favor off estab- 
lishing the empire, against 
253,145 negative, and 68,326 
void ballots. 



The Senate goes in a body to 
St. Cloud, to announce offi- 
cially the result of the elec- 
tion to Louis Napoleon, and 
hail him Emperor, Dec. 1. 

At the Hotel de Yille, in Paris, 
Louis Napoleon is publicly 
proclaimed Emperor of 
the French, under the 
name of Napoleon III, 
Dec. 2. 



Austria, etc. 



The "World, elsewhere. 



1852. Greece: — Signing of a convention in 
London by the five powers, England, 
France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in 
reference to the affairs of Greece. None 
but a prince of the Greek religion is 
hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece. 
Nov. 18. 

Hawaii: — Eruption of Maun a Loo; 
lasts several weeks. Feb. 

India:— The Burmese evacuate and 
burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- 
der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, 
Nov. 21. 

Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
refuses to give audience to an English 
Protestant deputation in favor of Rosa 
and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. 

— The punishment of death is rees- 
tablished in Tuscany, for treason, crimes 
against religion, murder, and robbery 
with violence, Nov. 10. 

— The Pope addresses a letter to the 
King of Sardinia, strongly adverse to 
the bill under consideration in the Pied- 
montese parliament, permitting mar- 
riages without religious ceremonies; it 
is consequently withdrawn by the mi- 
nistry, Dec. 20. 

— At Rome, Bishop Ives, of North 
Carolina, U. S., formerly an Episcopa- 
lian, is received into the Catholic 
Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. 

Liberia :— President Roberts attacks 
and gains possession of the native chief 
Boyer's principal town, Jan 15. 
A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and 
Rome is ratified, stipulating that the former shall main- 
tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and 
1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid 
by tho Papal government. Nov. 10. 

Mexico : — Carvajal attacks Camargo 
and is defeated, Feb. 21. 

The French Count Boulban de Ra 
ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- 
nora, is defeated at Hermosillo, and his 
expedition completely overthrown, Nov. 
1. 

Spain : — A priest, aged 63, attacks 
with a dagger, and wounds the Queen 
of Spain, on her return from celebrating 
at the cathedral a Te Deum for the 
birth of her child, Feb. 2. Ho is tried, 
convicted, degraded from his priestly 
office, and suffers death from the gai te, 
7th. 

— Ninety-five Americans belonging 
to the Lopez expedition, who had been 
sent to Spain, arrive, at New York, 
March 13, having been liberated by the 
Queen. 

— The Cortes dissolved by royal de- 
cree, for having elected De la Rosa, th« 
anti-ministerial candidate, their presi- 
dent, Dec. 2. 



1S52. The Empe- 
ror of Austria 
visits the King 
of Prussia at 
Berlin, Dec. 17. 



Prussia : — ■ 
The bill for bi 
ennial parlia- 
ments becomes 
a law, Dec. 23, 



878 



THE world's PROGRESS. [Period XL— 50 years.— 



A. d. Progress op Society, etc. 



1853 



Firmans accordod to all sub- 
jects of the Porte (not Mus- 
sulmans) confirming their 
religious rights, June 22. 



The first Norwegian railway 
openec July 4. 



The American expedition un 
der Com. Perry arrives at 
Japan, July 8. On the 14th 
he lands and delivers to the 
Imperial commissioners the 
letter from the American 
President ; a few days after 
leaves the island, to return 
in the spring. 



United States. 



Over 60,000 pilgrims enter 
Aix-la-Chapelle", to visit the 
exhibition of the relics, Ju- 
ly IT. 



1S53. Caloric ship Ericsson 
makes her trial trip to the 
Potomac, Jan. 11. 



Adverse decision of Na- 
poleon, arbiter between the 
United States and Portugal, 
in case of the General Arm- 
strong, read at Washington. 
Jan. 17. 



Franklin Pierce and 
William R. King declared 
duly elected President and 
Vice-President for four 
years from 4th March next, 
Feb. 9. 



W. R. King sworn in as 
Vice-President, at Cumbre, 
Island of Cuba, Consul 
Sharkey administering the 
oath, March 24. 



Second American Arctic 
expedition leaves New 
York, May 81. 



Important amendments 
to the city charter of Now 
York, restraining the power 
of municipal officers 
money matters, adopted by 
a vote of 36,672 in favor. 
8,351 against, June 7. 



Crystal Palace at New 
York opened in presonco of 
the President of the United 
States, otc, July 14. 



Great Britain. 



1853. Mr. Ingersol, American 
envoy, feted at Liverpool 
and Manchester, Jan, 4-7. 



Sandilli and other Caffre 
chiefs send in their submis- 
sion to General Cathcart, 
thereby closing the war, 
Feb. 10. Peace concluded, 
March 9. 



Doncaster church, built 
in 1070, destroyed by fire, 
Feb. 28. 



Warlike stores, supposed 
to be for Kossuth, seized, 
April 14. 



Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- 
thoress of " Uncle Tom's 
Cabin," received at Stafford 
House by many of the no- 
bility and statesmen ol 
England, May 7. 



Dublin Industrial ExM^ 
bition opened, May 12. 



The "strike" at Stock* 
port ceases, and 20,000 men 
resume labor, having ac- 
complished their object, an 
advance of ten per cent, in 
their wages, August 8. Si- 
milar strikes occur at Leeds, 
Kidderminster, and othel 
cities. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



1868 



Feanoe. 



The Pantheon at Paris re- 
opened as the Church of 
St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. 

Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
at last acknowledge Napo- 
leon III. Emperor of the 
French, Jan. 11. 

Marriage of the Emperor and 
Eugenie de Montijo, Count- 
ess de Teba, celebrated at 
Cathedral of Notre Dame, 
Paris. Amnesty granted 
to 4,312 political prisoners 
and exiles, Jan. 30. 

■General St. Priest, and many 
other legitimists, secretly 
arrested in Paris, on the 
charge of political commu- 
nication with the Count of 
Chambord, and some of 
having sent false intelli- 
gence to foreign journals, 
Feb. 5. 

Application is made by the 
French government to the 
English for Napoleon's 
will, Feb. 17. Subsequent- 
ly grantod. 



Funeral of Mme. Ras»>ail at 
Paris, the occasion of a 
formidable socialist demon- 
stration. 40,000 persons 
march in procession to Pere 
la Chaise, March 13. 

Fleet sent to Turkish waters, 
March 20. 

A peace address, signed by 
4,000 English merchants, 
bankers and traders, is pre- 
sented to Napoleon III. at 
the Tuilleries, by English- 
men, March 28. 



A bill restoring capital pun- 
ishment for attempts on the 
life of the Emperor, or to 
subvert the Imperial go 
vernment, is passed, May 
28. 



Austria, etc. 



1S53. Austria of- 
fers herself as 
a mediator be- 
tween the 
Turks and 
Montenegrins, 
Feb. 1. 



Attempt on 
the life of Em- 
peror of Aus- 
tria at the ram- 
parts of Vien- 
na, Feb. 18. 



Baden : — 
Prof. Gervinus 
tried for high 
treason,in pub- 
lishing his "In- 
troduction to 
the History of 
19th century." 
Sentence, ten 
months' im- 
prisonment, 
and book to be 
destroyed, 
March 5. 



Prussia : — 
Democratic 
conspiracy dis- 
covered at Ber- 
lin, March 29. 



Austria re- 
cals her mi ;iis- 
tor from Berne 
May 20. 



The "Wokld, elsewhere. 



1852. Switzerland : — The Canton of Ticino 
suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, 
and expels all of that order under 65 
years of age, Nov. 25. 

Turkey : — War breaks out between 
the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15. 

1853. Belgium: — A maritime congress as- 
sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. 

— Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, 
heir-apparent of the throne, and th« 
Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. 

Canada and New Brunswick: — Ga- 
vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; 
riots ensue; military called out; June 
6-9. 

— The first sod of the European and 
North American Railroad turned at St. 
Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the 
Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 
25,000 persons, Sept. 14. 

China : — Nankin taken by the rebels ; 
Tartar garrison (20,000) massacred; 
March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. 

Denmark : — Parliament prorogued, 
and a "fundamental" law issued, by 
which the government becomes hereaf- 
ter an absolute one, July 19. 

Hawaii : — Small-pox rages, having 
carried oif since May 1,805 out of a po- 
pulation of 60,000 persons, Aug. 31. 

Holland : — The first chamber adopts 
the much-disputed law on religious li- 
berty, Sept. 8. 

India : — Battle of Donabew, in Bur- 
mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, 
March 19. 

Italy : — An insurrection breaks out 
at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed 
by Radetsky, Feb. (5. The property of 
the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- 
tered till they can prove they are not 
implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 
Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, 
Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- 
versies between Anstria and both Sar- 
dinia and Switzerland, follow — Sardinia 
solemnly protesting, April 16. 

— The Pope prohibits the circulation 
of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- 
ons, May 10. 

Guerazzi tried at Florence for high 
treason, and found guilty, June 11. 

— Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests, 
Aug. 15. 

— Order signed for immediate release 
of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9. 

— New church, built for the "Wal- 
denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, 
Dec. 15. 

Mexico : — New revolution ; Arista 
resigns the presidency, Jan. 5. 

— Santa Anna having been elected 
President, is received in Mexico with 
I great enthusiasm, April 17. 



830 



THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [Period XL— 50 years.— 



a.b. Progress of Society, etc. 



United Status. 



Great Britaik. 



1853 



A great national horse-show 
at Springfield, Mass., U. S., 
Oct 19-21. 



The first Presbyterian Chinese 
church organized at San 
Francisco, U. 8., Nov. 6. 



Duel between Soule and 
De Turgot, American and 
French ministers to Spain, 
Dec. 18. 



Cholera prevails in Europe. 



Several new asteroids discov- 
ered, raising the number to 
27, between the planets 
Mars aad Jupiter. 



Deaths in 1858 : 



U.S. 

0. B. Adams. 
JimiusSniith, 
W. R. King, 
B. Bates, 
Sim. Green- 
leaf. 



Europe. 

Arago, 
Von Buch, 
I) acres, 
Mrs. Opie, 

Wardlaw. 



1858. Great heat throughout 
the country — thermometer 
every where 100° Fah. 
Deaths from it in New 
York city in four days, 400, 
Aug. 11-14. 



Remaining portion of 
"Table Rock," at the Falls 
of Niagara, breaks off, Sept 
9. 



"Great Republic," ves 
sel of 4,000 tuns, largest 
merchantman in the world, 
launched at East Boston, 
Mass., Oct. 4. 



Captain Gunnison and 
party massacred by the 
Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. 



Inauguration of the 
"Washington aqueduct. 
President Pierce turns the 
first turf, Nov. 9. 



A mob of men and wo- 
men demolish the railroad 
track near Erie, Penn., Dec 
9, and repeat the outrage. 
Dec. 27. 



Yellow fever epidemic 
in the States bordering 
Gulf of Mexico, carries off 
from 12,000 to 15,000 per 
sons. 



Bedini, the Papal Nun- 
cio, tries to influence the 
BomanCatholic laity to give 
up their church property to 
the Bishops, but does not 
succeed. He quits the 
country ignominiously. 



Immigration, 868,000. 



1853. Naval Review at Spit- 
head, in presence of the 
Queen, Aug. 11. 



Queen Victoria visits 
Ireland, Aug. 29. 



Deputation from tho 
Protestant Alliance, headed 
by the Earl of Shaftesbury, 
waits upon Lord Clarendon. 
to state the case of Miss 
Cunningham, arrested at 
Lucca for distributing Ita- 
lian Bibles, etc., and to 
urge the government to 
procure her immediate li- 
beration, Sept. 28. A depu- 
tation of clergymen and 
others, headed by Sir Cul- 
ling Eardley, wait upon 
Lord Clarendon and thank 
him and the government 
for the exertions which had 
been made, Oct. 27. 



Bronze statue of Sir Ro- 
bert Peel erected in front 
of the Royal Infirmary at 
Manchester, Oct. 8. 



Captain Inglefleld, of the 
Phoenix, arrives from the 
Arctic regions, with the 
news of fhe discovery of 
the North-west Passage, on 
Oct. 26, 1S50, by. Captain 
McClure of the Investiga- 
tor, Oct. 7. 



The first stone of a Ro- 
man Catholic cathedral 
laid at Shrewsbury, by 
Bishop Brown— the young 
Earl of Shrewsbury giving 
£15,000 towards its erection 
—Dec. 12. 



The Dublin Exhibition 
building is formally opened 
as a winter garden, by the 
Lord Lieutenant and the 
Countess St. Germain^ 
Dec. 15. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



8S1 



France. 



Austria, etc. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1853 Plot to assassinate the Empe- 
ror, while on his way to the 
Opera Comique, discovered 
ajt Paris, July 7. 



A Roman circus of great size 
discovered at Tours, Aug. 
81. 



The Duke de Nemours, on 
behalf of the entire Orleans 
House, effects a reconcilia- 
tion with the Count de 
Chambord, Nov. 17. 



Inauguration of the statue of 
Marshal Ney, on the spot 
where he was shot, and the 
anniversary of his execu- 
tion, Dec. 7. 



1S53. Persia: — Earthquakes destroy Shi- 
raz, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Teho- 
ran, July 11. 



Peru: — Difficulty at Cbineha Islands 
between Peruvian commandant and 
American shipmasters, Aug. 17. 



Portugal :— Maria (Queen) dies, Nov. 



1853, AnAustrian 
war vessel in 
the port of 
Smyrna, seizes 
and attempts 
to carry off 
Martin Koszta, 
a Hungarian 
refugee, travel- 
ing under an 
American pass- 
port, who 
claims protec- 
tion of Ameri- 
can flag. An 
American fri- 
gate places the 
Austrian un- 
der her guns, 
and Koszta's 
release is impe- 
ratively de- 
manded, June 
21. 

Austrian go- 
vernment pro 
tests against 
proceedings of 
Captain Ingra- 
ham at Smyr- 
na, in a circu 
lar addressed 
to the Europe- 
an courts, Aug. 
1, and through 
its envoy ad- 
dresses a note 
to the Ameri- 
can govern- 
ment on the 
same subject, 
Aug. 29. ' 

Eastern Affairs. — War between Turkey and 
Russia. — Prince Menschikoffsentby the Emperor of Rus- 
sia with demands which are rejected by the Porte, May 21, 
June 15. The Russians cross the Prutb, 120,000 strong, 
June 21-28. — The Porte addresses a protest to the Russian 
cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July 
'-•14. The" Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated 
" Vienna note," for the joint acceptance of Russia and 
Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts; Turkey re- 
quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will not ac- 
cede to, Sept. 14. Military congress at Olmutz, Sept. 20. 
The note is dropped, Sept. 30. Turkey declares war 
against Russia, Oct. 3. Hostilities commenced on the 
Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicholas in the 
Black Sea, Oct. 31. Turks defeat Russians at Oltenitza, 
Nov. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11. 
The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4, 
and the Bosphorus, Nov. 15. Turks beaten and massa- 
cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 30. The Vienna Con- 
ference continues its efforts to effect an arrangement be- 
tween the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of 
the people of Constantinople in favor of war, Dec. 21. 
Russians uniformly victorious in Asia. The religious fana- 
ticism of both parties is aroused. 



10. 



Spain: — New and stringent law 
against liberty of the press published, 
Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo- 
ration of her birth-day, orders three 
screw-frigates to be constructed, to be 
called after the three queens from whom 
she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra- 
gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. 



Switzerland: — Insurrection in Fri- 
burg by the Jesuit party speedily sup- 
pressed, April 22. 



Venezuela : — Earthquake at Cumana ; 
600 persons killed, July 15. 



882 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



[Period Xl.^-50 years. 



1854 



Progress ofSooietv, etc 



Deputation of " Friends" pre 
sents to the Emperor of 
Russia a peace memorial, 
Feb. 10. 



Complete equality before the 
law secured to all subjects 
of the Porte, without dis 
tinction of creed, by treaty, 
March 12. 



Commercial treaty concluded 
between the United States 
and Japan, March 23. 



In Turkey, the possessions of 
the Mosques to be declared 
the property of the State 
from March 27. 



The first railway is opened 
in Brazil, the Emperor and 
Empress being present at 
the inauguration, April 30. 



Tbo changes introduced in the 
Ottoman Empire by the in- 
fluence of the Allied Pow- 
ers, amount to a revolution 
in its social condition. 



Marked increase in the num- 
bers and prosperity of 
Christians in Turkey ; Mo- 
hammedan population, ex- 
cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- 
ing out 



Cross raised In a Catholic 
bcrying ground belonging 
to the French, in Turkey 



United States. 



1854. The steamer San Fran 
cisco founders at sea; 240 
U. S. troops washed over 
board ; the rest of 700 res- 
cued by the Three Bells, 
Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan. 
5. 



Astor Library opened 
for use of the public, in New 
York city, Jan. 9. 



Outrages on the railroad 
near Erie, Pa., renewed by 
mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31 



Skirmishes between U. 
S. troops and Apache and 
Utah Indians, March 5, 30. 



Certain sections of the 
" Maine Liquor Law" deci- 
ded to be unconstitutional 
in Massachusetts, March 13. 



Miss Dix's bill for ame- 
liorating the condition of 
the indigent insane, vetoed, 
April 20. 

Great flood in the Con- 
necticut river, hundreds 
driven from their dwel- 
lings, May 1. 

Mass meetings at Bos- 
ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, 
N. H., Feb. 27; New York, 
May 13, against the Ne- 
braska bill, which, how- 
ever, becomes a law, May 
80. 



Riots in Michigan, April 
17; at Boston, (attempt to 
rescue a fugitive slave,) 
May 26 ; at New York and 
Brooklyn, (papist interfe- 
rence with street-preach- 
ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. 



San Juan, Nicaragua, 
bombarded and burnt by 
the U. S. sloop-of-war, Cy. 
sne, July 13. 



Great Britain. 



1S54. Parliament opened by 
Queen, who expresses a de- 
sire that exertions for an 
amicable settlement of the 
Eastern difficulties' shoull 
be persevered in, Jan. 81 . 



The Queen reviews th« 
fleet on its departure for 
the Baltic, March 11. 



A day of humiliation 
and prayer observed, April 
26. 



Launch of the "Royal 

Albert," the Queen chria- 
tening the vessel, May 13. 



Crystal Palace at Sy- 
denham opened by *a> 
Queen, June 10. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



883 



France. 



Austria, etc. 



1654 



The Emperor and Empress 
attend the first agricultural 
exhibition ever held in Pa- 
ris, June 9. 



The Emperor reviews a di- 
vision of troops about to 
procoed to the Baltic, July 
13. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1854. Alliance, 
offensive and 
defensive, be- 
tween Austria 
and Prussia, 
6igned April 
20. 



1854. Brazil : — San Salvador destroyed by 
an earthquake, causing a loss, in less 
than one minute, of 200 lives, and 
$4,000,000 of property, April 16. 

Canada: — Parliament House at Que- 
bec burnt, including government library 
and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1. 

India: — The Ganges Canal, a work 
of vast magnitude opened, April 8. 

— Day of humiliation and prayer for 
success of the British arms, observed at 
Bombay and all over India, by the na- 
tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. 

Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the 
country between Florence and Borne, 
May. 

— Railway from Lusa to Turin inau- 
gurated in presence of King and Queen 
of Sardinia, etc., May 22. 

Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be 
tween some Frenchmen under Count 
Baousset de Boulbon and tho Mexicans, 
July 13. The Count is defeated, taken 
prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. 

Russia : — An imperial ukase calls out 
nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por 
tion of the Empire, May 9. 

Spain : — Earthquake at Fiana, crum- 
bling down the greatest part of the Al- 
cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, 
and causing large chasms in nearly all 
the streets, Jan. 13. 

— Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- 
zans demand of the municipal authorities 
that the price of provisions be reduced, 
and wages increased, March 81. 

— The insurrection of the people 
at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the 
Bivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- 
tero enters the city, and is received 
with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,00C 
defenders of the barricades defile before 
the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- 
ing herself on the balcony, July 31. 

— Dona Maria Christina, the Queen 
Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- 
der escort of troops, but against the will 
of the people. She was indebted to the 
State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. 

Turkey: — Fire at Constantinople, 
400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. 

— Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- 
ings, April 8. 

— Banquet given by the Sultan to 
Prince Napoleon, May 8. 

— Fire at Varna, destroys 180 houses 
and vast quantities of military storey 
Aug. 10. 



884 




THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 


[Period XT. — 50 years. — 


A.D. 


Pbogkess of Society, etc. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 


1854 


The Sultan issues a finnan for 


1854. Grisi and Mario, the two 






the construction of achurch 


most renowned lyric ar- 






at Scutari, Sept. 


tists of the old world, arrive 
at New York, Aug. 19. 






Deaths in 1854. 








U.S. 


Europe. 








y. B. Blunt, 


Anglesea, 








Jacob Bur- 


Bodisco, 








nett, 


Cockburn, 


Extensive drought pre- 






John, Davis, 


Forbes, 


vails several weeks. 






Com. Doiones, 


Jameson, 








J. Harring- 


Maitland, 








ton-, last sur- 


Melloui, 








vivor of bat- 


Montgomery, 








tle of Lex- 


Paixhans, 








ington. 


Pellico, 








Mrs. E. Jud- 


Plunkett, 
Rubini, 


Cholera prevails, June- 






son. 


Nov. ; yellow fever prevails, 






Bishop Wain- Schelling, 


Aug. -Nov. 






wright. 


Mme. Sontag, 
Mrs.C.South- 

Talfourd, 
Wilson, 
St. Arnaud, 


Immigration, about 500,000. 
















Denman, 


"Ostend Conference" be- 








Lockhart. 


tween Buchanan, Mason, 








Soule, Oct 10, 11. 






"Immaculate Conception of 




Law passed for the en- 




the Virgin" proclaimed as a 




listment of foreigners in the 




dogma by the pope, Dec. 8. 




British service, 'Dec. 22. 


1865 


1855. Panama railroad com- 


1855. Southern Commercial 


1855. Visit of the Emperor 




pleted, first train on it Jan. 


Convention at New Orleans, 


and Empress of France, 




28. 


Jan. 8. 


April 16. 




Financial panic in California, 


Soul6 quits Madrid Jan. 


Death of Lord Raglan, 




Feb. 


81. 


Commander-in-chief at Se- 
vastopol, June 28. 




Suspension Bridge at Niaga- 


U. S. S. Waterwitch fired 






ra first crossed, March 14. 


on, on the Paraguay, Feb. 1. 


The Queen and Prince 
Albert visit the Emperor 




Difliculty in Phila. about 


U. S. Dist. Court in Wis- 


Louis Napoleon at Paris, 




slaves of J. H. Wheeler of 


consin pronounces the Fu- 


Aug. 18. 




N. Carolina, July 18. 


gitive Slave Law unconsti- 
tutional, Feb. 8. 






Election riot at Louisville, 








Ky., between Americans 


Convention at Lawrence, 






and foreigners, Aug. 6. 


Kansas, Aug. 14. 

Walker (filibuster) takes 
possession of Granada, Oct. 
16. 

Kansas : Convention at 
Topeka, Oct 23. 


• 




Passmore Williamson re- 








leased from jail (where he 








had been three months in 








the Wheeler slave ca«e). 








Nov. a 









1815-1865.J 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



885 



France. 



Atjbtria, etc. 



The World, elsewhere. 



1856. Subscriptions to the 
French loan of 500 millions 
of francs amount to 2,000 
millions of francs, offered 
by 177,000 persons. 

Death of Don Carlos, 
claimant of the Spanish 
throne, March 10. 

Indust'l Exhibition open- 
ed at Paris, May 15. 



1854. Saxony: — 1854. Venezuela: — Slaves emancipated, 
The King April 25. 
thrown from 
his carriage at 
Innspruck, and 
killed, Aug. 10. 

Eastern Affairs. — The Anglo-French fleet enters 
the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Russians at Citate, 
Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi- 
enna Conference, Jan. Russian ambassadors quit Lon- 
don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa- 
dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and 
France resolve to summon Russia to evacuate the Prin- 
cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Russians cross the 
Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between 
England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French 
ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Russia refuses 
a reply. England and France declare war against Russia, 
March 28. Counter declaration of war by Russia against 
England and France, April 12. Convention between 
England and France, April 18. Odessa bombarded, April 
22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. 
Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Russians raise the 
siege of Silistria, June 23, and re-cross the Danube, July 
7. Russians defeated by Turks at Rutschuk, July 12 and 
18. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- 
cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the 
Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies 
enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- 
mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Russians at the Alma, Sept. 
20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire 
opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Russians repulsed, 
Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Russians again repulsed, 
Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 

1855. Russia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. 

— The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of 
Azoph, May 24. 

— The allies repulsed In an assault on the outposts of 
Sebastopol, June 18. 

— Kars investod by the Russians, June 23. 



FALL OF SEBASTOPOL— 
The MalakhofF carried by the 
French, Sep. 8. 

Terrific attack of the Rus- 
sians on Kars repulsed, Sep. 2®. 



Mexico : Santa Anna 
abdicates. Aug. 9. Car- 
rara chosen to succeed 
him. 



886 



• THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XL- 50 years. 



Progress op Society, etc. 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



1855 



Deaths in 1855 : 



U.S. 

S. H. Cone, 

Abbott Law- 
rence, 

Jihn C. Spen- 
cer, 

T. E. Beck. 



Europe. 

Sir H. Bishop, 
Silk Bucking- 
ham, 
Jos. Hume, 
Miss Mitford, 
Nicholas I. 
"Currer Bell.'" 
Sir W. E. Par- 
ry- 

Lord Raglan, 
Saml. Eogers, 
Ans. Roths- 
child, 
Lord Truro. 



Launch of the stm. Adriatic 
(the largest yet afloat) at 
N. T., April 7. 



1S55. Proclamation against Jtlibus- 
terism by President Pierce. Dec. 



British Arctic vessel Resolute 
found and brought to New London 
by an American whaler, Dec. 23. 



Personal Assault on Senator 
Sumner of Mass., in the U. 
S. Senate by Brooks of S. 
Ca., May 22. 



Suomarint Telegraph cable 
laid from Cape Breton to 
Newfoundland, July 12. 



Burlinghame's acceptance of 
Brooks's challenge, July 
21. 

Brooks and Keitt re-elected 
to Congress from S. C, July 
28. 

Dudley Observatory inaug. 
at Albany. Aug. 28. 

Preston S. Brooks, the as- 
saulter of Sumner, publicly 
welcomed and presented 
with a cane, at Columbia, 
S. O, Aug. 29. 

Charles Sumner received in 
Boston with public hon- 
ors, Nov. 3. 

N. Y. and Newfoundland 
Telegraph line, 1715 miles, 
opened to St. John's, Nov, 
10 



1856. N. P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect- 
ed Speaker of House of Represent, 
of U. S., after a contest of 9 weeks, 
by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2. 

Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon 
sin, Jan. — Feb. 

Mr. Fillmore nominated for Pres't 
by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 22. 

Free State Legisl. at Topeka. 
Kansas, elect Reeder and Lane as 
delegates to Congress, Feb. 8. 

Kansas Investigation Committee 
appointed, March 19. 

Padre Vigil recognised as Mlnist. 
from Nicaragua, May 14. 

President's message announcing 
difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enlist- 
ments in the U. S., May 29. 

Buchanan nominated for Pres't 
by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7. 

Fremont nominated for Pres't by 
Repub. Conven. at Phila., June 17. 

H. Repres. U. S. pass a bill ad- 
mitting Kansas under Topeka Con., 
July 3. 

Topeka legislature dispersed by 
U. S. troops under Col. Sumner, 
July 4. 

John "W. Geary confirmed as Gov. 
of Kansas, July 81. 

Whitefleld and Reeder both re- 
jected by H. Repres. as delegates 
from Kansas, Aug. 1. 

Extra session of Congress ad- 
journed Aug. 30. 

Municipal election riot at Balti 
more, 9 &., Oct. 8. 

U. S. troops in Ka.isas arrest and 
disarm parties of emigrants from N, 
E., Oct. 10. 

Buchanan elected Pres. Nov. 4 



1S55. Visit of the 
King of Sardinia to 
England, Nov. 30. 
Captain McClure 
receives the re- 
ward of £5,000 for 
discovery of " the 
If. W. passage, ,: 
and is knightod 
Nov 



Brit, fleet bom« 
bard and partially 
destroy Canton, 
China. Oct 28. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



887 



Europe, elsewhere. 



The "World, elsewhere. 



1855 



1856 



1855. Omar Pasha defeats 
the Russians at the Ingour, 
Nov. 5. 

Explosion of 100,000 lbs. 
of powder at Sebastopol, 
Nov. 15. 

Surrender of Kars to the 
Russians after a famous de- 
fence by Gen. "Williams, 
Nov. 25. 



1S55. Mexico : — Alvarez ro« 
signs the presidency, and ii 
succeeded by Comonfort, 
Dec 



Peace Conference at Paris 

opened Feb. 25. 
Birth of an heir to the throne, 

March 16. 
Treaty of Peace with fimsia 

signed at Paris, March f " 



Destructive floods near Ly- 
ons, &c., whole villages de 
stroyed, June. 



1856. Preliminaries of Peace 
signed at Vienna, Eeb. 1, 



The Crimea wholly eva 
cuated by the Allies, July 



Russia : — Alexander II. 
crowned emperor, Sept. 7. 

— Railways of 2600 
miles contracted for by 
Government. Capital, 1000 
millions of francs, Oct. 28 



Naples : — French and 
English ministers leave, 
Oct 28. 



1856. Costa Rica : — Schlessin- 
ger and Walker's invasion 
defeated, March 20. 

— Walker defeats 3,000 
Costa Ricans at Rivas, Ap. 
11. 

Panama: — Riot on the 
Panama R.R., 30 passengers 
killed, April 15. 



Gunpowder explosion at 
Salonica, Turkey, 700 *. 
and to., July 17. 



Earthquake in Egypt, 
Syria, and isles of Med. 
About 1200 lives lost, and 
many thousand building! 
destroyed, Oct. 12. 



Granada, city of, de- 
stroyed by Walker, Not. 
20-25. 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period XI— 50 years.— 



1856 



Progress of Society, etc. 



Revival of the African Slave 
Trade recommended by 
Gov. Adams in S. Ca. 

Arctic discovery ship Reso- 
lute presented to Queen 
Victoria by Lieut. Hart- 
stene for the U. S. Govern- 
ment, Dec. 30. 



Deaths in 1856 : 



TJ. S. 

J. M. Berrien. 

Ogden Hoff- 
man. 

Com Morris.' 

J.G. Perceval. 

Jno. 0. War- 
ren. 

J. M. Clavton, 

u. s. s. 

George Steers, 
naval archi- 
tect. 

T. Crawford, 
sculptor. 

Louis M'Lane. 



Europe. 

Jno. Braham, 
vocalist. 

Sir W. Hamil- 
ton, meta- 
physician. 

VonBiela, as- 
tronomer. 

L'd Hardinge 

Father Mat- 
thew. 

Hugh Miller. 

Sir jno. Ross. 

Westmacott. 

Tarrell. 

PL Delaroche. 



1S57 Geo. Peabody gives $300,000 
I .to establish a free Literary 
and Scientific Institute at 
Baltimore, Feb. 12. 



The Chief-Justice of the U. 
S. proclaims that negroes 
have no rig his which white 
men are bound to respect, 
March 6. 

* Bred Scot decision,' 1 '' de- 
nounced by the Legislature 
of N. Hampshire, June 25. 

The Atlantic Telegraph Ca- 
ble first joined at sea by 
the Niagara and Agamem- 
non, Aug. 5, but breaks 
Aug. 11. 

Loss of the Central America 
and 450 lives. Sept. 8. 

Mass meetingeof unemployed 
workmen in N. T., Nov. 2 
and 10. 

Stm. Adriatic starts on first 
voyage to Liverpool, Nov. 
88. 



United States. 



1856. Barrier Forts, near Can 
ton, China, destroyed by 
U. S. squadron, for an at- 
tack on an American boat, 
Dec. 6. 

Resolution against the 
Slave Trade passed by H, 
of Reps. U. S., Dec. 15. 



185T. Four members of H. 
of Representatives of TJ. S. 
from N. Y. and Conn, ex- 
pelled for corrupt conduct, 
Feb. 19. 

Buchanan inaugurated 
President, March 4. 

Lord Napier recognised 
as British minister, March 
16. 

The Dred Scot Deci- 
sion delivered by Chief- 
Justice Taney, March 6. 

R. J. "Walker accepts ap^ 
pointment as Governor of 
Kansas, March 26. 

Attempt to arrest Mayor 
Wood in N. T. for an as- 
sault on the Street Com- 
missioner, June 16. 

General Financial Pa- 
nic begins with suspension 
of Ohio Life and Trust Co., 
Aug. 24. 

Zecompton Convention, 
Kansas, meets Sept. 7. 

Suspension of Philad, 
banks, Sept. 25 and 26, fol- 
lowed by general suspen. of 
banks in Pa., Md., D. G, 
R.I. 

Suspension of N. T. city 
banks, Oct. 13-14, and Mas- 
sachusetts banks same day. 

Payments resumed, Dec. 
12. 



British Empire. 



1857. Treaty of Peace with 
Persia signed March 6. 

Palmerston Ministry out- 
voted on the Chinese ques- 
tion, March 5. 

New septennial Parlia- 
ment meets, April 80. 

The Manchester Art Ex- 
hibition opened, May 5. 

Rebellion in India begins 
May 9 ; King of Delhi pro- 
claimed sovereign of India. 

Havelook defeats the re- 
bels under Nena Sahib, and 
recaptures Cawnpore, July 

The Emp. and Empreaj 
toria, Aug. 6. 

Sir Colin Campbell, the 
new com. -in-chief, arrive* 
at Calcutta, Aug. 14. 

Delhi taken after an aa» 
sault of 6 days, Sept 14. 



1815-1865,] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



8S9 



Feanok. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



World, elsewhere. 



1857. Austria: — Amnesty to 
political offenders in Loni 
hardy, &&, Jan. 25. 



1857. Mexico: New constitu- 
tion promulgated, March 11. 



Costa Eica : — Walker sur- 
renders Rivas, and agrees to 
leave Nicaragua, May 1. 



of the FreDch visit Queen Vic- 



Sweden and Norway: — 
Charles Louis, Prince- 
Royal, made Regent. Sep, 
26. 



Emperors of France and Russia meet at Stuttgart, 
Sept. 25. 



Nicaragua : — Walke, 
and his men surrender tc 
U. S. ship Wabash, Com. 
Paulding, Dec. 8. 



38 



890 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— 50 years.— 



Progress of Society, etc. 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



1857 Death* in 1857. 

U. S. j Europe. 

0. Col ton. Beranger. 
E. K. Kane. C. Bonaparte. 
W. L. Maroy. J. W. Croker. 
Thos. J. Rusk..Thos. Dick. 
Eli Smith. Marshall Hall. 

Earl of Elles- 
mere. 

Douglas Jer- 
rold. 

W. Scoresby. 

Eugene Sue. 

And. Ure. 

Cavaignac. 

Aug. Compte. 

Havelock. 

Chris. Eauch, 
sculptor. 

Commercial failures in one 
year, ending Dec. 25, 1857, 
amount to 5,123 : liabilities, 
$291,750,000. 

Launch of the monster steam 
er Great Eastern at Lon- 
don, Jan. 31. 

Crawford's Monument to 
Washington, at Richmond, 
inaugurated, Feb. 22. 

Extensive and remarkable re- 
ligious " revival" through 
out the U. S. in February, 
March, &c. 

Gold mine excitement 
Washington and Oregon 
territory. 

New " Divorce Court" open- 
ed in London, May 10. 

Donati's Comet seen in June 
and July. 

" Vigilance Committee" in 
N. Orleans, June 2. 

New Prohibitory Liquor 
Law voted in Maine, June 
7. 

Turkish Admiral, Mehemet 
Pacha, and suite leave Bos- 
ton, after an extended visit 
in the U. States, July 14. 

A Jew in Brit. Parliament, 
July 26. 

Atlantic Telegraph. 

National Teachers 1 Associa- 
tion — 1st Ann. Convention 
at Cincinnati. Aug. 11. 



1S57. " Lecompton Constitii' 
tion" adopted by Convex 
tion, Nov. 9. 

Walker resigns as Go- 
vernor of Kansas, Dec. 15. 

W. Walker reaches N. T, 
"on parole," and surren- 
ders to U. S. marshal, Dee, 
28. 



1857. English and French 
ture the city, Dec. 2S-30. 



1858. Mr. Buchanan's " Kan- 
sas Message" to H. Eeps., 
with Lecompton Constitu- 
tion, Feb. 2, 

" Anti- Lecompton De- 
mocratic " meetings in 
Phila., N. T., &c, Feb. and 
March. 

Bill to admit Kansas as a 
State, under Lecompton 
Const, passes the Senate, 
March 23. 

The House passes another 
bill. 

New Free State Conven- 
tion of Kansas, at Leaven- 
worth, March 25. 

The " English Kansas 
bill" passed both Houses of 
Congress, April 30. 

Minnesota State Govern- 
ment organized at St. Paul, 
May 23. 

Atlantic Telegraph fleet 
land, June 10. 

The President sends a 
message announcing peace- 
able settlement of trouble 
in Utah, June 10. 

Treaty of Peace and Ami- 
ty with China, signed at 
Tien-Tsin, June 13. 



1858. French and English 
the Governor, Yeh, Jan. 5. 

The Princess-Royal oi 
England married to tho 
Prince of Prussia, Jan. 25. 

Steamer Great Eastern 
first floated, Jan. 31. 

Resignation of Palmer- 
ston's Ministry, and acces- 
sion of Lord Derby, Feb. 20. 



sails from Plymouth, Eng- 

Eng. steam. Cyclops bom- 
bards" Jeddah, July 25-26. 

Baron Eothschild takes 
his seat in H. of Commons 
July 26. 

Queen Victoria and Pr. 
bourg, Aug. 4. 



Queen Victoria's message to 
Slaver Echo captured and carrried to 
ust 27. 



News of the completion of Atlantic Telegraph re- 
ceived with joyful demonstrations, Aug. 5. 
Magnificent celebration 
at New York, Sept. 1. 

The English bill voted 
on by the people of Kan-i 
sas and rejected, August! 
9. | 

resident Buchanan sent and received, August 16. 
Charleston. Au-I 



L815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Fban :b. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



Tue Woeld, slsewhere. 



fleets bombard Canton, and cop 



tr< ops enter Canton and capture 

Attempt by Orsini and 
others to assassinate the 
Emperor with a hand gre- 
nade : 8 persons k. and 156 
wounded, Jan. 14 



1857. Naples : Terrible earth- 
quake,14,000 persons killed. 



Albert visit the Bmperor at Cher- 



1858. Mexico : — Revolution , 
Comonfort gives up the Go- 
vernment to Juarez; Zulo- 
aga proclaimed president by 
a H. of Representatives. 



Turkey : — Massacre ot 
Christians at Jeddah— -45 
killed, June 15. 



892 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Ptriod IX.— 50 years.- 



185S 



1859 



Progress of Society, &c. 



United States. 



The N. T. State quarantine 

buildings at Staten Island 

destroyed by the citizens 

as a nuisance, Sept. 1. 
First overland mail for Ca- 
lifornia leaves St. Louis, 

Sept. 16. 
Boston Public (Free) Library 

opened, costing $450,000, 

Sept. IT. 
The " General Admiral" stm. 

frigate, built for Russian 

government, launched at 

N. T., Sept. 21. 
Crystal Palace, N. T., burnt, 

Oct. 5. 
The yacht Wanderer lands 300 Africans near Brunswick, 

Ga.. Nov. 28. 
The Grand Jury at Columbia, S. C, refuse to indict the 

slaver " Echo," Nov. 30. 
First railroad in Egypt. 



Deaths in 1858. 



1858. TJ. St. stm. Niagara 
sails from Charleston for 
Liberia, 'with rescued slaves 
of the " Echo," Sept. 20. 



U.S. 

T. H. Benton. 

Rob. Hare. 

H.W. Herbert. 

Freem'nHunt. 

Com. Perry. 

Gen. Quitman 

Gen. P. F. 
Smith. 

N. W. Taylor. 

B. F. Butler. 

Parker Cleve- 
land. 

Wm. Jay. 



Europe. 

R. Brown, bo- 
tanist. 

Geo. Combo. 

" Rachel." 

Marshall Hall. 

Duchess of 
Orleans. 

Reschid Pa- 
cha. 

Radetsky. 

Ary Scheffer. 

Robt. Owen. 

Sir W. Reid. 

Foresti. 



U. 8. Agricultural Conven- 
tion at Washington, D. C, 
Jan. 3 



1859. New Hall of the U. S. 
Senate first occupied, Jan. 
4. 



Slidell's bill, giving $30,000,000 to facilitate the acquisition 
of Cuba, introduced Jan. 10. 



Mr. McLane recognises the 
Juarez government in Mex- 
ico, April 4. 



Sickles kills Key at Washing- 
ton, for seduction of his 
wife, Feb. 27 ; he is tried 
and acquitted, April 26. 

Southern Convention at Vick'sburgh discusses the opening 
of the Slave Trade, May 11. 

Great fire at Key West. 110 



houses ; 
May 16- 



loss $2,T50,000, 



Telegrams — India to Eng- 
land. 

Several slavers captured by 
U. S. vessels. 



Great Britain. 



1858. T7ie East India Com- 
pany ceases to exist, and 
its vast possessions pass 
into the hands of the Brit. 
Government, Sept. 1. 



1859. D'Israeli introduces a 
new Reform Bill, Feb. 28. 

Lord Lyons, new British 
minister at Washington, re- 
ceived, April 12. 

England protests against 
Austrian menaces of Sardi- 
nia, April 21. 

English court in mourn- 
ing for the tyrant king of 
Naples (May). 

New Parliament meets, 
May 80. J. E. Dennison 
elected speaker. 



Telegrams to India acce- 
leratedTseven days by cable 
on the Red Sea, June 8 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



893 



FllANCE. 



Europk, elsewhere. 



The "World, elsewhere. 



1858 



1858. Egypt : — First train 
on the Suez Railroad crosses 
the isthmus in eleven hours, 
from Suez to Alexandria, 
Dec. 5. 

Hayti : — Revolution — 
Faustin banished — General 
Jeffrard proclaimed Presi- 
dent, Dec. 21. 



1859 



The Emperor's Hew- Year's 
speech to Hubner, Austrian 
minister, canses a war sen- 
sation, Jan. 1. 

Prince Napoleon marries 
the Princess Clothilde, Jan 



1859. Austria demands that 
Sardinia shall disarm, 
Ap. 23. England protests 
against this menace. 

Sardinian army on a war 
footing. 



French troops reach Turin and Genoa, April 26-80. 



War declared, in alliance 
with Sardinia, against Aus- 
tria, May 3. 

Subscriptions for loan of 
500 million francs exceed 
four times that sum. from 
525.000 persons. 



Tuscany :• — Grand Dnke 
ahdicates; his troops fra- 
ternize with revolutionists, 
April 27. 

Austria debtor en WAR 
AGAINST SARDINIA, 
and her troops cross the 
Ticino, April 29. 
The Emperor L. Napoleon arrives at Genoa, May 12. 
Empress made Regent. | 
Battle of Monteoello : Austrians defeated, May 20. 

Garibaldi enters Como, 

May 27. 

Battle of Palestro : Austrians defeated, May 80. 

Battle of Magenta : Allies victorious, June 4; and enter 

M ilan. June 8, 



1859. Mexico. — Miramon ap- 
pears before Vera Cruz, 
March 18-27. 

Peru : — Earthquake de- 
stroys part of Quito, March 
29. 



Naples :— Death of Ferdi- 
nand II., and accession of 
Francis II , May 22. 



894 



THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. [Period XL— 50 years.- 



K.T 


Progress op Society, etc. 


United States. 


Great Britain. 


1859 


Remarkable religious revi- 
val in Ireland, June, July, 
etc. 




French and English in 




Excessive heat in California 




the forts of the Peiho, June 




and in Europe, June-July. 




Com. Tatnall. 






1859. Gen. Harney takes possession of the island of San 






Juan (now "Vancouver's island) July 9. 




"Wise travels 1200 miles in a 


Kansas Const. Conven- 


Builders strike begins m 




balloon from St. Louis to N. 


tion meets at Wyandote, 


London, July 25. 




York state, July 1. 


July 5. 

Gen. Harney proclaims 
possession of the island of 






Gold images found in Indian 


San Juan for the U. States, 






graves at Chiriqui, July. 


July 27. 

Mr. "Ward, U. S. minis- 
ter, reaches Pekin, July 30. 






Cosmopolitan celebration of 


Treaty with China rati- 






100th birthday of Schiller, 


fied, Aug. 16. 


Captain McClintock re- 




Nov. 10. 


J. T. Mason, U. S. mi- 


turns, bringing relics of 






nister to Prance, dies at 


Franklin's expedition, Sep. 






Paris, Oct. 8. 


21. 




Brilliant meteor seen in N. T. 


John Brown's Raid for 


Steamer Royal Charter 




and N. England, Nov. 15. 


the liberation of slaves, at 


wrecked in British Chan- 






Harper's Ferry, Va., Oct. 


nel ; 445 persons lost, and 






17. 12 of his men and 1 


£1,000,000 in gold, 






marine killed. 2 of his men 






Deaths in 1859 : 


hung, Dec. 16; and 2 more 
March 16, 1860. 






U.S. 


Europe. 








J. W. Alexan- 


Dr. Abbott. 








der. 


T. K. Hervey. 








W. C. Bond. 


HUMBOLDT 








Kufus Choate. 


Leigh Hunt. 








Bp. Doane. 


Jejeebhoy. 








Hor. Mann. 


D. Lardner. 








Den. Olmsted. 


C. R. Leslie. 








W. H. Pres- 


Lady Morgan. 








OOTT. 


Jos. Sturge. 








Rich. Rush. 


De Tocque- 








Geo. Bush. 


ville. 








J. T. Mason. 


Metternich. 








Theo. Sedge- 


De Quincey. 








wick. 


J. A. James. 








Linn Boyd. 


J. P. Nichol. 








Washington 


Thos. Nuttall. 








Irving. 


I. K. Brunei. 
Carl Ritter. 
Louis Spohr. 
Sir J.Stephen. 
Macatjlay. 










Robert Ste- 


Congress assembles, Dec. 


Death of Lord Macaulay, 






phenson. 


5. 


Dec. 28. 


leso 


Law passed in Arkansas, Jan. 


1860. Pennington of N. Jer- 


1860. Lord Clyde proclaims 




1, to banish free negroes 


sey elected speaker of the 


the rebellion in India as 




from the state. 


House of Representatives, 


subdued, Jan. 7. 






after a balloting for nearly 
two months, Feb. 1. 


Commercial Treaty with 






den and Lord Cowley and 




Decree by the Emperor of 








Austria in favor of rights 








of the Jews, 


Jan. 10. 







1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



895 



Europe, elsewhere. 



The "World, elsewhere. 



1859 Perugia sacked by papal troops, June 20. 

Battle of Solfcrino, June 24. Austriaus under the Empe- 
ror in person defeated by the allies: great loss on both 
sides. 
China repulsed in an attack on I 
25. They are aided by American! 

| Treaty of Peace signed by the Emperors of France and 
Austria, at Villafranca, July 11. 



The Emperor returns to St, 

Cloud, July 2T. 
Entrance of "the Army of 

Italy" into Paris, Aug. 14. 
Political amnesty, Aug. 17. 



Treaty with Japan, ratified 
at Jeddo, Sept. 22. 



The Emperor advises Victor 
Emanuel a programme for 
the Regeneration of Italy, 
Oct. 20. 



Exchange of ratifications of 
the Treaty of Zurich, Not. 
21. 

The Emperor's letter to 
Eomagna, Dec. 31. 



Treaty with Nicaragua rati- 
fied. Jan. 11. 



France, signed at Paris by R. Cob- 
the French ministers, Jan. 23. 



1860 



1859. Tuscany:— Council of 
State votes in favour of 
annexation to Sardinia. 
July 12. 

Conference at Zurich 
opened, August 8. 

Sardinia : — Cavour dis 
missed from the ministry, 
July 13. 

Tuscany: — The Nation 
Assem. decrees the perma 
nent exclusion of the Aus- 
trian dynasty, Aug. 16. 

Modena : — Farini dicta 
tor, opens the Nat. Asseru 
bly, Aug. 16, aud assumes, 
government of Parma, 
Aug. 18. 

Home : — Concordat be- 
tween the Pope and Spain, 
Aug. 26. 

Russia : — Schamyl taken 
prisoner in Caucasia, Sept. 
6. 

Bologna : — Assemb. Nat. 
under pres. of Minghetti 
decree independence from 
the Pope. Sept. 7. 

Sardinia: — The king 
receives deputations from 
Modena and Parma, ten 
dering annexation to Sar- 
dinia, Sept. 15. 

Romagna : — Decree of 
annexation to Sardinia. 

Oct. r. 

Spain declares war 
against Morocco, Oct. 
O'Donnell named com. -in- 
chief of Spanish army. 

Sardinia : — Prince Ca- 
rignan made regent of Ro- 
magna, Parma, etc., Nov. 6, 
but declines in favor of 
Buoncompagni. 
the Pope, advising cession of 



1860. Spain:— The Moors 
defeated at Castellejor, Jan. 

Rome : — The Pope re- 
plies to the Emperor, refus- 
ing to cede the Legations, 
Jan. 8. 

Sardinia : — Cavour re- 
called to the premiership, 
Jan. 15. 



1859. Mexico : — Juarez do 
crees the confiscation o, 
church property, July 12. 
Venezuela: — Civil war: 
downfall of Castro, thi Pre- 
sident, July. 

Costa Rica : — Revolution 
— fall of Mora, Ang. 14. 



Buenos Ayres .'—Battle 
with the troops of Argen- 
tine Confederation, Oct. 28. 



896 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— 50 years.— 



Progress op Society, etc. 



United States. 



Gkeat Britain. 



1860 



First " Pony Express" reaches Carson Valley in eight and 
a half days from Missouri; and news thence by telegraph 
reaches San Francisco in nine days from New York. 

1860. The "Covode Com- 
mittee" (House of Eepre- 
sentatives) appointed to ex- 
amine alleged corruption 
of the government, March 
5. 

U. S. corvette Saratoga 
captures Miramon*s vessels 
at Vera Cruz, March 7. 
Japanese Embassy arrives at San Francisco, March 28 ; 
at Washington, May 14 ; at Baltimore, June 8 ; at Phila- 
delphia, June 9 ; at New York, June 16. Sails for Ja- 
pan, in the U. S. frigate Niagara, June 30. 



Universal Suffrage in Cen- 
tral Italy. 



1860. French treaty ratified 
hy 116 majority ic the Com- 
mons, Feb. 24 



. Lord J. Eussell proposes a 
new Eeform Bill, March 2, 
hut abandons it, June 11. 



Papal bull against agitators 

and reformers. 
Fight of Heenan and Sayers 

for the championship of 

England, April 17. 



Ministers defeated on a 
bill for repeal of paper duty 
— passed by the Commons 
but rejected (89 majority) 
by the Lords, May 21. 



Review of 1€,000 volun- 
teers by the Queen in Hyde 
Park, June 23. 



Democratic Convention 
at Charleston, April 23. 

Mr. McLane's treaty with 
Mexico (Juarrez) rejected 
by the Senate, May 31. 

National Eepub. Conven- 
tion at Chicago meets May 
16, and nominates Abraham 
Lincoln for President, and 
Hannibal Hamlin for Vice- 
President of U. S. 
Law of Maryland prohibiting the manumission of slaves 
takes effect, June 1. 

Tornado in Iowa and Il- 
linois destroys whole vil- 
lages, June 3. 

Nat. Democratic Conven- 
tion (adjourned) at Balti- 
more, June 18, nominates 
Douglas and Fitzpatriek : 
a seceding Convention no- 
minate Breckenridge and 
Lane, respectively for Pre- 
sident and V.-Pres. of U. S. 
The Great Eastern arrives at New York, from Southampton, June 28. 
Dr. Hayes's Arctic Expedition from Boston, sails July 7. i 
Remarkable meteor in various northern states, July 20. 

Visit of the Prince of Wales to British North Ame* 
rica and the United States. He lai ds at St. John's, July 
24; arrives at Quebec, August 18; Montreal, 24th; 
Ottawa, August 31 ; Niagara, September 14 ; Detroit^ 
Sept. 20 ; Washington, Oct 
3; Philadelphia, Oct. 9; 
New York. Oct. 11; Bos- 
ton, 17th; Portland, 20th; 
Plymouth, England, Nov. 

Lincoln and Hamlin 
elected Pres. and V.-Pres. 
oi the U. S. by the votes of 
all the northern states ex- 
cept New Jersey, which 
chose 4 electors for Douglas 
and 3 for Lincoln, Nov. 6. 

This election is made the 
pretext for rebellion and 
"secession" of the cotton 
states— S. Carolina leading, 
and adopting in Convention 
an ordinance of secession 
W. C. Preston. H. H. Wilson, from the U. S., Dec. 20. 



Deaths in 1860. 



IT. S. 

J. A. Alexan- 
der. 

W. E. Burton 

C. A. Good- 
rich. 

S. G. Good- 
rich. 

Theo. Parker. 

J. K. Pauld 



Europe. 

Sir O. Barry. 

Lady Noel 
Byron. 

G. P. K.James. 

Anna Jame- 
son. 

Jullien. 

SirW. Napier. 

Baden tuv- 
ell. 

H. H. Wilson. 



1815-1861.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



897 



LW) 



France. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



Thouvenel foreign minister, 
Jan. 24. 

V Univers," ultra-montane 
journal, suppressed, Jan. 29. 

Diplomatic correspondence of 
Antonelli, Feb. — March. 

Negotiations respecting an 
nexation of Nice and Sa- 
voy. Treaty for cession to 
France signed at Turin, 
March 24 ; but Switzerland 
protests. 

Nice votes for annexation to 
France 24,44S for, and 160 
against. 

Savoy gives 131,744 for and 
233 against. 



The Emperor refuses an ap- 
plication from Naples to 
act as mediator, June 7. 



French troops sent to Syria 
to punish tbe murderers of 
Christians, Aug. 5. 



A. French fleet placed before 
Gaeta; for which 6ide is 
not proclaimed. 



18G0. Spain : — Decisive vie 
tory over the Moors at Te 
touan, Feb. 4. 

Sardinia : — The army 
raised to 50,000, Feb. 26, 

Thouvenel with Cavour and 

Buoncompagni resigns as 
governor of Central Italy, 
March 3. 

Tuscany : — Result of vot- 
ing on annexation to Sardi- 
nia pub., viz: For, 366,571 ; 
against, 14,925 (for sepa 
rate kingdom) 

Austria advertises for 
new loan, March 24, and 
protests against Sardinian 
occupation of Tuscany, &c 

Spain : — Peace with Mo 
rocco ratified, March 29. 

Borne : — Papal bull 
against revolutionists, Mar. 
29. 

Revolution in Sicily be- 
gins at Palermo, Messina, 
and Catania, April 4. 

Eome: — Antonelli pro- 
tests against Sardinian an- 
nexation of Eomagna. 

Sicily:— Garibaldi lands 
at Marsala, with 2,000 
men, from Genoa, May 10 
Proclaims himself dictator 
on behalf of Victor Ema- 
nuel, 14th. 

Naples: — Concessions pro 
claimed to the people, May 
19. 

— Garibaldi takes Pa- 
lermo, May 27. 

— A liberal ministry 
formed at Naples, June 28. 
The King grants new con- 
stitution and amnesty, J'ne 
25. 

Garibaldi's victory at Me- 
lazzo, July 20-21. 

Sicily (excepting the ci- 
tadel of Messina) evacuated 
by the Neapolitans, July 
30. 

Garibaldi's troops land in 
Calabria, Aug. 8. 

— Enters Naples. 

The King of Naples re- 
tires to Gaeta, Sept. , and 
is besieged there by the 
troops of Garibaldi and 
Victor Emanuel. 

Garibaldi resigns his 
power to Victor Emanuel, 
and retires to Caprera. 



The "World, elsewhere. 



1860. Argentine Confed. D@t- 
qui president, Feb. 5. 



Mexico : — Miramon at- 
tacks Vera Cruz, March 7- 
13. 

Japan : — The Regent 
wounded in a riotous at- 
tack. 

Mexico : — Znloaga pro- 
claims himself president, 
and denounces Miramon, 
May 1. 



Asia Minor: — Horr ble 
massacre of the Christ.ans 
and Maronites, May. 3,000 
killed at Damascus, July 9. 

Honduras : -W. Walker 
the "filibuster," taken pri- 
soner and shot, Sept. 12. 

Syria : — Fuad Pasha sent 
against the Druses, Aug. 5. 
167 Moslems implicated in 
the massacres are executed 
at Damascus, Aug. 20. 



898 



the world's progress. [Period XL— 50 years.^ 



Progress of Society. 



<86l Heresy of " S E C E S- 
S I O N " or Treason 
in the United States. 



Dentin in 1861 : Prince 
Albert, Mrs.Brown- 
ing-, Count Cavour, 
Czar tory ski, Dr. J. 
W. Francis, Geof. 
St.Hi.'aire, Pr. Gort- 
ehakotf, Nathaniel 
Lyon, fiug'e Scribe. 



July — First War Loan 
of the United States 
Government, $250- 
000,000. 

Oct. 1. Commercial 
treaty bet'n France, 
England and Bel- 
gium in force. 

Nov. 1. Telegraph be- 
tween Malta and 
Alexandria ooened 



lay 1. International 
Exhibition at Loc 
don. 



United States. 



1861. This example folio-wed by Mississippi, 
Jan. 9, Alabama, Jan. II, Florida, Jan. 12, 
Georgia, Jan. 19, Louisiana, Jan. 26. 

Attempt to carry Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, N. Carolina, Missouri, and Arkan- 
sas for secession defeated, Jan. — March, 
1861. Texas carried for secession, but a 
strong reaction for union follows. Gen. 
Twiggs surrenders the U. S forces in Tex- 
as, and the military stores, to the state, 
Feb. 

Inauguration of Lincoln, (Eepub.) Presi- 
dent U. S., March 4. 

WAR of REBELS against U. S. 

April 13. Fort Sumter surrenders to rebels. 

April 15. 75,000 men called for by proclama- 
tion. 

April 15. Great meeting in New York to 
support the Government. 

April 19. Attack on Massachusetts troops 
in Baltimore. 

April 21. Harper's Ferry arsenal burned by 
its garrison. 

April 25. Virginia secedes. 

May 6. Arkansas secedes. 

May 20. North Carolina secedes. 

May 21. Tennessee secedes. 

June 8. The Savannah privateer captured. 

June 10. Big Bethel defeat. 

July 4. Congress meets. 

July 11. Rich Mountain victory. 

July 21. Bull Run defeat. 

Aug. 29. Fort Hatteras taken. 

Oct. 21. Ball's Bluff disaster. 

Nov. 1. McClellan Commander-in-Chief. 

Nov. 7. Port Royal forts taken. 

Nov. 8. Wilkes seizes Slideli and Mason. 

Nov. 30. Jeff. Davis elected President of the 
Confederate States. 

Dee. 2. Union armies have 660,971 men. 

1862. 

Jan. 1. Mason and Slideli released. 

Jan. 19. Mill Springs defeat. 

Feb. 6. Fort Henry taken. 

Feb. 7. Roanoke taken by Burnside. 

Feb. 16. Fort Donelson taken. 

Feb. 23. Nashville taken. 

March 9. The Cumberland and Congress lost 
at Hampton Roads. 

March 10. Manassas found evacuated by 
Rebels and is occupied by Union troops 

March 11. McClellan takes command of 
Army of Potomac. 

March 14. Newbern taken by Burnside. 

April 1. Beaufort taken by Burnside. 

April 4. Slavery abolished in D. Columbia- 
April 5. McClellan " besieges " Yorktown. 

April 6. Shiloh defeat— A. S. Johnson killed 

April 11. Fort Pulaski taken. 

April 96. New Orleans taken. 

May 5. Yorktown occupi i<* by McClellan— 
Action at Williamsbuigr... 

May 10. Norfolk taken— the Merrimac 
burnt— Farragut ascends the Mississippi 
—Little Rock taken. 



British Empiee 



May 13. Queen's 
proclamation of 
" neutrality " in 
the American con- 
flict. 



Nov. 8. Excitement 
about seizure of 
Mason and Slideli 
in British steamer 
Trent. 

Dec. 23. Death op 
Prince Albert. 



April 7. Treaty with 
U. S. to suppress 
slave trade. 

May 1. Internation- 
al Exhibition 
opened at Lon- 
don. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



,899 



A.D.I FRANCE. 

1861 



Europe, elsewhere. 



Would, elsewhere. 



June 10. " Neutrality " in 
American conflict pro- 
claimed by the Emperor. 



Oct. 31. Convention with 
England and Spain for in- 
tervention in Mexico. 



Jan. 7. French army lands 
at Vera Cruz. 



March 28. French victories 
in Cochin China — six pro- 
vinces ceded to France. 



April 16. War against Mexi- 
co declared. 



1861. Gaeta surrenders to 
Victor Emanuel's troops, 
Feb. 13— The King of Na- 
ples escapes on board i 
French frigate. 

End of Bourbon Rule 
in Italy. 

The Italian Parliament 
declares Victor Emanuel 
KING OF ITALY, Feb. 
1861. 

" Italy " recognized by Eng- 
land, March 31, and by 
France, June 24 



Oct. 18. William I. crowned 
King of Prussia. 



Oct. 2 . Canton restored tm 
the Chinese by the French 
and English. 



Feb. 13. Military revolt in 
Greece. 



900 



the world's progress. [Period XL — 50 years. — 



a.d J Progress op Society. 



1862 



Deaths in 1862 : Brodie 
(surgeon), M. Van 
Buren, T. Hartwell 
Home, Sam. Hous- 
ton, T. J. Jackson, 
A. Sid. Johnson, 
Phil. Kearney, Du- 
chess of Kent, J. 
Sher. Knowles, Sir 
James Ross, Joseph 
"Wolff. 



September — Internal 
Rev enue Tax en- 
forced in the U. S. 



Jan. 2. Abolition of 
Sla-very in the TJ. 
S., by proclamation 
of the Commander- 
in-Chief. 

Feb. 9. The Geo. Gris- 
woM,with food given 
by New Yorkers for 
Lancashire opera- 
tives, arrives at Li 
verpool. 

i>lar. 4. Nat. Academy 
of Arts and Sciences 
founded by Congress 

June — G- rant and 
Speke arrive in Eng- 
land from Source of 
the Nile. 

July 13-16. Irish anti- 
negro and anti-draft, 
riots at New York, 

Deaths in 1863 : R.Hil- 
dreth, Mar. Lans- 
downe, Mulready, 
Mrs.Trollope, Arch- 
bishop Whateley. 

Sept. — Kussian squad 
ron entertained at 
New York. 

Dec. 24. Thackeray 
dies. 



United States. 



May 27. Hanover C. H, Va., taken. 

May 31. Fair Oaks battle— indecisive. Co- 
rinth taken. 

June 6. Memphis taken. 

June 27. Pope takes command of U.S. forces 
in N. Virginia. 

June 25-30. McClellan's skirmishes on Pen- 
insula. 

Jijne 26-July 1. Seven days' battles on the 
Uhickahominy. 

July— Tariff duties raised— 300,000 more 
volunteers called for. 

Z Ay 17. Emancipation and Confiscation Act 
cigned by the President. 

July 26. Halleck Commander-in-Chief. 
U. S. debt $1,222,000,000. 

Aug. 9. Banks defeated at Cedtr Mountain 

Aug. 16. McClellan retreats frcm Harrison'' 
Landing. 

Aug. 30. Second defeat at BuM Run. 

Sept. 5. McClellan agar: Ccmmander-in- 
Chiet. 

Sept. 17. Antietam victory. 

Sept. 18. Harper's Ferry lost. 

Sept. 22. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclama- 
tion issued. 

Sept. 25. Habeas Corpus suspended. 

Oct.— Premium on gold, 29. 

Oct. — Piracies of the Alabama. 

Nov. 4. Democratic victory in New York 
elections. 

Nov. 7. Burnside supersedes McClellan. 

Dec. 10-13. Defeat at Fredericksburgh. 

1863. 

Jan. 1. Murfreesboro' victory (Roseerantz 
over Bragg). 

Jan. 2. Proclamation of Emancipation is 
sued. 

Jan. 26. Hooker supersedes Burnside. 

April 7. Monitors repulsed at Charleston- 
the Keokuk lost. 

May 2-4. Chancellorsville defeat— Jackson 
killed. 

May 18. Vicksburgh invested by Grant. 

June 14. Maryland and Pennsylvania in- 
vaded by Lee. 

June 27. Meade supersedes Hooker. 

July 1-3. Getiysivurgh victory. 

July 4. Vicksburgh occupied. 

July 8. Port Hudson taken. 

July 13-16. Riots at^?ew York. 

Aug. 7. Sioux war ended by Gen. Pope. 

Aug. 20. Chickamauga defeat. 

Aug. 21. Fort Sumter bombarded. 

Oct. 19. Grant, Thomas and Sherman su- 
persede Roseerantz in Tennessee. 

Oct. 17. President calls for 300,000 more 
volunteers. 

Nov. 23. Chattanooga victory by Sherman 
and Thomas. 

1864. 

Feb. 1. Draft for 500 000 men ordered. 

Feb. 20. Olustee (Fla.) defeat. 

Feb. 27-March 1. Kilpatrick and Dalghren's 
raid on Richmond. 



British Empire. 



Mar. 10. Marriage of 
Prince of Wales 
to Alexandra of 
Denmark. 



Oct. 31. Steam rams 
built by Laird for 
U. S. Rebels seized 
by Government. 

Oct.— British Con- 
suls dismissed 
from Rebel States 
of U.S. 



1815-1865.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



901 



FRANCE. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



World, elsewhere. 



1862 



June 7. Greece: Insurrec- 
tion spreads. 



I8G3 



Oct. 15. Drouyn de L'huys, 
Foreign Minister. 

Oct. 30. Mediation proposed 
in Amer. conflict declined 
by Russia and Gt. Britain. 

Jan. 9. Mediation of France 
again offered to V. S. 



Aug. 19. Garibaldi in Sicily, 
proclaims a Provisional 
Government. 

Aug. 29. He is wounded and 
taken prisoner by the 
king's troops. 

Sept. 30. Bismarck, Premier 
of Prussia. 

Oct. 5. Garibaldi and his fol- 
lowers released under 
general amnesty, and the 
state of siege in Sicily 
abolished. 



Jan. 18. Egypt : Ismail, 
Viceroy ; succeeds Said 
Pasha. 



March 30. Greece : George I 
of Schleswig-Holstein pro- 
claimed King — England 
agreeing to give up Ionian 
Isles to Greece. 



July— Income-Tax Bill 
passed in Italy. 

Aug. 16. Congress of Ger- 
man Sovereigns at Frank- 
fort—" One Federal State' 
proposed — Russia dissents 



Nov. 15. Denmark: Chris- 
tian EX. succeeds Freder- 
ick VII. 



1864. 

Jan. 21. War of Austria and 
Prussia against Denmark 
about Schleswig-Holstein 
— German troops enter 
Holstein. i 



902 



the world's progress. [Period XI. — 50 years.^ 



Feb. 29. Peabody fund 
— Divellings for the 
poor in London — 
First block opened. 

April 3. Garibaldi's 
visit to England. 

May 16. Convention 
between France, 
Brazil, Italy, Portu- 
gal, and Spain, for 
telegraph to America 

June— Oct. — Cattl® 



Aug. — Abd-el-Kader's 
visit to England. 



Deaths in 1864 : Frank. 
Bache,Josh'a Bates, 
W. J. Fox, T. C. 
Grattan, Nathaniel 
Hawthorne, Edw. 
Hitchcock, Leonard 
Horner, Archbishop 
Hughes, Jasmin 
(poet),O.M.Kirkland, 



1865 



Progkess of Society, 



United States. 



March 2. Grant succeeds Halleck as Com 
mander-in -Chief. 

May 5-6. Battle of the "Wilderness. 

May 11-12. Battle of Spottsyiv&nia. 

June 15. Grant befor-. Peter." rgh. 

June 19. Kearsage sinks the Alabama. 

July 1-13. Maryland again invaded by a 
Rebel raid. 

July 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta, 
Ga. 

July 30. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Re- 
bels. 
plague in England, jjuly 30. Grant's mine at Petersturgh, Va., 
exploded. 

July 80. Secretary Chase resigns— Fessenden 
Secretary of the Treasury. 

Aug. 8. Farragut's victory in Mobile Bay. 

Sept. -McClellan nominated tor President, 
by Democratic Convention at Chicago. 

Stp't. 2. Atlanta captured by Sherman. 

S~pt. 1 9. Sheridan's victory at Winchester. 

Oct. 19. Cedar Creek defeat made a victory 
by Sheridan. 

Oct. 21. Rebel raid at St. Albans, Yt. 

Ncv. 8. Lincoln re-elected President — Mc- 
Clellan resigns his command in army. 

Nov. 30. Thomas repulses Hood at Nash- 
ville. 
W. Savage LandcnyDec. '.5-16. And again totally defeats him 
John Leech, J. R., thesis. 

Macculloch, Meyer- Dec. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and 
beer, W. Curtis | Dec. 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman. 



British Empire. 



April 24. European 
conference at Lon- 
don on Schleswig- 
Holstein question. 

July 10. Palmerston 
sustained in the 
general elector. 



Aug. 15. English 
fleet visits Cher- 
bourg. 

Aug. 30. French fleet 
visits Portsmouth. 

Oct. 18. Death of 
Lord Palmerston. 



Noyes, Pellisier, Jo- 
siah Qnincy, Edw. 
Robinson, H. R. 
Schoolcraft, R. B. 
Taney, J. G. Totten. 

Slavery Abolished 
in the IT. States. 



Feb. 22. Rebel Con- 
gress decrees the 
arming of slaves. 

April 2. Death of Rich- 
ard Cobden. 



Deaths in 1865 : Bishop 
Brownell, Adm. Du- 
pont, Val. Mott, 
Edw. Everett, Mrs. 
Gaskell, Sir W. J. 
Hooker, Kiss 
(sculpt.), Leopold I., 
Ab. Lincoln, Dr. 
Lindley. 



Dec. 24-5. Butler and Porter repulsed at 

Wilmington. 
18G5. 
Feb. 1. Congress abolishes slavery ry ■*& 

amendment to the Constitution. 
Feb. 3. Lincoln and Seward's interview with 

Rebels at Fort Monroe. 
Feb. 18. Lee takes command Rebel armies, 

and ur°"..s arming of negroes. 
Feb. 22. Wilmington captured by Schofleld. 
Feb. 22. Charleston i vacuated by Rebels. 
April 1. New and higher tariff comes in 

force 
April 2. Richmond and Petersburg!! occupied 

by U. S. forces, after three days' fighting. 
April 6. Grant's victory at Farmville. 
April 9; Surrender of Lee with his whole 

army. 
April" 12. Mobile taken. 
April 14. Fort Sumter occupied. 
April 14. Assassination of President Lin' 

coin and attack on Seward. 
April 15. Andrew Johnson sworn in as 

President. 

April 18. Sherman's convention with John- 
ston. 
April 25. Johnston's surrender. 
April 26. Booth, the assassin, shot. 
May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders. 
May 10. Jeff. Davis captured. 
May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in Texas. 

END OF THE REBELLION. 



March— Fenian out- 
breaks in Ireland. 



May 6. Reform 
League meeting 
in Hyde Park in 
defiance of Go- 
vernment. 



1815 -1865.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



903 



France, 



Europe, elsewhere. 



"World, elsewhere. 



1861 



May 22. Death of Marshal 

Pellisier. 
May 20. Convention between 

France and Japan signed. 



1864, 

March 10. Louis II., King 

of Bavaria. 
April 18. Duppel taken by 

Prussians. 



June 1. Ionian Isles made 

over to Greece. 
July 8. Prussians take Al 

sen. 



Sept.15. Franco-Italian Con- 
vention signed — French 
troops to quit Rome in 
two years. 

Florence made the capital 
of Italy — Riots at Turin 
in consequence, Sept. 21 
22. 

Oct. 30. Peace between Den- 
mark and the Allies, to 
whom Schleswig and Hol- 
stein are surrendered, 
Prussia retaining posses- 
sion of them. 



July 18. China : Nankin taken 
(" a heap of ruins ") by Gor- 
don for the Imperialists. 



March 31. Valparaiso bom- 
barded by Spanish fleet. 



Famine in Bengal and Madras 



1865. 

May 7. Hayti: Military in- 
surrection against Geffrard. 



904 



THE -WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



a.d. Progress of Society, 



United States. 



Great Britain. 



1835 Aug. — Treaty of Com 
merce between Italy 
and Japan. 

Sept. — Several South- 
ern States pass ordi- 
nances annulling Se- 
cession, abolishing 
slavery, &c. 

Rinder-pest or cattle- 
plague in England, 
July, 1865, to Feb., 
1866. 

Cholsra prevails in 
France, Spain, and 
Naples. 
1866 Jan. 27. Death of Gib- 
son, Eng. sculptor. 

July 28. Atlantic 
Telegraph success- 
fully completed ; 
cable landed at New- 
foundland and re- 
portsPEACE between 
Prussia andAustria. 

Deaths in 1866 : Mar- 
quis D'Azeglio, 
Jared Sparks, Win 
"Whewell. 



1867. 

April 1. Opening of 
the Great Exposition 
of Industry of all 
nations at Paris. 



July 1. Awards of the 
juries in the Great 
Exposition. 



July — 1800th anniver- 
sary of St. Peter's 
martyrdom cele- 
brated at Rome. 



May 22. Proclamation opening Southern 

ports and exceptional amnesty. 
June 1. National Fast. 
June 29. Trial of assassins ended. 
July 7. They are hung. 
July 29. Prisoners of war released on oath of 

July 31. U. S. debt $2,757,253,000. 

August — Eebel privateer Shenandoah de- 
stroyed about thirty vessels. 

Nov. 2. National thanksgiving. 

Nov. 9. Shenandoah at Liverpool — crew re- 
leased. 

Nov. 10. "Wirz executed for cruelty to U. S. 
prisoners. 

1866. 

May 3. Colorado bill vetoed. 

May 29. Death of Winfield Scott. 

June — Resignation of Speed, Att. Gen. ; 
Dennison, P. M. Gen. ; and Harlan, Sec. 
Int. 

July 28. Congress adjourns, having passed 
Freedmen's Bureau (continuation) bill ; 
Civil Rights bill ; Pacific Railway (supp.) 
bill ; Army bill, and other important 
measures. 

July — Grant appointed General-in-Chief ; 
Sherman, Lieut.-General ; Farragut, Ad- 
miral ; Porter, Vice-Admiral. 

Aug. 14. " National Union Convention " at 
Philadelphia. 

Sept. 3. Southern Loyalist Convention at 
Philadelphia. 

Sept. 6. Corner stone of Douglas Monument 
laid at Chicago by President Johnson. 

Oct. 6. Elections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, In- 
diana, and Iowa result in increased Re- 
publican majorities. 

Nov. — Republicans also victorious in Mass., 
N. H., N. Y., N. J., Mich., Minn., Nevada, 
and Mo. In Delaw. and Md. the DemO' 
crats are successful. 

Dec. 13. Suffrage given to colored men in 
Dist. Columbia, by act of Congress. 

1867. 

Feb. 9. Nebraska admitted into the Union 
as a State. 

March 2. " Tenure of Office " bill passed. 

March 2. Military government for the South — 
bill passed over the President's veto by 135 
to 48 in the House, and 38 to 10 in the 
Senate. 

March 4. iOth Congress meets. 

March 23. Supplementary Bill on Military 
Government of the South, passed over 
President's veto— Senate, 40 to 7 ; House, 
114 to 25. 

Southern States divided into five military 
districts, under 

Gen. Schofield, at Richmond; Sickles, at 
Columbia, &c. ; Pope, at Montgomery ; 
Ord, at Vicksburgh ; Sheridan, at New 
Orleans. 

April 10. Treaty for purchase of Russian 
America approved by the Senate. 



British and French 
Governments re- 
scind their recog- 
nition of American 
" Confederates." 

October 18. Death of 
Lord Palmerston. 

Oct. — Movements of 
Fenians at New 
York, Phila., &c. 

October 7. Riots in 
Jamaica ; Gordon, 
a Baptist minis- 
ter, hanged by 
Governor Eyre as 
a rioter. 

November 27. Trial 
of Fenians at Dub- 
lin. 

1866. 

Jan. 6. Gov. Eyre 
in Jamaica super- 
seded by Storks ; 
hot discussions in 
England as to his 
conduct in. the 
riot. 



1867. 

May 9. Conference 
at London on the 
question of Lux- 
emburg. Treaty 
signed making the 
Duchy neutral 
territory — fortress 
to be razed. 



July — The Viceroy 
of Egypt and the 
Sultan of Turkey 
visit London. 



1%5-1867.] 



THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



905 



Europe, elsewhere. 



1S65 



867 



Ssiit. !. 
ciere. 



Death of Lamori- 



January — Railway between 
Boulogne and Calais 
opened. 

Jan. 19. Emperor decrees 
greater freedom of discus- 
sion in Legislature and the 
Press. 



1866. 

Jan. 15. Death of D'Azeglio, the 

patriot. 
June 18. Prussia and Italy declare 

Wae against AUSTRIA. 
June 24. Italians defeated at Cus 

tozza. 
June 27-29. Austrians defeated by 

Prussians in three battles won by 

needle guns. 
July 3. Great Battle of SADOWA ; 

250,000 on each side. Prussians 

victorious ; Austrians lose 44,000 

K, and W., and 100 guns. 
Austria cedes Venetia to Prance. 
July 11. Prussians defeat Bavarians 

at Kissengen. 
July 14. Prussians occupy Prank- 
fort. 
July 18. Italian fleet defeated off 

Lizza. 
July 26. Preliminary treaty of peace 

Prussia requires Hanover, Hesse, 

Nassau and Frankfort. 
October 3. Treaty of Peace between 

Austria and Italy, signed at 

Vienna. 
Nov. 5. Venetia proclaimed to be 

part of Kingdom of Italy. 
Nov. 7. K. Victor Emanuei's public 

entry into Venice. 
Feb. IS. Hungarian Constitution 

restored by Austrian Emperor. 
Feb. 24. First parliament of the 

German Confederation opened by 

K. ofPrussia. 
War in Crete continued with 

various fortunes. 
April 4. New ministry in Italy. 



April 1. Great Exposition 

opened by the Emperor. 

Waleswski resigns as Pres. 

of Corps Legis. 
May. 18. Emperor signs 

Luxemburg treaty. 
June 6. Attempt on life of the Czar, while riding with the Em- 
peror, in Paris. 
The Sultan, Viceroy of Egypt, King of Prussia, Prince of "Wales, 

and other notables, also visit the Great Exposition in Paris in 

June and July. 



Wobld, elsewhere. 



Sept. 18. Brazil : Uru- 

guayano surrenders 

to the allies. 
Sept. — Greeks in Crete 

rise in revolt against 

the Turks. 
Oct. 7. Jamaica riots. 



1867. 

Feb. 5. Mexico: The 
City ot Mexico 
evacuated by the 
French troops. 

May 15. Mexico. 
Maximilian and his 
generals captured at 
Queretaro. 

Egypt declared by the 
Sultan to be a se- 
parate sovereignty 
after June 11, 1867. 

July 1. Execution of 
Maximilian in 
Mexico. 

July 1. Cuba: Decree 
of the Queen of 
Spain freeing all 
children of slave 
parents born after 
this date. 



906 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Progress of Society. 



1867 



1867 

July — England visited 

by the Sultan ; first 

time in history. ! 
Reform in England. 
Deaths in 3867 : Vic 

tor Cousin, Charle: 

Anthon. 



1868 



Jan. 15. Education con 
f erence opens at Man 
Chester, England. 

Feb. 6. A horse-flesh 
dinner at the Lang 
ham hotel, London. 

June 25. Luther mon- 
ument inaugurated 
at Worms. 

Sept. 9. Brunei's In- 
ternational Congress 
of Workmen resolve 
that arbitration is 
better than strikes. 

Oct. 5. Papal emissa 
ries and Greek Pa 
triarch of Constan- 
tinople disagree as to 
general council. 

Deaths, 1868 : Ex-pres 
Buchanan ; T h a d 
Stevens; ex-sec'y 
Bates. 

1869 

Jan. 24. First Protes- 
tant meeting for pub- 
lic worship in Madrid 

Apr. 3. Bibles in for 
eign languages ad 
mitted into Spain. 

May 10. Kailway con 
nection completed in 
U. S. between Atlan- 
tic and Pacific. 

July 14. French At- 
lantic telegraphic 
cable completed. 

Deaths, 1869: W. P. 
Fessenden ; Admiral 
Stewart (" Old Iron- 
side") ; G. Peabody ; 
Ex -pres. P i e r c o ; 
Gen. Wool ; Ex-sec'y 
Stanton. 



United States. 



1867 

May 13. Jeff. Davis released on bail. 

July-1. Congress meets in extra special ses- 
sion, and enacts, over President's veto, a 
bill to confirm and strengthen the Military 
Government, passed in March. 

Aug. 10. Jury on trial of Surratt (assassina- 
tion of Lincoln) disagrees. Surratt dis- 
charged, Nov. 6, 1868. 

Aug. 12. Sec'y of War Stanton removed, 
after refusing to resign. Replaced by Sen- 
ate, Jan. 14-15, 1868. 

Sept. 9. Pres. Johnson proclaims general 
amnesty. 

Sept. 17. Antietam cemetery dedicated. 

Dec. Treaty for purchase of Danish islands, 
St. Thomas and St. John, for $7,500,000, 
signed. 



Jan. 21. Senate transfers jurisdiction over 
the Southern States from Johnson to Gen. 
Grant. 

Feb. 24. House votes to impeach Pres. John- 
son. 

March 6. Impeachment trial. 

May 21. Republican Convention nominates 
Grant and Colfax. 

May 26. Senate adjourns, after refusing to 
impeach Pres. Johnson. 

June 5. Chinese embassy received at Wash- 
ington. 

July 7. Democratic Convention nominates 
Seymour and Blair. 

July 22. Wyoming territory organized. 

Nov. 3. Grant and Colfax elected. 

Dec. 14. House of Representatives denounces 
repudiation of national debt. 



1869 

Jan. 14. Clarendon and Johnson convention 

on Alabama claims signed. 
Feb. 6. Nolle prosequi ends prosecution 

against Jeff. Davis. 
Feb. 21. Fifteenth amendment (negro suf 

frage) passed. 
March 3 and 15. Schenck bill passes, declaring 

that all national obligations will be paid in 

coin. 
Apr. J. L. Motley appointed Minister at Lon- 
don. 
Apr. 15. ■' Naturalization treaty with Great 

Britain ratified. 
June 15. Peace Jubilee at Boston. 



1867 

July 15. Passage of 
New R e f o E M 
Bill, nominally 
D'Israeli's, really 
Gladstone's ? 

Sept. 24-27. Pan- 
Anglican synod at 
Lambeth. 



British Empire. 



1868 

Jan. 28. 113,674 spe- 
cial constables 
sworn in in l the 
United Kingdom, 
from apprehension 
of Fenians. 

Feb. 25. Derby min- 
istry resigns ; D'ls- 
raeli, premier 29th. 

Sept. 30. Nearly 21,- 
000 extra deaths 
from the hot sum- 
mer. 

Dec. 2. D'Israeli min- 
istry out ; Glad- 
stone's succeeds, 
9th. 



1869 

July 26. Irish Church 

disestabl ishment 

bill passed. 



1867-1877.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



907 



A.D. 


Fbance. 


Europe, elsewhere. 


Would, elsewhere. 


1867 


1867 


1S67 


1867 




July 1. The Emperor dis- 


July. Great excitement in Europe 


Oct. 29. Destructive 




tributes medals of honor 


respecting the death of Maximilian 


hurricane in W e s t 




at the Great Exposition. 


in Mexico. 


Indies. 




Oct. 30. French troops enter 


Russian America sold to the United 


Nov. 1. Furious cy- 




Rome. 


States. 


clone in Bengal. 




Nov. 18. Pacific speech of 


July 1. Great assemblage of Prelates 






Emperor on opening Cham- 


of R. C. Church at Rome. 






bers. 


Aug. 6. Violent outbreak of cholera 






Dec. 5. Rouher declares (for 


at Albano, Italy. 






government) that Italy 


Sept. 8. International Peace Congress 






shall never seize upon 


at Geneva ; broke up 12th, from 






Rome. 


furious quarrelling of members. 

Sept. 24. Garibaldi arrested while 
preparing to invade Papal States, 
and sent to Capreia. 

Oct. 13. Garibaldi escapes from Ca- 
prera ; 26, defeats Pope's troops at 
Monte Rotondo ; 27, King of Greece 
marries Grand Duchess Olga ; 30, 
French troops enter Rome. 

Nov. 4. Garibaldi beaten and taken 
at Mentana. 




1868 


1868 


1S68 


1868 




Jan. 1. Army bill, amounts 


March 21. Defeat of papal party at 


Feb. 19. Brazilians 




to furnishing an army of 


Vienna on civil marriage bill. 


force the pass of 




1,20(1,000. 


Sept. 29. Queen of Spain flees into 


Humaita against 




June 1. New press law, less 


France ; provisional government set 


Paraguayan batte- 




stringent. 


up. 


ries. 




Aug. 1. Rochefort's Lanterne 


Nov. 24. Croatian deputies sit togeth- 


Apr. 13. Capture of 




suppressed ; he escapes to 


er with Hungarian, met for first 


Magdala, Abyssinia, 




Belgium. 


time. 


by British ; death of 






Dec. 30. Final surrender of revolu- 


King Theodore. 






tionary Cretan government an- 


May 22. Russians oc- 






nounced at Constantinople. 


cupy Samarcand. 
June 25. Paraguayans 

evacuate Humaita, 

after over 2 years' 

siege. 
Nov. 17. Suez canal 

formally opened. 






1869 




1869 


1869 


May 20. Spanish Cortes votes 214 to 






June 9. Violent election riots 


71 for monarchical government. 






at Paris. 


June 16. Serrano chosen regent of 






June 26. Great increase of 


Spain. 






opposition in Assembly. 


Dec. 8. Vatican Council opened at 






July 13. Ministerial respon- 


Rome. 






sibility introduced by the 








Emperor. 








Aug. 15. Centenary of birth 








of Napoleon I. ; pensions, 








amnesty, etc. 








Sept. 10. New constitution 








promulgated. 







908 



THE WORLD S PKOGRESS. 



Progress op Society. 



United States. 



British Empire. 



1870 



1870 

Apr. 2. Railway from 
Calcutta to Bombay 
opened. 

Apr. 10. Keshub Chun- 
der Sen conducts re- 
ligious services in 
London. 

May 19. English. House 
of Lords rejects bill 
permitting to marry 
deceased wife's sis- 
ter, 77 to 73. 

May 25. Organization 
of English commit- 
tee to revise author- 
ized version of Bible. 

Dec. 25. Mount Cenis 
tunnel completed. 

Deaths, 1870: Admi- 
rals Dahlgren and 
Earragut ; Gen. Lee. 



1870 

Jan. 26. Darien canal scheme approved by 

Congress. 
March. Mr. Revels, first colored member of 

House (from Mississippi), takes his seat ; 

16th, his first speech, for universal amnesty 

and suffrage. 
April. Fifteenth amendment ratified. 
July. New tariff adopted, to take effect Jan. 

1, 1871. 
July. Mr. Motley recalled. 
Oct. 1. Internal taxation begins to be re- 
duced. 
Nov. Republican majority in Congress greatly 

reduced by the fall elections. 
Dec. 5. President Grant's message regrets 

failure of proposal to annex St. Domingo. 
Dec. 21. General Schenck Minister to London. 
Dec. Census makes value of TJ. S. $31,000,- 

000,000. 



1870 

July 19. Neutrality 

in Franco-Prussian 

war proclaimed. 
Aug.-Nov. Foot and 

mouth disease in 1 

cattle. 



1867-1877.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



909 



Fbance. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



1870 

Jan. 12. Pope's decree condemning 
the Fenians. 

May 17. Espartero declines the crown 
of Spain. 

June 25. Queen Isabella of Spain abdi- 
cates in favor of her son Alfonso. 

July. Vatican Council votes the Pope's 
infallibility. 

July 30. Austrian government dis- 
solves the concordat with Rome. 

Sept. 20. Italian troops occupy Rome. 

Oct. 2. Vote of people of Papal States 
for annexation to Italy, 133,681 
yeas to 1,507 nays. 

Kov. 16. Prince Amadeo of Italy 
elected king of Spain by the Cortes ; 
accepts, Dec. 5. 

Nov. 23. Pope excommunicates all 
concerned in annexing Rome to 
Italy. 

Dec. 10. German empire voted at 
Berlin by the Reichstag ; crown 
presented to King Wilhelm of Prus- 
sia at Versailles, 18th. 

Dec. 27. High and damaging flood in 
the Tiber at Rome. 

Dec. 28. Marshal Prim assassinated at 
Madrid. 

Dec. 31. King Victor Emmanuel ar 
rives at Rome. 



1870 1870 

Jan. 3. Liberal (Ollivier) min- 
istry formed. 

Jan 10. Victor Noir murdered 
by Prince Pierre Bonaparte, 

Jan. 22. Rochef ort fined and 
imprisoned for libel. 

May 8. Plebiscite on govern- 
ment amendments to con- 
stitution, adopted by 5 to 1. 

May 14. Riots and barricades' 
in Paris. 

July 2. Orleans family de 
mand to return to Prance ; 
refused by Assembly, 173 to 
81. 

July. Prince Leopold declines 
candidacy for Spanish 
throne ; Prussia refuses 
guaranties ; 17th, Prance 
declares war. 

July 23. Empress regent ; 
Emperor joins army ; 26th, 
first skirmish at Nieder- 
bronn ; 30th, French re- 
pulsed at Saarbriick. 

Aug. 2. French take Saar- 
briick; 4, Germans de- 
feat French at Wissem- 
bourg and Geisberg ; 6, 
severe defeat of French at 
Woerth ; 7, state of siege 
at Paris; 8, French de- 
feated at Forbach; 

Bazaine in command at Metz ; 10, new war ministry ; decree for 
great increase of army ; Strasburg invested by Germans ; 12, 
Germans pass the Vosges ; 14, Germans gain battle of Courcelles ; 
16. of Vionville ; IS, of Gravelotte and Rezonville ; Trochu gov- 
ernor of Paris ; 22, Bazaine isolated at Metz ; 25, Germans oc- 
cupy Chalons ; 30, several engagements lost by parts of Mac- 
Mahon's army retreating north ; 31, they retreat to Sedan ; Aug. 
31 and Sept. 1, Bazaine repulsed and driven into Metz. 

Sept. 1-2. Battle of Sedan ; surrender of MacMahon's army and 
Napoleon III. ; Sept. 4, revolution at Paris ; republic declared, 
and government of defence, Trochu president ; Empress and min- 
isters flee to Belgium ; 5, Germans occupy Rheims. and 7, St. 
Dizier ; 9, Germans advancing on Paris ; 15, siege of Paris 
formed ; Sept. 17, important circular of Favre, confessing that 
France is in the wrong, and asking that the war stop ; 16, Bis- 
marck's circular asserting necessity of material guaranties from 
France; 19, Paris completely invested ; 21, Versailles surrenders ; 
Favre reports failure to agree with Bismarck ; 23, Durnouf gets 
out of Paris with mails by balloon; levee en masse in French de- 
partments ordered ; 28, Strasburg capitulates ; red republican 
rising put down at Lyon 

Oct. 7. Gambetta escapes from Paris by balloon ; 9, organizes a 
government at Tours ; 7, great sortie from Metz repulsed ; 10, 
11, red republican attempt to establish the commune at Paris de- 
feated ; 11, Germans take Orleans ; 16, take Soissons ; 21, French 
sortie from Mont Valerien (Paris) repulsed; 27, Metz and army 
surrendered by Bazaine; 29, Germans take Dtjon ; 31, riots in 
Paris ; commune established for a moment, but dislodged. 

Nov. 4. Germans have taken 11 towns, 3,653 guns. 155 mitrail- 
leuses, nearly 500, COO chassepots, 90 eagles, about $20,000,000 in 
money ; hostilities continue in various parts of France ; 24, Ger- 
mans take Thionville ; 27, take La Fere ; 28, occupy Amiens ; 
30, great sortie of 120,000 men from Paris ; they retreat, Dec. 2. 



Woeld, elsewhere. 



1870 

Jan. 15. Salnave shot 
in Hayti ; Saget pres- 
ident. 

March 1. Defeat and 
death of the Para- 
guayan leader Lopez. 

May 25. Fenian raid 

• into Canada repulsed 
by volunteers. 

June 21. Mob at Tien- 
tsin in China; French 
consul and residents 
murdered. 



910 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



1870 



1871 



Pkogbess or Society, 



1870 



1871 

Sept. 22. Old Catholic 
meeting at Bonn, a- 
gainst new dogma of 
infallibility. , . 

Dee. 28. Gradual slave- 
emancipation law 
passed in Brazil. 

Deaths, 1871 : G. Tick- 
ner ; Alice andPhcebe 
Gary ; (Jen. B. An- 
derson ; R. Cham- 
bers ; Schamyl, the 
Circassian chief; 
Omer Pasha; Thal- 
berg ; Herschel ; Au- 
ber ; G. Grote ; Prin- 
cess Belgiojoso ; Paul 
de Kock; R. Bent- 
ley ; C. Babbage ; Sir 
R. Murchison ; Mar- 
shal Benedek ; G, 
Hudson ( ' ' railway 
king "), 



United States. 



1870 



1871 

Jan. 12. Great meeting in New York for Ital 
ian unity. 

Apr. 6. Report of commissioners to St. Dom- 
ingo, in Senate. 

May 26. Treaty for Alabama claims commis 
sion, etc., ratified. 

June 4. U. S. army on peace footing of 
35,284 men. 

June 10. Statue of S. F. B. Morse unveiled in 
N. Y. 

June 29. Polaris expedition sails for North 
Pole. 

July 12. Riot in New York, Romanists against 
Orangemen : '62 killed, 117 wounded. 

July 16. First exposure of Tammany Ring in 
N. Y. Times. 

Oct. Great fires in Minn., Wise, and Mich, 
forests. 

Oct. 8-9. Great fire at Chicago ; 18,000 build- 
ings destroyed; $200,000,000 lost. 

Nov. Russian Minister Catacazy dismissed 
for discourtesy to U. S. authorities. 



Bbitish Empiee. 



1870 



1871 

Apr. 3. 8th census 
taken. 

July 20. Purchase of 
army commissions 
stopped by royal 
warrant. 

Sept. 30. South Ken- 
sington Exhibition 
closed (open since 
May 1). i 



1867-1877.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



911 



France. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



1870 1870 1870 
Dec. Obstinate fighting by the army of the Loire ; other hostilities ; 

Germans mainly successful ; 11, Gambetta's government moves 
to Bordeaux. 

1871 1871 |1871 
Jan. 1-10. Bombardment of Jan. 2. King Amadeo arrives at 

Paris ; hostilities in other drid. 

parts of France continu- Feb. 8. Complete amnesty for politi 
ing ; mostly German sue- cal offences in Austria, 
cesses; 19, great sortie of June 16. 25th anniversary of pope 
.100,000 men from Paris dom of Pius IX. celebrated at Rome 
repulsed ; 23, Trochu re- Nov. 18. Uniform coinage law en- 
signs ; 24, Vinoy governor acted in Germany, 
of Paris ; 28, Paris capit- 
ulates ; 30, Bourbaki's 
army of 80,000 driven into 
Switzerland and "in- 
terned ; " treaty of peace, 
ceding Alsace and part of 
Lorraine, and to pay Ger- 
many $1,000,000,000; pre 
liminaries signed Feb. 26. 

Feb. 18. Thiers becomes exe- 
cutive. 

March 1-3. German troops 
enter Paris, and remain 48 
hours. Treaty concluded 
May 10, ratified by French 
Assembly, May 18. 

March 18. Insurrection at 
Paris, and commune estab- 
lished there ; 20, regular 
government at Versailles ; 
28, government of the com- 
mune proclaimed at Paris. 

April 2. Military operations 
begin between government 
and commune ; 4, com- 
munist insurrection sup- 
pressed at Marseilles. 

May 14. House of M. Thiers 
destroyed by commune ; 
16, column Vendome pulled 
down; 21, government 
troops enter Paris and oc- 
cupy part ; 23-24, Tuileries, 
Hotel de Ville, etc., burned 
by communists; 28, fight- 
ing ends and communists 
suppressed ; about one- 
fourth of Paris burned, 
and loss of property 
through commune, $160,- 
000,000 ; 29, decree disarm- 
ing Paris. 

Sept. 1. Thiers made Presi- 
dent for 3 . years ; 20, Ger- 
mans evacuating forts 
around Paris. 

Nov. 2S. Commrtnist leaders 
shot. 

Dec. Said to be sixteen poli- 
tical parties ; 19, Due d 'Au- 
male and Prince deJoinville 
take seats in the Assembly. 



World, elsewhere. 



1870 



1871 

June 11. TJ. S. and 
French storm Corean 
strongholds and pun- 
ish Coreans for in- 
sults. 

Oct. 1. Military revolt 
in city of Mexico ; 
suppressed with 
much bloodshed. 



912 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



A.D. 


Progress of Society. 


United States. 


British Empire. 


1872 


1872 


1872 


1872 




Aug. 6. Spain prepares 


Jan. 16. General amnesty bill passed. 


Feb. 29. Arthur O'- 




to free slaves in 


June 17. Boston peace jubilee opens. 


Connor presents an 




Porto Rico and 


July 10. Democrats and Liberals join to nom- 


empty pistol at the 




Cuba. 


inate Greeley for president. 


Queen. 




Aug. 22. International 


Aug. 19. Judge Barnard removed and dis- 


March. Agricultural 




statistical congress 


qualified, for corruption in office. 


laborers' strike in 




at St. Petersburg. 


Sept. Geneva award (Alabama claims) an- 


Warwickshire. 




Sept. 8. Australia con- 


nounced. 


June. Strikes in va- 




nected by submarine 


Oct. 23. Island of San Juan awarded to U. S. 


rious trades. 




telegraph with the 


Nov. 5. Grant re-chosen president. 


Sept. 14. Final Ala- 




Indo-European tele- 




bama award. 




graph system. 




Nov. 5. New com- 




Oct. 16. Railway op- 




mercial treaty 




ened from Yokoha- 




signed with France. 




ma to Yeddo, in Ja- 




Nov. 24. Serious ill- 




pan. 




ness of Prince of 




Deaths, 1872: J. Gil- 




Wales ; begins to 




lott; Due de Per- 




recover Dec. 14. 




signy ; Abp. Spal- 








ding ; John Poole ; 








J. Mazzini ; Rev. F. 








D. Maurice ; Lord 








Dalling ; C. Lever ; 








J. G. Bennett; Rev. 








N. McLeod ; L. Feu- 








erbach ; Charles XV. 








of Sweden; Mrs. 








Parton ("Fanny 








Fern ") ; T. Gautier • 








Sir J. Bowring ; 








Gen. Halleck ; W. 








H. Seward ; H. Gree- 








ley. 






1873 


1873 


1873 


1873 




Jan. 1. European cal- 


Jan. Modoc war begins. 


Jan. Strikes of col- 




endar introduced in- 


Feb. Fighting and disturbances in New Or- 


liers ; coal very 




to Japan. 


leans. 


scarce. 




May 5. Treaty of Great 


March. Credit Mobilier scandal in Congress. 


June-July. Shah of 




Britain with Zanzi- 


Apr. 11. Gen. Canby and others murdered by 


Persia visits Eng- 




bar to suppress slave 


Modocs. 


land. 




trade. 


June. Modocs surrender. 






Deaths, 1873; Napole- 


Nov. Excitement over execution by Spaniards 






on III. ; M. F. Mau- 


of Americans from steamer Virginius. 






ry ; Rev. T. Guth- 








rie ; C. Knight ; Ba- 








ron Liebig ; W. C. 








Macready ; Dr. Liv- 








ingstone ; A. Man- 








zoni ; F. von Rau- 








mer ; H. Powers ; M. 








Odillon-Barrot ; Duke 








of Brunswick ; Mrs. 








Mundt; Sir E. Land- 








seer; Sir H. Hol- 








land ; U. Ratazzi ; S. 








P. Chase. 






1874 


1874 


1874 


1874 




June 22. Telegraph op- 


Feb. Women's whiskey-war ; women try to 


Jan. 23. Duke of 




ened between Great 


stop liquor-selling, by prayer, etc., in Ohio 


Edinburgh marries 




Britain and Brazil. 


and N. X. 


Grand Duchess 
Marie of Russia. 



1867-1877.] 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



9i; 



1S72 



1872 

April 23. Law against the 
" International " society. 

Sept. Government is estab- 
lished at Paris. 

Oct. 6. P i 1 g r'i m a g e s of 
some 20,000 persons to 
Lourdes. 

Nov. 5. New commercial 
treaty signed with Great 
Britain. 



1873 



1874 



1872 

Jan. Insurrectionary movements be- 
gin in north of Spain. 

Apr. 1. Tercentenary of Dutch inde- 
pendence observed. 

May 1. University of Strasbnrg re- 
opened (closed by French, 1792J. 

May 2. Don Carlos enters Spain ; 6, 
flees back to France. 

June 12. Jesuits expelled from Ger- 
many. 

July 18. 1000th anniversary of King- 
dom of Norway celebrated. 

July 31. Extradition treaty signed, 
Belgium and Great Britain. 

Sept. 30. Revolt in Montenegro. 

Dec. 18. Coinage made uniform in 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 

Dec. 31 . Diplomatic relations broken 
off between the Pope and Germany. 



1873 

Feb. Letter of Comte de 
Chambord. destroying all 
hope of Bourbonist fusion. 

March 15. Convention for 
complete evacuation by 
Germans on payment of 
whole indemnity. 

May 24. Thiers and his min 
istry resign ; 26, MacMahon 
chosen president by the 
assembly. 

Aug. 2. Germans have left 
France, except Verdun ; 5. 
the Orleanists recognize 
Comte de Chambord as 
chief. 

Sept. 5. Last instalment of 
German indemnity paid ; 
13, Germans leave Verdun ; 
16, last Germans leave 
France. 

Nov. 20. MacMahon's term 
made 7 years. 

Dec. 12. Bazaine condemned 
to death for surrender of 
Metz ; commuted to 20 
years' imprisonment. 

1874 

March 16. Imperialist dem- 
onstration at Chiselhurst, 
at majority (18 years) of 
prince imperial. 

39 



Etjkope, elsewhere. 



1S72 

March 1. War between 
Honduras and San 
Salvador. 

March 26. Attempt to 
assassinate the Mika- 
do of Japan. 

July 22. Military re- 
volt at Lima ; Presi- 
dent Balta killed. 

Aug. 17. Japanese em- 
bassy in England. 



1873 

Feb. 9. Extradition treaty signed, 

Italy and Great Britain. 
Feb. 11. King Amadeo of Spain ab 

dicates. 
May 1. International exhibition at 

Vienna opened. 
Oct. 21. Jesuits expelled from their 

convents and colleges at Rome. 



1874 

Apr. 13. Revised constitution adopt- 
ed in Switzerland. 

July 23. Extradition treaty ratified, 
Netherlands and Great Britain. 



World, elsewhere. 



1S73 

Feb. 23. Emperor 

Toung-Chi of China 

assumes government. 
March 25. Netherlands 

declare war against 

Atchinese. 



1874 

Feb. 5. British force 
under Sir G. Wolse- 
ley occupies Goomaa- 



914 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



Progress of Society. 



1874 1874 
Aug. International 

congress at Brussels 
on laws of war. 

Sept. 15. Internation- 
al postal congress at 
Berne ; adopts a sys- 
tem Oct. 7. 

Deaths, 1S74 : Ex-pres, 
Fillmore ; C. Sum- 
ner; P. G-uizot ; 
A. von Rothschild ; 
Chang and E n g 
(Siamese twins) ; 
Dr. D. P. Strauss; 
J. Michelet. 

1875 1875 
Jan. Civil registration 

and civil marriage 
adopted by law in 
Germany. 

May 20. International 
convention at Paris 
for adopting' metric 
system. 13 nations 
represented. 

May 23. P e o p 1 e of 
Switzerland adopt 
civil marriage by 
vote. 

Nov. 28. Italian gov 
eminent buys the 
Northern Italian 
railroads. 

Deaths, 1875 : Ex-pres. 
Johnson ; A. Helps ; 
E. Pereirs; E. Qui- 
net ; Toung-Chi, em 
peror of China. 
18761376 

iPeb. 1. International 
courts in Egypt be- 
gin to sit. 

Feb. 6. Turkey replies 
to Andrassy note, 
promising reforms, 
which are decreed 
14th. 

March 1). Egyptian in- 
vading force beaten 
by Abyssinians. 

Oct. 27. Capt, Nares's 
Arctic expedition re- 
turns ; reports that 
North Pole cannot 
be reached. 

Dec. 21. New penal 
code adopted for 
German Empire. 

Deaths, 1876 : Vice- 
pres. H. Wilson ; F. 
Deak; Reverdy John- 
son ; Abdul- Aziz, ex- 
sultan of Turkey ; 
Gen. Santa Anna ; 
C. Perier ; Cardinal 
Antoaelli. 



United States. 



1874 

Apr. 22. President Grant vetoes bill for in- 
convertible paper money. 

July. Bcecher scandal breaks out. 

Aug. 17. Riots at Austin., Miss., negroes and 
whites ; so-called negro insurrection also in 
Aug., at Trenton, Tenn. 

Sept. Centennial of meeting of colonial dele- 
gates at Philadelphia. 

.Sent. 18. Gov. Kellogg of La. deposed by a 
rising of whites ; restored by U. S. forces. 

Oct. 27. Triennial Episcopalian convention : 
canon against ritualism. 

Dec. Senate passes bill to resume specie pay- 
ment Jan. 1, 1879. 

1875 

Feb. 4. Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty 

with Canada. 
Feb. Civil rights bill (for negroes) rjassed. 
Apr. 19. Centenary of Lexington. 
June 17. Centenary of Bunker Hill. 
July 2. Beecher trial ends. Jury disagrees (9 

to 3 for Beecher). 
Sept. 30. First American Cardinal (McClos 

key) received at Rome. 
Oct. Inflationist defeats in Ohio and Iowa. 



British Empire. 



1874 

Feb. 81. Gladstone 
ministry out ; D'ls- 
raeli succeeds him. 

May 13-21. Visit of 
Czar of Russia. 



1876 

Jan. 1. Centennial year, great demonstrations 
in Philadelphia. 

March. Minister Schenck resigns in con- 
sequence of Emma Mine scandal. 

April. Senate rejects R. H. Dana's nomina- 
tion as minister to England. 

Apr. 14. Lincoln monument, erected by ne- 
groes, unveiled at Washington. 

May 10. International exhib. opened atPhila. 

June 16. Hayes and Wheeler nominated at 
Cincinnati. 

June. Winsiow released at London ; extradi- 
tion treaty thus ended. 

June 25. Custer and his command ambushed 
and destroyed by Sioux. 

June 29. Tilden and Hendricks nominated at 
St. Louis. 

July 9. Hamburg (S. C.) massacre of negro 
militiamen by Butler and others. 

Aug. 1. Gen. Belknap, ex-secretary of war, 
impeached for corruption, but acquitted by 
35 to 25 in Senate (two-thirds must con- 
vict). 

Aug. 2. Colorado admitted into the Union. 

Oct. 17. President Grant's proclamation 
against unlawful combinations to affect elec- 
tions in South. 



1875 

March 9. Moody and 
Sankey, the reviv- 
alists, arrive in 
London ; sail (on 
return) Aug. 4. 

Sept. 27. Railway ju- 
bilee at Darlington. 

Nov. 25. Government 
purchase of Suez 
canal shares an- 
nounced. 



1876 

May 1. Queen pro- 
claimed Empress 
of India. 



1867-1877.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



915 



Fbance. 



Europe, elsewhere. 



World, elsewhere. 



1874 



1874 

Aug. 31. Vendome column 
restored. 



1874 

Dec. 31. Alfonso, son of Queen Isa- 
bella, proclaimed King of Spain, 
enters Madrid and assumes govern- 
ment, Jan. 14, 1875. 



1875 



1876 



1875 

Feb.-March. Constitutional 
changes in a republican 
direction. 

June 23. Destructive floods 
at Toulouse. 

Dec. Reports on trial of com- 
munists shows 9,596 con- 
victions and 110 death 
sentences. 



1875 

Oct. 6. Turkey announces suspension 

of payment on half the interest of 

her public debt. 



1876 

Jan. French revenue for 1875 
$500,000,000, said to be 
the largest ever received 
by any government. 

Feb. -March. Republican ma- 
jority elected to Chambers 

Nov. 3. France announces 
her neutrality in the Russo 
Turkish war. 

Dec. 12. New ministry under 
Jules Simon. 



1874 

Feb. 13, King of Ash- 
antee makes peace. 

Feb. 22. Bishop of Per- 
nambuco condemned 
to 4 years 1 imprison- 
ment for disobedi- 
ence to law. 

Feb. 26. Insurrection 
at Nagasaki, Japan. 



1875 

Apr. 5. Island of Sag- 
halien ceded by Ja- 
pan to Russia. 

May 18. Seven Chilian 
towns of 30,000 popu- 
lation, destroyed by 
an earthquake. 



1876 

Jan. 31. Andrassy note presented to 
Turkey, suggesting reforms. 

March 20. Triumphal entry of Al- 
fonso into Madrid, the Carlist in 
surrection being suppressed. 

May 6. Assassination of French and 
German consuls at Salonica in Tur- 
key. 

May. Risings in Bulgaria, cruelly 
put down by Turks. 

May SO. Sultan Abdul-Aziz deposed ; 
Murad V. succeeds. 

July 9. Turkey repudiates payments 
on public debt until better times. 

Aug. 31. Sultan Murad deposed ; Ab- 
dul Hamid II. succeeds. 

Nov. 1 . Six weeks' armistice between 
Turkey and Servia. 



1876 

Feb. 20. Khokand an- 
nexed to Russia, as 
Ferghana. 

July 17. Gen. Canal 
president of Hayti. 

Oct. 31. Terrible cy- 
clone in Bengal ; im- 
mense loss of prop- 
erty and life. 

Dec. 10. Baez, Presi- 
dent of St. Domingo. 



916 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



Pbogeess or Society. 



United States. 



Beitish Empibe. 



1876 



1877 



1876 



1877 

Deaths, 1877: Tayler 
Lewis ; J.. L. Mot- 
ley ; Gen. Changar- 
nier ; Dr. Muhlen- 



1876 

Nov. 7. Presidential election ; Hayes and 
Wheeler chosen by 185. to 184 for Tilden 
and Hendricks. 

1877 

Jan. IT. S. Government commission report 
Darien canal practicable. 

Jan. Extradition treaty signed with Spain. 

Jan. 8. Two governors (Nicholls and Kellogg) 
inaugurated in Louisiana); Kellogg main- 
tained by U. S. troops. 

Jan. Fourteen fishing schooners, overdue at 
Gloucester, Mass., given up for lost with all 
on board. 

Jan. Moody and Sankey opened meeting in 
Boston. 

Apr. 10. XJ. S. troops evacuated South Caro- 
lina state house ; Gov. Chamberlain has to 
yield to Hampton. 

Apr. 24. IT. S . troops evacuate state house at 
New Orleans ; Kellogg government yields to 
Nicholls. 

June 6. Civil suit against P. B, Sweeney com- 
promised for $400,000. 

June 29. Pres. Hayes's letter prescribing 
that national office-holders must not be 
managing party officials, nor be assessed for 
party expenses. 

July. Anlndian war under chief Joseph breaks 
out in Idaho. 



1876 



1877. 

July2-9. Pan-Presby- 
terian conference 
at Edinburgh, 



1867-1877.] 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



917 



A.D. 


Pbanoe. 


Europe, elsewhere. 


Wobld, elsewhere. 


1876 


1876 


1876 


1876 


1877 


1877 


1877 


1877 






Jan. 18. Turkey rejects proposals of 


Peb. Diaz is in posses- 






the European powers. 


sion of power in 






Jan. 23. New Turkish constitution 


Mexico ; ex-president 






proclaimed. 


Lerdo escapes to San 






Apr. 24. Russia declares war against 


Francisco. 






Turkey, and enters Roumania. 


May 9. Great earth? 






May 21. Jubilee at Rome, 50th anni- 


quake and tidal wave, 




/ 


versary of Pope's episcopate. 


coast of Peru; loss, 






June. Russians cross the Danube at 


$20,000,000 and 600 






Galatz ; 25, at Hirsova. 


lives. 






July 6. Over 120,000 Russians have 








crossed at Sistova. 








July. The German quarrel with Rome 








has caused the deposition of 4 bish- 








ops and 6 archbishops; expulsion 








of 600 persons (120 priests) from 
Cologne alone ; vacancy of 476 
parishes in 7 bishoprics alone. 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 

TO 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 



N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended 
to include every name mentioned in history, hut merely the most important in their 
several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full 
lists are given in their proper place. 

This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . 

First, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World's 
Progress ; " and 

Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- 
temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. 

Tims : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. c. The tables 
on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' 
life. 

Milton was born a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; 
six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended 
the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in Germany ; one year 
before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden ; two years before Louis XIII. became 
king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he 
was 17 when Charles L succeeded JameB, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- 
headed. Among his contemporaries were Lord Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, 
Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Dryden, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in 
England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Wiuthrop, Cotton.and Eliot, in America ; Richelieu, Mazarine, 
Colbert, Rubens, Kepler, Descartes, Moliere, Corneille, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. 
He died A. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London* 14 years after Charles II. 
was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. 

And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be 
found at a glance, on referring to the tables. 

Abbreviations. — See list in the Introduction. Bar. {Barbarian) includes several different 
nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. The dates before Christ 
are indicated by b. c. ; all others are k. d. In some cases the dates are necessarily left 
blank. 

NATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... 
Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest . . . 

Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician 

Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) 
Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . 
Amer. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist 
Amer. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . 
Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . . 

Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . . , 

Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . , . 

Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer . . , 

Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels . 

Nor. Abel, Nicholas H„ mathematician . , , 



BOKN. 


DIED. 


f. 1188 




c. 1570 


1453 


f. 022 




1813 


1854 


1562 


1623 


1763 


1849 


1803 




1805 




1806 


1886 


1822 




1810 


1856 


1804 


1844 


1802 





920 



THE "WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED 

Sp. Abenezra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &o. . 1119 1174 

Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary . , 1784 1860 

Aberc.-ombie, John, author of 'IntellectualPowers' . . 1781 1S44 

Aberoromby, Sir Ralph, military commander . . 1738 1801 

Abernethy, John, eminent physician and medical writer , 1764 1831 

Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics . . 1606 1664 

Aboul, Edmond, novelist, traveller, &c. ... 

Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation . B. c. 1995 b. o. 1821 

Abrantes, duchess d', biographer .... 1784 

Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. 1128 

Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . . 561 

Abulfuda, the geographer .... 1273 

Accius, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) . b. 0. 171 
Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . . . 

Accum, Fred., operative chemist (in England) . . . 1769 
Pruss. Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 

Gr. Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. o. 1100 

Gr. Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 3d cent. 

Ital. Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher . . . 1803 

Gr. Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 

Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author . . 1741 

Adam, Robert, an architectural author . . . 1728 

Amer. Adams, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. . . 1735 

.A. me r. f John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. . 1767 

^ me r. f Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic . 1726 

Eng. Add'son, Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 1672 

Adelung, John C, philologist and lexicographer . . 1732 

Adolphus, John, author of history of England, &c. . . 1766 

A drain, Robert, mathematician (at Now York, &c.) . . 1775 

Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) ... 76 

jElfrit, archbishop of Canterbury, author cf Anglo-Saxon works 

uElian, the historian and rhetorician , . 160 
JSneas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . . f. b. o. 11S3 
iEschines, of Athens, philosopher, disciple of Socrates . 

. , orator . . . i 



Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng 

Fr. 

Er. 

Jew. 

Fr. 

Dan. 

Ara. 

Syr. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

G*r. 



Eng. 



Ger. 

Eng. 

Ire. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 



1838 

1203 

624 

1S45 

1229 
1S3,8 
1834 



1232 
1809 
1794 
1826 
1848 
1808 
1719 
1806 
1845 
1843 
138 
10C5 



JBsop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulists . . 

iEtius, military commander (defeated Attila) . . 

Africanus, Julius, historian .... 

Sp.Moor -, Leo, author of travels in Africa . . . 

Gr. Agamemnon, "the king of kings" ... 

9r. Agathius, historian and poet . . . . f 

Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist .... 

!3t. Age6ilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 

Icot. Aginkard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne . . 

3t. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings ... 

Sng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible . , 

lom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander ... 
&er. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomianu . . 

Rom. Agrippa, military commander, governor of Judea . . 

£r. , Cornelius, philosopher, <fcc. ... 

E. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist ..... 

Pers. Abasuerus, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) . . 



b. o. 393 b. o. 
f. b. o. 600 



323 



1487 



1807 



771 



40 
1490 

40 
14S6 
1816 



454 

232 

1526 

B. o. 904 

565 

b. o. 361 

839 
251 

1610 
93 

1566 



1535 
1847 
B. c 456 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDE2 



921 



BATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Aikiii, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, &c. 

Eng. , Lucy, biographer and historian , ' . 

Fr. Aime-Martin, Louis, writer on education . 

Eng. Ainsworth, Robert, grammarian, and lexicographer , 

Eng. ■ , Wm. -Francis, traveller, geologist, &o. » 

Eng. , Wm. Harrison, novelist , , 

Eng. Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal . . , 

Tartar. Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign . , 

Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet . . , 

Swe. Akenblad, philologist • •''«■« 

Bar. Alario I., king of the Visigoths . . . 

Span. Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman . . 

Eng. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir to the British throne 

Ger. Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England . 

Ital. Alberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c. 

G-er. Albertus-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas 

Bar. Alboin, the Lombard conqueror . . . 

ital. Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer 

Port. Albuquerque (the great) military commander . 

Gr. Aleseus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet 

Ital. Aiciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author . 

Gr. Alcibiades, a famous Athenian general and statesman 

Gr. Alciphron, author of Letters, &c. 

Amer. Alcott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist 

Amer. - --■ ' , Wm. A., writer on education and philosopher 

'jSng. Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, &c. 

Amer. Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony . 

Eng. Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . 

Aldus, see Manulius .... 
Alembert, John Le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher 
Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling 

, Archibald, theologian and author . 

, J. Addison, theologian and commentator 

, James W., theologian ... 

. , Severus, emperor 

the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire 



Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Bar. 

Rus. 

Rus. 

Rus. 

Srr. 

ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Bar. 



-, Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, 

-, I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 

-, II., (became emperor 1855) . . 



Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East . 

Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . . . 

Alfred, justly called the Great, king . 

Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic . . 

J i Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks 

Ali Tepelini, pasha of Jannina . . . 

Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste' 

, Archibald, sir, ' History of Europe,' ' Essays • 

Allen, Ethan, an intrepid officer in the Revolution . 

, Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary . 

Alleyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) 
Allston, "Washington, painter and poet . 

Almamon, caliph, patron of learning . . 

39* 



f. B. 



BORN. 

747 



1660 
1S07 
1805 
1801 
1555 
1721 



1661 
1641 
1819 
1398 
1205 

1826 
1452 

c. 606 
1492 

c. 450 

f. 170 

1799 

1798 

732 

1598 



1717 
17S3 
1772 
1S09 
1S04 

209 
B. C. 356 
1218 
1777 
1818 
1048 
1749 

849 
1712 
1728 
1744 
1757 

• 

1737 

1784 
1566 
1779 



DIED. 

1623 



1849 
1743 



1608 
1770 
1819 
411 
175' 

1861 
1490 

1280 
574 

1515 

1550 

3. 404 



804 

1687 

709 

1783 

1S51 
1860 
1859 

235 

3. 323 

1262 

1825 

1118 

1803 
900 
1769 
1773 
1822 
1839 
1867 
1789 

162« 
1843 



THE WORLD'S PROGRES3. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bai. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning . , 

Eng. Almon, John, political writer . . , , 

Mex. Almonte, Juanet, general and statesman . . 

Span. Alphonso X., king of Castile, Leon, and author . . 

Port. Alphonso I., Henriques, founder of the Portuguese monarchy 

Amer. Alsop, Richard, poet and linguist . . . 

Eng. Althcrp, Viscount, statesman and book collector 

Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander 

Mex. Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution . , 

Ger. Amalie, duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet • . 

Jew. Amaziah, king of Judah ...» 

Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author ... 

Ital. Americus Vespucius (of Fiorence), explored the S. American 

coast ...... 

Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator . . 

Amer. , Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder . 

Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com. in America, &c . 

Rom. Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian . . . 

Ger. Amnion, Christ. F. von, Protestant theologian • 

Gr. Am monius, a peripatetic philosopher . . 

Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ' Jno. Buncle' 

Fr. Ampere, Jean J., traveller and essayist 

Fr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher 

Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch 

Bar. ^.nacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon 

Gr. Anacreon, a celebrated poet ... 

Gr. Anastasius I., envperor of the East . . 

Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher .... 

Gr. Anuxarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b 

Gr. Anaximauder, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher . 

Gr. Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher • 

Fr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . . 

Pruss. Ancillon, J. P. F., historian and statesman . . 

Dan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist . 

Scotch. Anderson, Adam, commercial writer . . . 

Eng. , Sir Edmund, a judge and author . 

Swe. Andersson, Ghas. John, explorer in Africa . . 

Fr. Andral, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . 

Eng. Andre, John, British officer in American war . . 

Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of "Winchester . 

Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher, . 

Ajuer. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works 

Esg. Anglesey, Henry "W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . 

Fr. Angouleme, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVI. . 

Ital. Anielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo), a fisherman of 

Naples, who rose to great power . . 

Gr. Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian 

Aust. Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France . 

Eng. Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. , . 

j£ng. Annet, Peter, a deistical writer . . . 

Car. AnnibaL, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginkm general . 

Fr. Anquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author , 



BOKN. 


DIED 


. 712 


773 


1728 


1803 


six 180) 




1203 


1284 


1094 


1185 


1761 


1815 


1758 


1834 


1508 


1582 


1790 




1794 




. B. 


c. 809 


340 


387 


1451 


1517 


1750 


1808 


1803 


1847 


1717 


1797 




30"' 


1766 


185, 


. B. 


c. 24 


1719 


1789 


, 1800 


1884 


1775 


1836 


1513 


1593 


B. O. 592 




• B 


c. 474 




518 


B. 0. 500 B. 


0. 428 


b. c. S40 




B. 0. 611 B 


O. 547 


B. 


o. 504 


1794 




1767 


1837 


18&5 




1692 


1765 




ieo5 




1856 


1797 




1751 


17S0 


1555 


16-6 


'. B. C. 63 




1794 


1857 


1768 


1854 


1778 


1851 


1623 


1646 


1083 


1148 


1604 


1066 


1500 


1533 


1703 


1778 


B. O. 247 a. 


0. 183 


173L 


1903 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



923 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, a learned divine 

Eng. Anson, George, lord, celebrated naval commander 

Eng. Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs • 

Irish. Ai-Ster, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' 

Amer. Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author . 

Egypt. Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions 

Ital. , of Padua, a divine . . . 

Mace. Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great 

Mace. Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great 

Gr. Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics 

TfcaL Antonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. 

Rom. Antoninus Pius, emperor 

Bom. , Marcus Aurelius, emperor, surna3„ei. the philosopher 

Bom. Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman 

Pers. Anveri, a celebrated poet .... 

Er. Anville, Jean B. d', geographer . . . 

Bom. Apicius, the name of three Roman epicures . . 

Egypt. Apion, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews 

Gr. Apollodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen 

Gr. Apollonius, surnamed Rhodius, a poet . . . 

Gr. , Pergamensis, a geometrician . . 

Gr. , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher . 

Gr. Appian, an historian . . „ . 

Amer. Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian 

Bom. Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer . . 

Ital. Aquinas, St. Thomas, a celebrated theologian 

Fr. Arago. Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman . . 

Eng. Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for murder 

Gr. Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman . . 

Scotch. Arbuthnot, John, Dr., a poet .... 

Gr. Archelaus, Ionic philosopher . . . . 

Gr. Archius, a poet ..... 

Gr. Archilochus, a poet ..... 

Gr. Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician . . 

Gr. Archytas, a mathematician .... 

It J. Aretino, Guide, inventor of the gamut of music . 

Ital. > Leonard, an historian .... 

ItaL , Peter, a satirist .... 

Eng. Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-governor of Virginia 

Pruss. Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . 

Span. Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet . . 

Span. , Bartholomew, historian . . 

Scotch. Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman . 

Ital. Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . 

Mex. Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . . 

Gr. Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher 

Gr. — , grammarian and critic ... 

Gr. Aristides, an Athenian statesman . . . 

Gr. , ^Elius, an orator and sophist . . 

Gr. , one of the fathers of the church . . 

Gr. Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher, founder of the Cyreniacs f. b. o. 392 

Gr. Aristomenes, a warrior and patriot . . . . f. B. o. 662 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1033 


1109 


1697 


1763 


1750 


1828 


1793 




1797 


1867 


251 


356 


il£5 


1231 


. 


JJ. C. 301 


. 


B. C. 319 


B. 0. 423 




1806 




86 


161 


ber 121 


180 


B. c. 86 


B. c. 30 


. 


1201 


1697 


1782 


A. D. 


1st cent. 


f. 80 




B. C. 5th to 2d cent. 


B. o. 194 




£, b. o. 242 






9? 


f. 143 




n . 1772 


1819 


A. D. 


2d cent. 


1224 


1274 


1786 


1853 


1705 


1759 


B. c. 273 


B. c. 21T 


. 


1735 


f. B. O. 450 




f. b. c. 719 




f. b. c. 685 




b. o. 2S7 


b. c. 212 


B. c. 408 


b. o. 360 


995 




1369 


1414 


1192 


1556 


ia 1572 


339 


1779 




1565 


1613 


1566 


1631 


1678 


1743 


1474 


1533 


1802 


1855 


f. B. O. 280 




B. o. 160 




B 


. O. 467 


129 


185 


f. 127 





924 



THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 



KATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Gr. Aristophanes, an Athenian comic puet . . 

Gr. Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics 

Gr. Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect 

Span. , Houtanus, Benedict, orientalist . 

Eng. Ark-wright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 

Fr. Ariincourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist 

Ger. Arminius, the deliverer of Germany . . 

Dutch. , James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect 

Eng. Armstrjig, John, M D., poet 

Anier. , John, general, statesman, and historian 

Ital. Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour . 

Jr. , Francis Baculard, dramatist and poet . 

Eng. Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer . 

Gr. Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . . 

Pruss. Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist 

Ame) . Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to his country . 

Ital. , of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard 

Eng. , Matthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. . 

Eng. , Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologist 

Eng. , Thomas K., author of classical test-books . 

Scot. Arnott, i.7iel, popular scientific writer . . • 

Gr. Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus . . . 

Eng. Arrowsmilh, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts . 

Bar. Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . . : 

Bar. Artaxerxes I., king of Persia . . . 

Bar. > founder of the new Persian kingdom . . 

Flem. Artevelie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader ' • 

Eng. Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . 

Amer Arthur, Timothy S., author of tales and essays 

Eng. Arundel, Thos. H., earl of, importer of tbe Arundelinn marbles 

Eng. Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States 

Eng. Ascban, -^oser, a learned writer .... 

Bar. Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . . 

Eng. Ashb-arion, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . 

Amer. Ashmun, John K., jurist, professor of law . 

Eng. Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield . 

Gr. Aspasia, the accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . 

Eng. Asser, John, historian .... 

Ger. Ast, George A. F., philologist, 'Lexicon Platonicum' 

Ger. Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York . 

Amer. A u chison, David X., senator, United States, from Missouri 

Gr. Athanasius, St., OLe of the fathers of the church . . 

Gr. Athenagoras, philosopher .... 

Gr. Athenais, Empress o^ the West and authoress, called also Eu 

doxia ..... 

Gr. Athenasus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . 

Bar. Attalus, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of 

parchment ..... 

Qr. — — — , Ehodius, mathematician . . . . I 

Eng. Atterbnry, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy 

Ziom. Atticns, a knight and author (works lost) . . 

Fi. Auber, D. F. 3 ., famous musical composer . . 



EOEN. 


BIBB 


C. 389 




0. 884 






439 


1527 


2598 


1732 


1792 


1789 


1856 




20 


1560 


1610 


1709 


1779 


1758 


1843 




1220 


1718 


1805 


1710 


1778 


f. 303 




1781 


1831 


1740 


1801 




1555 


1822 




1795 


1842 


1800 


1853 


1788 




f. 140 






1823 


c. 250 




B. 


o. 425 




1832 


472 


542 


1809 






1646 


1745 


1816 


1515 


1568 


B. 


c. 220 


1774 


1848 


1800 


1833 




15-1T 




f09 


'l778 


1°41 


1763 


1848 


1807 




296 


371 


£ 177 





f. 190 



. 173 
1662 
. 109 

1784 



B. o. IjS 



1731 
b. O. 32 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



925 



RATION. 

Swiss. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Fr. 
G. Jew. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Aubigne' J. H. Merle d', historian of Reformation . 
Auckland, William, lord, statesman • 

Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . • 

Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, mil. com . 

Auerbach, Berthold, novelist . . . 

Augustine, St., a celebrated father of the church 



-, the Apostle of the English — 1st archbishop of Cante/bory 



Rom. Angustulus Romulus, the last emperor of the West . 

Rom. Augustus, Caius Julius Csesar Octavins — 1st emperor 

Aurungzebe, last Mogul emperor in India . , 

Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet . . . 

Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist . , . . 

Eng. , Sarah, essayist and translator . 

Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas 

Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus — republican — military commander 

Axa. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . 

Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York 

Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physician and author . 

Eng. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &o. 

Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist 

Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic writer 

Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author 



BORN, 


UBi', 


1794 




, 


1K1J 


1797 


Ida 


1757 


1816 


1512 




354 


430 


te.'Vjtry 


604 


. 


476 


a. o. 63 


14 


. 1018 


1707 




394 


1775 


1817 


(abt) 1800 




s . 


1836 


17*3 


1800 


. 


119T 


1797 




&80 


1037 




1804 


1813 


1865 


1736 


1845 


. 178°. 


1866 



Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist 

Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N. agrarian and socialist author 

Port. BacceUar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . 

Gr. Bacchylides, lyric poet . . . . £ 3 

Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer 

Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian 

Eng. BacK, Geo. Cnpt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 

Amer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . 

Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . . 

Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher 

Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge 

Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t 

man ...... 

Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature . 

Eng. Baffin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay , 

Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . . . 

Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. . 

Eng. , Nathan, a grammarian and lexicographer . . 

Eng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . . 

Eng. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist . . 

Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . . 

Boot. , Matthew, physician and anatomist . 

Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo' 

lution ..... 

Enf. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician 

Amer. Bainbridge, William naval commander . (Princeton) 



. 27-50 




1734 


1797 


1724 


1806 


3, O. 450 




1806 


1867 


1790 




1796 




1724 


1806 


1802 




1214 


1292 


' t03- 




1561 


1626 


1735 


1804 


1584 


1622 


179? 




L.-1 


1857 




1742 


178V 




r 1649 


1706 


1762 


1351 


1761 


1823 


1736 


1793 


1774 


1344 


on) 1774 


1^3 



92G 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IT A3 ION, 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Tark. 

Amor. 

I'ial. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Scot. 

Boot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Swe. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Turk. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ivish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Amer. 



> NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. 

Baird, Rohert, D. D., author of travels . , , 1798 

— — , Sir David, military commander . . . 1757 
Baja-.ct, sultan— conquered by Tamerlane • . . 
Baker, Edward D, U S. senator and general . (Ball's Bluff) 1811 

Balbi, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer . 1782 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America . 
Baldwin, who became emperor of the East • . 

Balfe, \/m. Michael, musical composer . . . 1808 

Baliol, intriguing rival of Robert Bruce . . » 1259, 

Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott . 

Ballou, Hosca, universalist minister and author . . 1771 

Baltimore, Geo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland . 1582 
Baltic, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XL . • 

Balzac, Honore" de, novelist ... 1799 

Bancroft, George, historian of the U. S., secretary of navy, &c. . 1800 

Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . • 1596 
Banim, John, novelist ..... 1800 
Bangs, Nathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 
Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 

Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Royal Society . 1743 

Baraguay d' Hilliers, Achille, marshal of France . . 1795 

Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . . . 1782 

Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age . 1721 

Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer . 1743 

Barbarossa, the celebrated corsair, usurper of Algiers . . 

Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army . • 1751 

Barbeyrac, John, miscellaneous writer . . 1674 

Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . . Va. 1775 

Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Court . Va. 1783 

Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 

Baretti, Joseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &c. . 1716 

Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist—' Ingoldsby Legends' 1788 
Barker, Joseph, noted financier .... 1779 

Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet ... 1756 

Barnard, Henry, distinguished educator . . . 1811 

Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. . 1798 

, Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar ... 1654 

, Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . . 

Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . . 

Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 

Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution 
Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America 
Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author . 
Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) 

, Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . 

•, Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . 



Barry, John, the first American commodore 

, Sir Charles, architect of houses of parliament 

, W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . 

Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . . 

Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &c. 
Bartlett, John R., author of explorations, &c . 



1547 
1759 
1755 
1726 
1767 
1768 
1630 
1764 
1745 
1795 
Va. 1785 
1821 
1716 
1805 



DIED 

1863 
1829 
1413 
1861 

1517 
1206 

1314 

1833 
1852 
1632 

1850 

1641 
1842 
1862 

1820 



1740 
1825 
1518 
1783 
1728 
1842 
1841 
1690 
1789 
184? 

1812 



1712 
1818 
1619 
1818 
1829 
1802 
1831 
1851 
1667 
1848 
1803 
1860 
1836 

179S 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



927 



RATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Barllett, Josiab, statesman, gov. N. n., &o. . . 

Eng. , Win. H., artist and author . . . 

Amur, Barton, Benj. Smith, M. L\, a learned physician and botanist 

Eng. , Bernard, the Quaker poet . . . 

Amer. Bartram, John, an eminent botanist . . , 

Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . . 

Eng. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher . 

Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, historian - . . 

Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman 

Fr. Bastial, Frederick, political economist . . . 

Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . . 

Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, . 

Eng. Bath, "William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . , 

Eng. Bathurst, earl of, statesman, friend of Pope, &c. . . 

Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer 

Hung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statesman . . . 

Hung. , Lnjos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) . 

Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity . 

Ger. Baur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . 

Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author , , 

Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . . 

Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer . 

Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... 

Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist and historian 

Fr Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's D 

tionary') ..... 

Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . . . . 

Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet ... 

Fi. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland . 

Fr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com. 

viceroy of Italy, &c. .... 

Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . . 

Fr. Beaumont. E'ie de, mineralogist and geologist . . 

Eng. , Francis, dramatic writer . . . 

Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent grammarian . . 

Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher . 

Ital. , Marquis, professor of political economy and author 

Amer. Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist . . 

Amer. , Theo. Romeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . 

Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman . 

Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (' Vathek') . 

Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &c. . . 

Fr. Becquerel, Antoine Ca?sar, natural philosopher 

Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian 

Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator . 

Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • • 

Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (son of Lyman) . . 

Amer. , Henry "Ward, theologian and politician . • 

Amer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . . 

Eng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral. Arctic voyager . , 

Prnt.8 Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) 

Ger. Beethovsn, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer . 



JORN. 


DIED. 


1729 


1795 


1809 


1854 


1766 


1815 


17*4 


1849 


r.-i 


1777 


326 


379 


1706 


1775 


1653 


1723 


1758 


1839 


1%1 


1850 


1790 




17*8 


1864 


1662 


1764 


1684 


1775 


1713 


1780 


1307 


1854 


180:1 


1849 


18UV 




1792 




1615 


1691 


1476 


1524 


1767 


1815 




1627 


1694 


1738 


1647 


1706 


1797 


1839 


1735 


1803 




1837 


',70 


1824 


1733 


1799 


17 »8 




1^55 


1616 


l'<_4 


1789 


1716 


1781 


1735 


1793 


1800 


1853 


1791 


1855 


1119 


1170 


1760 


1844 


1739 


1811 


1788 




672 


735 


1793 


1834 




1435 



1796 


1856 


1800 


1833 


1770 


1821 



928 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Behaim, or Beliem, navigator and geographer • « 

Fr.g. B-jhn, Aphra, dramatic writer . . • 

Rr/.ss. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator • • 

Gcr. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . • 

Eng. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator . . 

Rem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror . 

Ital. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philanthropic 

Amer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . 

Scot. Bell, Henry, first successful steam navigator in Europe . 

Amer. , John, statesman . . • • 

feco,. , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist . ■ 

Scot. , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . . 

Arcer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author . 

Ita... Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 

Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet . ... . . 

Fr. Beideisle, count de, military commander . . . 

Eng. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . 

Ital. Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . . • 

Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Unitarian clergyman and author . 

Eng. Beloe, Win., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c, 

Er. Belcn, William, naturalist and traveller . 

Eng. Belstim, William, historical, political and miscellaneous writer 

Ital. Balzoni, the -celebrated traveller in Egypt . . 

Pol. Bern, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria « 

Ital. Bern! o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature • 

Eng. Bemb , T , John, a gallant admiral . a 

Ital. Benedict, (St., one of the originators of monasteries . 

Ital. , XIII., pope, theological writer . . , 

Ital. , XIV., " " "■•■'. 

Fr. Benezet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (diedin America' 

Ger. Bengal, Jobann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist 

Eng. Bengsr, Elizabeth Ogiivy, author of historical memoirs . 

Amer. Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer andjournalist . . 

Sp. Jew , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East . < 

Bar. Bentidad, king of Syria .... 
Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist ■ . • 

Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . . 

Eng. 3entham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , 

Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar , 

Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • . 

Fr. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . . 

Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist . . 

Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria 

G-3r. Berghaus, Henry, mathematician and geographer . . 

Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal . . 

BeL Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . 

Irkfi. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher 

im3r. , William, governor of Virginia ... 

Fr. Berlioz, Hector, musical composer ... 

Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. 

Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author . . 

Amer. , Francis, governor of Massachusetts . . 



BORN. 

1459 
1640 
16S0 
1T85 
1799 

1808 
1744 
1767 
1797 
1763 
1781 
1719 
1542 
1528 
1684 
16i4 
1808 
1814 
1756 
1518 
1752 
1778 
1795 
1470 
1650 
4S0 
1G49 
1675 
1713 
1687 
1778 
1809 



DIES, 

3506 
168P 
1741 



566 

1798 
1830 

1825 
1842 
1790 
1626 
1577 
17 M 

r72 

1 35 



1817 

1564 
1827 
1823 
1*5<3 
1542 
1702 
547 
1728 
1758 
1784 
1752 
1827 
1864 
1173 
B. c. 895 

1800 

1612 

1742 

1662 

1782 

178i 

li85 
c. 1st to 3d cent 

1797 

1735 17S4 

1802 

1684 1753 
1067 

1<03 

I" :34 1844 

1838 1697 
1779 



1C91 
1832 
1742 
1858 
1S57 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



929 



RATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dutch. Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author 

Fr. , St., preacher of Crusades and author . 

Fr. , Simon, engineer and military commander 

Amer. Berrien, John McPherson, U. S. Senator from Georgia 



Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

ItaL 

Ear. 

Eng. 



Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' 
in 11 vols. 4to ...... 

Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d son of Charles XL, (assassinated) 
, Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 



1J91 
1779 
1781 

1681 
1778 

1798 



Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 



Berryer, Pierre A., statesman .... 
Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 
Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist . . 

Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army 
Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Phillipsburg) 
Berzelius, John James, chemist .... 
Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer . . 

Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed at Lutzen) 
Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet , 

Betterton, Thomas, famous actor .... 
Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer , 

Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius' . 
Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver . 

Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer ... 

Fr. Bezout, mathematician .... 

ItaL Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author . . 

Gr. Bias, one of the seven sages .... 

Fr. Bichat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist • , 

Irish. Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatist .... 

Eng. Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer . . . 

Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy 

Eng. , John, an eminent Sociniau writer . . . 

Amer. , Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy . 

Amer. , " , financier and litterateur . . , 

Biela, William, baron von, astronomer . . 

Am-' 1 . Bigelow, John, medical writer .... 

Fr. Bignon, Louis E., historian .... 

Gr. Bion, pastoral poet .... 

Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniac) . . 

Fr. Biot, Jean B., mathematician .... 

Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 

Amer. Bird, Robert M., M. D., novelist .... 

Arner. Birr.3Y, James G., anti-slavery politician . . 

Fr. Biro: ., .'■ ike of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 

Eng. Bish .j, Sir Henry R., musical composer 

Amer. Bisseil, William H., governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 

Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer . . 

Fr. Bissot, John, a revolutionist and author . . . 

S^an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the 
name of tho Cid ..... 

Scot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . 

In.Am. BlacV Hawk, Indian Chief .... 

Eng. Bla-ekstone, Sir William, an eminent lawyer and author 



1790 
1753 
1748 
1778 
1670 
1779 
1784 
176.> 
1805 
17% 

ins 

1791 
1753 
2519 
1730 
1662 
: 606 
1771 
1733 
1786 
17S3 
1615 
1750 
1786 

;?82 

,187 
17;1 



1774 
1776 
1803 
1792 
1561 
1775 
1811 
1759 
1757 

1040 
1784 

1768 T 
1723 



DITID, 

1751 
ll'S 

li,3 



1-51 
1820 

1863 

'J.8J.5 
1823 
1*44 
17.34 



1815 
18S2 
1810 
1801 

1828 
1605 
1783 
1729 

1801 

1787 
1850 
1848 
1662 
1778 
1844 
1856 

1841 
C 300 
3, 240 
1862 
1841 
1854 
W? 
1603 
1855 

1805 
.1793 

LQS9 

1839 

1781 



930 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



HATION 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Prus. 

Ger. 

Swe. 

Brit 

Ital 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Colom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

SwIbs. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Black-well, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States 
Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician . . 

, Francis P., journalist and politician. » 

, Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers . 

, Robert, a divine and poet . . • 

Blake, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, &c. . 

Blake, Robert, a celebrated admiral . c 

Blanchard, Laman, essayist and journalist . . 

Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist 
Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur 
Bloomfield, E. V., classical scholar . . 

, Robert, a poet . . . • 

Blucher, a celebrated military commander . 

Blum, Robert H , publicist and politician . . 

Blumenback, John Fred., naturalist . . 

Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . 

Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy 
Boccalina, a satirist .... 

Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist 
Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . . . 

Bodley, Sir Thos., founder of library . 

Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • . 

Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist . . 

Boerhaave, one of the most eminentof modern physicians 
Boethius, a statesman and philosopher 
Bogatzky, Chas. Henry, theologian, (' Golden Treasury') 
Bohemond, a Norman adventurer . . . 

Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor 
Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') . 
Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . . 

Boissard, Jean J., fabulist • . . 

Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . . 

, d' Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 

Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., 
Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer 
Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . . 

Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of "Westphalia . 

, Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain . 

, Louis, ex-king of Holland . , 

, Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France and 

emperor .... 

, Lucien, Prince of Canino . . 

. , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon . 



, Napoleon, emperor of France , 

Bond, William C, astronomer 
Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants 
Bonnet, Charles, a celebrated naturalist 
Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician , 

. , John, " . 

Bonpland, Aime, traveller and botanist i 

Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian 

Boone, Daniel, the first settler in Kentucky 



BORN. 


hies. 


1821 




1718 


1800 


1791 




1821 




1699 


1777 


1788 


1857 


1599 


1657 


1S03 


1845 


1757 


1783 


1789 


1849 


1788 


1840 


1766 


1823 


1742 


1819 


1807 


1848 


1752 


1840 




61 


1313 


1373 


1556 


1613 


1509 


1567 


1530 


1596 


1544 


1612 


1575 


102+ 


1668 


1738 


455 


526 


1690 


1744 




1111 


1434 


1494 


1636 


1711 


1743 


1831 


1694 


1758 


1756 


1826 


1507 


1536 


1678 


1751 


1785 


1831 


1784 


1859 


1768 


1844 


1778 


1846 


1808 




1775 


1840 


1750 


1836 


1769 


1821 


1789 


1859 




1569 


1720 


1793 




1840 




1S21 




1840 


1796 


1852 


1730 


1823 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



931 



KAT10H. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. Bopp, Franois, Sanscrit scholar . . * 

Ital. Bregli, philosopher and mathematician • . 

Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian . 

Ital. Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools . 

Ital. Borgia, Caesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL 

Ital. , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI 

Ital. Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . , 

Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain ' • 

Fr. Bosc, Louis A. W., naturalist . . » 

Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral . 

Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer . 

Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France . . ' 

Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian . • 

Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . . 

Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . . . 

Eng. Boswell, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson . 

Eng. Bosworth, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer • 

Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . . 

Ital. Bottiger, archaeologist and antiquarian . . 

Amer. Botts, John Minor, politician ... 

Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution 

Amer. Boudinot, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist . 

Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author 

Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander • 

Fr. Boulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian • 

Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . . 

Fr. Bourcet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 

Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist . . , 

Fr. Bourdaloue, a noted preacher . . 

Fr. Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician . < 

Fr. Bourignon, Antoinette, a fanatical author . 

Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 

Fr. Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet . 

Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • , 

Fr. Bousmard, M. de, a military engineer • 

Fr. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist , , 

Ger. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' 

Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . . 

Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, <feo. 

Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. 

Amer. Bowdoin, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman 

Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 

Amer. Bowen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author 

Eng. Bowles, William Lisle, poet . . . 

Eng. Bearing, James, statesman, poet and linguist 

Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a poet . . • 

Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher • 

Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer . . . 

Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 

Irish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . . 

Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician . 

Amer. Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . . 



BORN. 


DISD. 


1731 




1507 




1781 




1736 


1S0J 


1608 


1679 


15th Cent. 


1538 


1584 


' 1803 




1759 


1828 


1711 


1761 


1711 


1787 


1810 


186- 


1627 


1704 


1730 


1814 


1676 


1732 


1710 


1795 


1788 




1766 


1837 




1835 


1802 




17SC 


1823 


1740 


1821 


1729 


1811 


1344 


1711 


1658 


1752 


1728 


1809 


1700 


1780 


1822 




1632 


1704 


1799 


1854 


1616 


1680 


1773 


1846 




1747 




1834 




1807 


1802 




1766 


1S28 


1787 


1851 


177S 


1838 


1754 


1825 


1727 


1790 


1752 


1811 


1811 




1762 


1850 


1792 




1562 


1601 


1719 


1804 


1667 


1729 


1776 


1850 


1626 


1691 


1680 


1776 


1757 


182* 



932 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NAIION. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ban. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

N.A.In, 

Fr. 

Mex 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Bwe. 

Bar. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eug. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amei. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Brace, Charles Boring, philanthropist and traveller 
Brcckenridge, Henry M., jurist and diplomatist 
Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia 
Bradford, Alden, author of History of Massachusetts ' 



-, Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686 
-, William, attorney-general of the U. S. . 
-, "William, first printer in Pennsylvania . 

-, "William, second governor of Plymouth eolony 



Bradley, Dr. James,. astronomer and mathematician 
Bradstreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley 
Bradwardine, mathematician and theologian , . 

Brady, Rohert, physician and historian . . 

Brahe, Tycho, a celebrated astronomer . • 

Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians . 

, J. G. C, a poet . . . . 

.Brant, Joseph (Thayendanega), a Mohawk chief . 
Brantome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler . 

Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . . 

Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . . . 

Breckinridge, John, D. D., theologian . . 

, John C, Vice-President TJ, S, . • 

, Robert J., D. D., Presbyterian theologian 

Breitkhcpf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-found 
Bremer, Fredrica, novelist . . . 

Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . . • 

Brewster, Sir David, natural philosopher . . 

, W'lliam, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims . 

Bridgewater, ~ ukeof, introducer of canals in England 

, L r r-ancis H. E., duke of, founder of 'Treatiser' 

Briggs, Charles F., novelist and journalist . . 

, Een-y, mathematician 

Brigham, Ariariah, writer on insanity and philanthropist 
Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. . . 

Brinvilliers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner • 

Brisson, Mathurin James, naturalist ... 
Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer 
Brockhaus, Fried. A., founder of the publishing house . 
Brodhead, John E., author of ' History of New York' 
Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. S., snrgeon and surgical author 
Broglio, due de, statesman .... 
Bronte, Anne, 'Acton Bell.' novelist . • 

, Charlotte, novelist .... 

•, Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist . 

Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . . 

, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak, and author . 

Brooks, Charles T., author of ' Translations from German ' 

; — , Erastus, journalist and politician. . . 

, James, journalist and politician . . 

, John, LL.D., governor of Massachusetts • 

, Maria, poet, (' Maria del Occidente ') . . 



Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' . 
Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist 





BORN. 


DIES 


• 


1826 
1786 




1 . 


1715 


1758 




1715 


1753 


in Phila 


.1686 


1742 




1755 


1795 


, 


1659 


175a 




1588 


1657 


. 


1692 


1762 




1612 


1672 


• 


1709 


1349 


. 


1546 


1661 




1718 


1747 


. 


1697 


1826 




1742 


1807 


. 


1540 


1614 




1692 


1854 


. (abt.) 1800 






1797 


isa 


• 


1821 
1800 




er . 


1710 


1794 




1802 


1865 


. f. B. 


0. 390 
1785 




. 


1560 


1614 




1736 


loC3 


. 


1756 


1829 


# 


1536 


1630 




1793 


1849 


• 


ien 


1676 


. 


1723 


18D8 




1771 


?.857 


• 


1772 
1814 


1623 


. 


17S3 


1862 


. 


1785 






1820 


la49 


. 


1816 


1855 




1818 


1843 


• 


1706 
1803 


1733 


• 


1813 
1815 




. 


1810 






1752 


1825 


. 


1795 


1845 




1723 


1789 


. 


1779 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



933 



KATIGJf, 

Irish. 

Ft. 

Fr, 

Fr. 

Ir.Am. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Pr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Russ. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Dutch 

Eng. 
Amer. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Brougham, John, actor and author . « • 

Bfougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist • * 

, Adolphe T., botanist, . . 

Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer . 

Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants 'Brown Brothers' 

, Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister 

, (Blackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist 

, Charles Brockden, a novelist . . . 



, Captain John, abolitionist and martyr . 

, Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet . 

, Goold, grammarian, . . 

, Henry Kirk, sculptor . . . 

— • , James, senator, minister to France . 

, James, eminent publisher (Boston) . . 

, John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer 

, John, a divine and author . . . 

, Major-Gene ral Jacob, general in war of 1812 

, Nicholas, principal patron Brown University 

, Robert, eminent botanist . . 

, Samuel, chemist and poet . . 

, Thomas, satirist, . . • . 

, Thomas, metaphysician . . 

Browne, George, count de, an officer in the Russian serv: 

, Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer 

, "William George, a traveller in Africa, &c. . 

Brownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut 
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, * • • 

, Robert, poet, .... 

Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer • • 

Bruce, James, a celebrated traveller . . • 

, Robert, the deliverer of his country • * 

Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . • • 

Brummell, George Bryan, 'Beau Brummell' . . 

Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . . . 

Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 
Brunei, Isambard K., engineer of Great Eastern, &c. • 

Brunei, Sir M. I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. . 

Brunet, Jacques Charles, 'Bibliographer's Manual' » 

Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order . . 

Brunnow, Baron, diplomatist .... 

BruDswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . 

, Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military cora 

mander ...... 

Brunton, Mary B., novelist, ' Discipline, ' &c. . 

Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government 

, Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar . . 

Bruyere, John de la, a celebrated writer . • 

, Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . . • • 

Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters' • 
Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary . 

, William Cullen, poet, traveller . 

Brydges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur , 



BOEN. 

1810 
1770 
1801 

1772 
1764 

1825 
1771 
1800 
1777 
1791 
1814 
1766 
1800 
1715 
1722 

1769 

1781 
1817 
1663 
1778 
1698 
1605 

1779 
1809 
1812 
1703 
1730 

i750 
1778 
1683 
1763 

iso: 

1766 



183? 

1801 

1810 
1859 
1820 

1857 

1835 
1855 
1766 
1787 
1828 
1S41 
185S 
1856 
1704 
1820 
1792 
1682 
1814 
1865 
1860 



179C 
1329 
1798 
1840 
1742 
1815 
1S53 
1845 

1444 



1377 
1797 

1721 1792 

1735 130S 

1778 1818 
B. C. 505 
B. c. 42 

1644 169? 

1652 

1757 "85fl 

1715 1804 

1794 

1762 1837 



934 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



?T!1I0S. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Fr. Buat Kancay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer . 
Fr. Bucer, Martin, one of the fathers of the Reformation 
Ger. Buch, Leopold von, geologist . • • 

Scot. Buchan, William, a physician and author . • 

Sect. Buchf.nan, Claudius, a divine . . • 

Sect. , George, an eminent writer . . 

Amer. , James, 15th president of the United States . 

Eng. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, statesman . 

Eng, , George Villiers, son of the former , 

Eng. — , James Silk, traveller and author . 

Amer. — , Joseph T., journalist and author , . 

Eng. Buekland, Wm., D. D., geologist. . . 

Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian . . 

Amer. , Joseph S., author of ' Sermons,' &c 

Eng. Buckstone, John B., actor and playwright . . 

Amer. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . . . 

Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer . 
i?r. Buffon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist 
Pi'. Bugeaud, T. K., marshal of Prance . 
Ger. Buhle, J. G., ' History of Philosophy,' &c. . 

Eng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . . . 

Eng. , Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer 

.fci_or. , Ole, famous violinist .... 

SwL,s. Bullinger, reformer and author 

Amer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of educational works . 

Eng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer 

, (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist 

, Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Auet. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Ger. 



Buol-Schauenstein, K. P., count of, statesman . . 

Buc. on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian. 

Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim's Progress' . 

Burckhardt, John Charles, mathematician . . 

, John Louis, oriental traveller . 

Scot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanic . 

Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician . . . 

Ger. Brrger, G. A., poet .... 

Eng. f urges, Geo., Greek scholar ancl dramatist « . 

Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman ana orator 

Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological 

Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature ' . 

Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author 

Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer . 

Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . 

Ens'. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman . 

Da^-h. Burman, Peter, critic and editor . . 

Oe... Burmeister, Heiman, naturalist . . , 

Amer. Burnap, George W., clergyman and author 

E^ot. Burnes, Sir Ales., 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &c. 

Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian, Bishop cf Salisbury 

, Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and authoi . 

, John, engraver, painter, and critio , 



Scot. 
Amer, 
Eng. 
Eng. 



Burney, Charles, a doctor of music 



1191' 


1551 


1774 


1853 


1729 


1791 


1766 


1805 


1506 


1582 


1791 




1592 


1628 


. 1627 


1688 


1784 


1855 


1779 




1784 


1856 


1751 


1812 


1784 


1812 


1800 




1778 


1839 


1661 


1737 


1707 


1788 


1784 


1849 


. 1763 




. 1786 


1864 


1634 


1710 


1810 




1504 


1575 


1791 


1S64 


1803 




1807 




1797 




1791 


18(50 


1628 


1688 


1773 


1815 


1784 


1815 


1791 




1770 


1844 


1748 


1794 


1786 


1864 


1770 


1853 


il author 1756 


183 r ! 


1714 


1775 


. 


1792 


1730 


1797 


1694 


1748 


. 1520 


1598 


. 1668 


1741 


1807 




1802 


1859 


1805 


1841 


Y . 1643 


1725 


1776 


1858 


1784 




1726 


1814 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



935 



RATION. HAME AND PROFESSSON. 

Eng. Burney, Frances, (see Mme. d'Arblay), novelist • 

Eng. , James, admiral and author . . ■ 

Scot. Burns, a popular and national poet . . . 

Amer. Burr, Cul. Aaron, vice-president U. S. . . . 

Anier. Burritt, Elihu, ' the learned blacksmith ' and philanthropist 
Amer. Burroughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer . • 

Eng. Burton, Robert, author of the ' Anatomy of Melancholy' 

Eng. , Win. E., actor and author . . . 

Ger. Busching, Anthon Frederick, philosopher and geological writer 
Amer. Bush, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . 
Amer. Bushnell, Horace, D.D., theological and metaphysical author 
Mex. Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico . . 

Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier 
Irish. Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Saints' 

Amer. , Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina 

Amer. , Benj. F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general U. S. 

Amer. , Benj. E., major-general U. S. army in war for Union 

Eng. , Charles, Catholic historian and jurist 

Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author 

Eng. , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of " JEschylus,"&c. 

Eng. , Samuel, a humorous poet 

Amer. , Richard, colonel, an officer in the Revolution 

Amer. , "Win. Allen, poet . . . 

Amer. , Wm. O., statesman and general . . 

Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist . . 

Eng Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and philanth. . 
Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer 

Ger. , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer 

Amer. Byles, Mather, clergyman and author . 

Eng. Byng, Honorable John, admiral . • . 

Eng. Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet • 

Eng. , Honorable John, admiral . . . 

Eng. , Lady Noel, wife of the poet . . 



JOHN. 

1752 
1739 
1759 
1756 
1811 
1765 
1576 
1804 
1721 
1796 
1802 
1782 
•_ M 38 
1710 
1796 



1750 
1692 

1774 
1612 

1825 
1793 

1764 
1786 
1564 
1599 
1706 
1704 
1788 
1723 
1793 



CIFJ>, 

1840 
1820 
1793 
1838 

1S40 
1639 
I860 
1893 
1859 

1851 
1792 
1773 

1857 
1858 

183? 
175i 
1S4C 
1683 
1791 



1823 
1845 
1629 
1644 
1788 
1757 
1823 
1786 
I860 



C. 



Fr. Cabet, Etienne, communist . . . 

Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North America 

Eng. , Sebastian (son of John), navigator 

Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator • . 

Bpan. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 

Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator . . 

Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . . 

Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, &c. . 

Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles L., chemist and philosopher 

Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet . . . 

Amei Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . 

Rom. Coesar, Caius Julius, warrior, statesman, and author 

Ital. Cagliostro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . 

Fr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . • 

Fr. CaiDi, Ren6, ' Voyage a Timboucto,' &c. . • 



. 178S 


1858 


1477 


1557 


1500 




1810 




f. 1456 






1450 


1742 


1803 


1769 


1821 




6S0 


1743 


1786 


B 0. 100 B. 


O. 44 


1743 


1795 


1787 






1838 



936 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOH 

Ital. 
Gr. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Pers. 

3ng. 

Soot. 

Soot. 

Tort. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

Brit. 

Brit. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Cajetan, v.irdinal, diplomatist and author . 

Oalaber, Qlintus . • • 

Calamy, EJmund, Presbyterian divine and author . 
Calderon ce la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist 
Caldwell, Charles, eminent physician and author . 

, Rev. James, revolutionary patriot 

Calepino, Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 languages 
Calhcun, John C, senator of the United States 
Caligula, Roman Emperor . . . 

Calippu:;, astronomer and mathematician . 

Calixius, Geo., Lutheran theologian . . 

Callinacnus, a poet . . • . f. 

Calluienes, philosopher and historian . , • 

Ca'rnst, Augustine, an erudite divine and author ■ 

Cs/.ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author . . 

Ce.lonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state . 

Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation . . 

Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . . 

, Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 

Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist . 
Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. . . 

Cambyses, second king of Persia . . 

Camden, "William, an eminent antiquary and historian . 
Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronians 

, Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel 

Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country . 

Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author . 

Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect . . 

■ , George, a divine and author . . 

, John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &o. 

■ , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich 

, John, lord chancellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancellors 

, Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c, Lord Clyde 

■ , Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch,' &c. 



Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . • 

Campiston, John G. de, dramatist . . . 

Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian . . 

Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . • 

Canrobert, Franc. C, general in Crimea . . 

Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher . • 

Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' the Great ' 
Carefiguc, A. H. A., historian . 

Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . < • 

Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . • • 

Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1827-31 . • 

Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . . 

Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson. . 
Caractacus, prince of the Silures, a brave warrior. . 

Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain . . 

Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 
Cardigan, J. P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava 
Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist . . 





BORN. 


DIED 


1510 


1593 


£ 


250 


1600 


1666 


1600 


1687 


1772 


1853 


1734 


1781 


1435 


1511 


1782 


1850 


12 


41 


b. c. 330 




1588 


1656 


B. C. 150 




B. 


ft. 328 


1672 


1757 


1699 


1768 


1734 


1802 


1509 


1623 


1803 






1676 


1753 


1824 


1774 


1850 


» b 


0. 521 


1551 


1623 




16B0 




1719 




1517 


1579 




1752 


1822 




1792 






1709 


1796 




1708 


1775 




1678 


1743 




1778 


1861 




1791 


1863 




1777 


1844 




1722 


1789 




1656 


1723 




1610 


1688 




1770 


1827 




1809 






1805 






995 


1035 




1799 






1713 


1781 




1754 


1810 




1776 


1831 




188 


217 




1770 


1799 


(i 


ilt.) 100 






250 


293 




1501 


1576 




. 1797 






1720 


1783 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



937 



NATION. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Ital.* 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Span. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gua. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Port. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Rus. 

Rus. 

Span.E 

Span. 

Eng. 

It. Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PEOFESSION. 

Carfime, Mark Antony, famous cook . • 

Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars' 
Carew, Thomas, poet . . • . 

Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales . . 

, Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . • 

, Henry C., political economist . , 

, Matthew, philanthropist, publisher, &c. . 

, William, missionary to India . . 

Carissimi, James, musical composer . • . 

Carleton, Wm., novelist . . , 

, Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 

Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author 

Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author . 

, Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer 

Carlos, Don, son of Philip IL, (hero of Schiller's tragedy; 

, Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . 

Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico , 

Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times * . 

, Thomas, historian and metaphysician . 

Cameades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy, 
Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . 

Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author . 

, "Wm. B., physiologist . . . 

Carrel, Armand, historian and metaphysician . 

Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . . 

Carroll, Chas., last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. 
Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator . . 

, Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . 

Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . . 

Carus, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology . 
Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony . 

, Jonathan, traveller and author . . 

Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of ' Dante' . . 

Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian 
Cass, Lewis, statesman and diplomatist . , . 

Cassin, John, ornithologist . . . 

Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . 

Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian 
Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Caesar . 
Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer * 

Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . 

Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal . 
Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist , . . 

Catesby, Mark, naturalist . , . 

Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great . . 

II., empress the " Great " and the vicious 

, of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . . 

, of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England 

— — — — Howard, queen of Henry VIII. . , 

de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France . 

, Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIIL , 



Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator 

40 



BORN. 


"UBD. 


1784 


•.335 


16&3 


1773 


1589? 


16J9 


1822 




1596 


1661 


1793 




1760 


1839 


1761 


1822 


1600 


1673 


1798 




1724 


1808 


1720 


1795 


1802 


1884 


1768 


1840 


1545 


1568 


1788 


1855 


18- 




1721 


1805 


1795 




J. 218 b. 


o. 128 


1753 


1823 


1780 


1840 


18— 




1800 


1836 


1814 




1737 


1832 


1717 


1806 




1830 


1535 


1603 


1789 




1732 


1780 




1621 


1772 


1840 


1474 


1564 


1782 


1866 


1813 




1625 


1712 


470 


516 


B. 


0. 42 


1606 


1685 


1468 


1525 




1355 


1782 


1849 


1680 


1749 


1682 


1727 


1729 


1796 


1483 


1536 


1638 


1703 


1521 


1542 


1519 


1589 




1548 


B. 0. 63 



938 



THE WORLL S PROGRESS. 



HAT ION. 

Ft. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Eom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

ItaJL E. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

S"r. 

Eng. 

EQg. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Rom. 

Irish. 

Spun. 

Ital. 

ItaL 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr, 

Ger, 

Swe. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Catinat, Nicholas, military commander . . 

Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . 
Cato, Marcus Portius, the censor, statesman and author 

, Marcus Porcius, ofUtica, statesman . 

Catullus, Cuius Valerius, poet . . . 

Cauchy, Aug. Louis, mathematician . . 

Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist . 

Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the ' Holy Court' 
Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1S48 
Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. 
Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . . 

Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer . 

, Thomas, navigator . . . 



BORN. 

1637 



D1SD. 

1711 



B. 0. 
B. 0. 



232 b. o. 147 
95 B. o. 46 

S6 



Cavour, Camille di, count, Sardinian statesman 
Caston, William, the introducer of printing into England 
Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer . 
Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator . . 

Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . , , 

, Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman . . 

, Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman ... 

Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 



1780 
1773 
1583 
1802 
1749 
1691 
1505 
1564 
1809 
1410 
1720 
1752 
1748 
(abt.) 1550 
1520 
2d cent. 



1857 
1807 
1651 
1857 
1809 
1754 
41557 
1591 
1861 
1492 
1765 
1805 
1810 
1612 
1598 



Cecrops, 1st king of Athens .... (abt.) b. o. 1500 

Collini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music • . 1500 1570 
Colsus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated physician . f. 30 

, an Epicurean philospher . . • . f. 50 

Cenci, Beatrice, Roman maiden, tragically famed . . 

Censorius, a critic and grammarian . . . . f. 240 

Centlivre, Susanna, a dramatic writer ... 1667 

Cervantes-Saavedra, Michael, author of ' Don Quixote' . 1547 

Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . . 1783 

Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author • . • 1730 

Chalmers, Ales., ' General Biographical Dictionary,' &c. . 1759 

, George, miscellaneous writer . . . • 1744 

, Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist . 1770 

Chambers, Robert, publisher and author • . • 1802 

, Sir William, an architect ... 1726 

— , William, publisher and author . . . 1800 

Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 1820 

Chamisso, A. von, author of ' Peter Schlemihl,' <fcc. . . 1781 

Champollion, the younger, ' Monuments de PEgypte,' &c. 1790 

. Figeac, historian and antiquary . . . 1779 

Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer . . 1790 

, William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist 17S0 

, William Henry, Unitarian minister and author . 1810 

Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor .... 1781 

Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator . 1814 

Chapman, George, poetical translator ... 1557 

Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer ... 1727 

Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist ..... 1756 

Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France . 742 

Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &c. . . 1500 

Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . . • 1682 



1599 

1723 
1616 
1856 
1808 

1854 
1825 
1S48 

1796 



1832 

1856 
1842 

1841 

1634 
1801 
1832 
814 
1588 
176i 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



939 



JTATIiN. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Enj:. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender 

Fr. , J. A. C, natural philosopher . . , 

Ft. Charlevoix, Peter P. X., a Jesuit historian 

Amer. Chase, Philander, bisi.op of Prot. Epis. Church, Ohio . 

-iDier. , Salmon P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio 

Pr. Chasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous writer . 

Dutch. Chasse, David H., baron, military commander . . 

Pr. Chasteiet, Gabriel] e, marchioness, scientific author 

Pr. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author 

Fr. Chateaubriand, F. E., vicomte de, poet; statesman and traveller 

Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer . . 

Fr. Chatele';, I-'aiiL du Hay, lord of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) . 

Eng. Chatham, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman . . . 

Eng. Chatterton, Thomas, famed for precocious learning . 

Eng. Chaucer, Geoffrey, the father of English poetry . . 

Amer. Chauntsy, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College 

Amer. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . . 

Amer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist . , 

Amer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author • 

Eng. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist . 

Eng. Chesterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 

ItaL Cherubini, M. L. C, musical composer . . 

Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman . 

Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist, .... 

Amer. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works . . 

Eng. Chillingworth, Wm., theologian and author . , 

{•'■r. Chilo, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men . f. 

Amer. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . , 

Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . . 

Pol. Chlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . 

Amer. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator 

Fr. Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author 

Eng. Choules, John Overton, D. D., Baptist minister and author 

Swe. Christina, queen, (daughter of G. Adolphus) . 

Afnc. Christophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti • 

ijcr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher . . . B. ( 

Gr. Chrysostom, John, Christian father and orator . • 

Amer. Church, Benj., military commander and author . 

Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . . • 

Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet 

Rom. Cicero, Marcus Tullius, one of the greatest of orators . B 

ItaL Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer . 

Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general .... 

Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot . . f. B, 

Eom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius . f. b. 

Ital. Cirillo, Dominic, a botanist and physician . 

Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revol jtion 

Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician . . 

Amer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College • 

Scot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa . . 

Eng. Clare, John, poet ... f , 

Eng. Clarendon, G. "W. F., Villiers, earl of, statesman • 



BORN. 

1720 
1746 
1682 
1775 
1808 
1799 
1765 
1706 
1734 
1769 
1795 
1593 
1708 
1752 
1328 



1807 
1688 
1694 
1760 
1806 
1786 
1S02 
1602 
. 598 
1752 
1776 
1772 
1799 
1762 
1801 
1623 
1767 
280 
34-i 
1609 
1731 
1671 
105 
1754 

E 

456 

87 

1734 

1713 
1703 
178S 
1793 
1800 



DIES, 

178?. 

182* 
1761 
i3£.« 



1849 
1749 
1788 
1848 
1857 
?.63a 
1778 
1770 
1400 
1671 
1840 



1752 
1773 
1840 



1644 

1843 
1841 
1854 
1859 

1856 

1689 

1820 

207 

407 

1718 

1764 

1757 

c. 43 

1S01 

0. J49 



1799 
1818 
1765 
1767 
1827 



940 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amcf. Clark, Louis Gaylord, editor of ' Knickerbocker* . • 

Arif. , "Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist . 

Arrtr. , Wm., general, explorer of Rocky Mountains . 

Ei.g. Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commentator 

Eng. , Dr. Edward Daniel, traveller and mineralogist . 

Amer. Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author 

Eng. , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare 

Amer. , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' . . . . 

Eng. , Rev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Bible' . 

Eng. , Samuel D., f-heologian and philosopher • . 

Eng. , Sir James, medical author . . , 

Eng. Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist . • • 

Rom. Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... . 

Eng. Claverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee . 

Span. Clavigero, Francis X., historian of Mexico . . 

Amer. Clay, Cassius M., anti-slavery politician 

Amer. , Clement O, ex-senator of U. S. from Alabama . 

Amer. , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . , . 

Amer. Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist * 

Amer. Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state ■ • 

Gr. Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . . 

Amer. Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist . . 

Amer. Clemens, Jeremiah, U. S. senator from Alabama • 

Clement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes 

Gr. , of Alexandria, a ' father of the church ' . 

Gr. Clementi, Muzio, musical composer . . 

Gr. Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . . 

Ital. Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue • . 

Egypt. Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen . . . 

Swiss. Clerc, Jean le, theological writer . . • 

Fr. Am, , Laurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes . 

Amer. Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York . 

Amer. , James, general Amer. Rev. . . . 

Amer. , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U 

Eng. Olive, Robert, lord, military commander 

Fr. Cloquet, Hyppolite, (brother of Jules), anatomist . . 

Fr. Clot, or Clot-Bey, surgeon and medical writer in Egypt 

Amer. Cobb, Lyman, lexicographer and author . • . 

Eng. Cobbett, "William, political writer . • . 

Eng. Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer • • 

Eng. Gobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr . • 

Eng. Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander . • 

Eng. Codrington, Sir Edward, vice-admiral . , 

Eng. Coffin, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b. in Nantucket) . , 

Eng. Cogan, Thomas, physician and miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Ccke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . . . 

Fr. Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . . 

Amer. Coiburn, "Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &o. . 

Amer. , Zerah, precocious arithmetician . . 

Amer. Colden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c. 

Amer. f Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c 

2Png. Coleridge, Hartley, author and poet . . 



BORN. 


P1B1., 


1800 




. 1810 


1341 


1770 


1838 


. 1760 


1832 


1767 


1821 


1810 




,' &c. 1809 




1798 


1842 


1627 


1701 


1675 


1725 


1761 


1846 




B. c. 450 


1627 


1701 


1720 


1793 


1810 




1789 




1777 


1852 


. 1705 


1773 


1796 


185C 


. f. 260 




1780 


1.58 


1814 






220 




1832 


. f. 559 






B. 0. 442 




B. c. 30 


1656 


1736 


1785 




1769 


183 


1736 


1812 


r. S. 1739 


*$Vl 


1725 


177i 


1787 




1795 






1863 


1762 


1835 


1804 


1865 


1360 


1417 


1775 


1860 


1770 


1851 


1759 


1839 


1736 


1818 


1549 


1634 


1619 


1683 


, 1793 


1823 


1804 


1840 


1688 


1776 


1769 


.1834 


1797 


1819 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



941 



ffATIOH. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr- 

Eng. 

Eug. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amor. 

Eng 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Scot. 

! Scot. 

LFr. 

Mex. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Chin. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

It. Am 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Amer. 

Amer. 

E*»g. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Coleridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur . 

, Sarah, daughter of Samuel T., author 

, Samuel T., poet and metaphysician, . 

Coligui, Gaspard de, admiral . , 

Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral , . 

Collins, William, a popular poet . , 

Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) . 

, George, dramatic writer . . 

, George, (the younger), dramatist . 

Colombat, de l'Isere, medical writer . . 

Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer . 

, C. C, author of 'Lacon' . , 

, George H., author of ' Tecumseh,' &c. , 

-, Walter, Kev. author of voyages and travels 



BORN. 

(abt.) 1800 
1803 
177? 
1517 
1743 
. 1720 
1673 
1733 
1762 

(abt.) 1800 
1789 
1773 
1818 
1797 
1441 
1797 
1778 
1445 
1812 
1789 
1798 
1802 
1800 
1621 
1715 
1743 
1785 
B. c. 550 
1772 



Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America , 

Combe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer , 

, George, phrenologist and philosopher . . 

Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian . . 

Comonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mexico . . 

Comstock, John L., author of popular school-books . 

Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Positiveism " 

Conant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic . 

Concha, Jose de la, captain-general of Cuba . . 

Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon . . . 

Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer , 

Condorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician . 

Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman . . 

Confucius, a celebrated philosopher 

Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the ' Congreve rocket ' 

Conon, an Athenian general . . . 

Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet • . „ 181i 

Considerant, Victor, socialist philosopher . . 180f 

Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scott's poems, miscellany, &c. 1776 

Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician . , 1767 

Constantine, (the Great), the first Christian emperor . 274 

, VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author . 905 

, XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 1403 

Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a ' cabaler,' &c. . (abt. 

Conybeare, Wiliiam D., clergyman and geologist . 1787 

, William G. (son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul' 

Cook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818 

, James, a celebrated circumnavigator . . 1728 

Cooke, George F., an eminent actor . . . 1756 

, George Musgrove, ' History of Party' . . 1814 

, John Esten, novelist and poet ... 1830 

, Philip P,, poet ..... 1816 

, T. P., actor ...... 1786 

Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . 1792 

, James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 

, Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Institute 1791 

, Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . . 1725 

Sir Astley Faxton, physician and medic^■* "writer . 1768 



DIED. 

1843 
1852 
1834 
1573 
1810 
1756 
1747 
1784 
1838 

1857 
1832 
1847 
1851 
1506 
1847 
1858 
7509 

.858 
1857 



1688 
1780 
1794 
1855 

1828 

•3. 390 

1856 

1827 
i830 
337 
959 
1453 
1778 
1857 
1857 

1776 

1812 

1866 

18S0 

1864 
1853 
1851 

1783 

184! 



942 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



STATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Cooper, Thmnas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) 

Eng. , Thomas A., actor .... 

Irish. Ooote, Sir Eyre, commander in India . 

Pruss. Cope-nicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the 

.?ytbagorean system of the universe . . 

Eng. Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lyndhurst (born in Boston, U. S.) 

Fr. Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution 

Ger. Corlnna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth century before Christ 

Bom. Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior . 

Fr. Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer 

Ital. Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance 

Eng. Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York . 

Fr. Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . 

Fr. , Thomas (brother of Peter), poet and dramatist 

Fr. Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian 

Eng. Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India 

Bpan. Cortez, Fernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico 

Amer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio • 

Ital. Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . . 

Ital. " II. " » « , 

Ital. " III. " " « 

ItaL Costa, Paolo, litterateur . . • . 

Eng, Costello, Dudley, author and journalist . . 

Irish. , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs . . 

Dutch. Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printin ; 

Ger. Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . . 

Eng. Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor . 

Fr. Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist . . . 

Eng. Cottle, Amos, versifier .... 

Eng. , Jos., publisher ' Recollections of Coleridge * . 

Eng. Coiton, Charles, humorist and poet . . 

Amer. , John (of Boston), a learned divine . . 

Eng. — ■ , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general 

Fr. Coulomb. Charles Augustine de, philosopher . . 

Fr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, lioman Catholic theologian 

Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist . . . 

Fr. — ; , Paul Louis, political writer . . 

Fr. Court de Gebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author . 

Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian .... 

Fr. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . , 

Eng. Coverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible . 
Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet . . . . 

Eng. Cowper, William, lord chancellor . . 

Eng. , William, poet .... 

Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet . 

Amer. , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman . 

Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . . 

Eng. , William, traveller and historian . . 

Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems . 

Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms . 

Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet • . • 

Ger. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer • » 



EORN. 


DIES 


1759 


1S4I1 


1776 


1849 


1726 


1783 


1473 


1543 


1772 


1863 


17CS 


1793 


B. 


0. 488 


178S 




1407 


1565 




1723 


1606 


1684 


1625 


1709 




1718 


1738 


1805 


1485 


1554 


1794 




1519 


1594 


1590 


1621 


1642 


1723 


1771 


1836 


1803 


1865 


1815 




ng 1370 


1440 


1764 


1832 


1781 


1851 


1773 


1807 




1800 


1770 


1853 


1630 


1687 


15S5 


1652 


1773 


1865 


. 1736 


1806 


1681 


1778 


1772 


1825 


1774 


1825 


. 1725 


1784 


1627 


1707 


1792 


1867 


1485 


1565 


1618 


1667 


1664 


1723 


1731 


1800 


1818 




1793 




1756 


1824 


1747 


182S 


1818 




. 1778 


1854 


1754 


1832 


. 1728 


1788 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



943 



KATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer * • • 

Eng, , Francis, "'"--« • • 

Amer. Cranch, "Wm. jurist, judge U. S. District Court D. 0. . 

Eng. Oranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . , 

Eng. Crashaw, Richard, poet and divine . . . 

Rom. Crassus, Marcus Lucinius, (the rich) military commander 

Amer. Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist . . 

Fr Crebilion, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet . , 

Ger. Creuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary * . 

Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian . » 

Crossus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . • • 

Eng. Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer , . 

Irish. Croker, John Wilson, statesman and author . . 

Irish. , Thos. Crofton, author of ' Fairy Legends,' &o. 

Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . < 

Eng. Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman , 

Eng. , Thomas, earl of Esses, successor to Wolsey . 

Eng. Crowe, Catherine, author of ' Nightside of Nature' . 

Eng. Cruikshank, George, artist, chiefly caricature , . 

Eng. ■ , Robert, humorous artist . . 

Scot. Cruden, Alexander, author of a ' Concordance to the Bible • 

Eng. Cud worth, Ralph, philosopher • • • 

Amer. Cuffee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain • • • 

Scot. Cullen, William, an eminent physician , . 

Eng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . . 

Eng. , William Augustus, duke of, military commander 

Scot. Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author . 

Scot. , Rouallyn "W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author 

Scot. Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . . 

Irish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 

Amer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court U. S. 

Amer. , Geo. Ticknor, political writer and jurist . . 

Amer. , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critio . 

Rom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. . , , 

Amer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist . . 

Amer. Cushman, Charlotte S., actress .... 

E. Am. , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth . 

Amer. Custis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington . 

Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists 

Fr. , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist . . 

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 

Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. writer . 
, of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . 

, St., the apostle of the Sclavi ... 

Pers. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empire . 

Pers. , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . 

PoL Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation . 

Fr. Dacler, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar . . 

Pr., Daguerre, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyping . 
Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author . . 



BORN, 


DIED, 


1771 


1858 


1772 


184S 


1779 


1855 


1489 


1556 




1650 


• B. 


0. 53 


1772 


1834 


1674 


1762 


1771 


1858 


1693 


1765 


b. c. 6th Cent. 


. 1657 


1727 


1780 


IS57 


, 1798 


1854 


1780 


1860 


1599 


1658 


1490 


1T540 


1780 




1794 


1856 


1701 


1770 


1617 


1688 


1759 


1818 


1712 


1730 


1732 


1811 


1721 


1765 


1810 




1S20 




1768 


1842 


1750 


IS 1 7 


1809 




1812 




1824 




1800 




1816 




1580 


161h l 


1781 


1S57 


1769 


1832 


1773 


1838 




258 


376 


444 


315 


3S0 




822 


. B 


0. 559 


^. 


0. 400 


1770 


1S6« 


1651 


1720 


1789 


1851 



944 



THE WORLD'S PKOGBES3. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFBS810H. 

Amer. Dahlglen, CoL Ulr'c, milit. officer . . . 

Swe. Dahlman, Fred C, historian . , . 

Amer. Dale, Richard, commodore in Be vol. war , • 

Swe. Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry • 

Amer. Dallas, Commodore A J., naval commander . , 

Amer. , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist . 

Amer. , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. 8. . 

Eng. Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . . 

Ger. Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer . 

Eng. Dampier, William, an eminent navigator . . 

Amer. Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &c. • » 

Amer. , Richard H., poet and essayist . 

Amer. , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller . 

Amer. , Samuel L., agricultural chemist . . 

Venet. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . . . 

Amer. Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author . . 

Eng. Daniell, John F., chemist . . . . 

Eng. , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India 

Ger. Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.) . . 

ItaL Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets 

Fr. Danton, Geo. Jacques, leadiDg revolutionist . . 

Ital. Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at N. Y.) 

Eng. D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . . 

Eng. Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked 

Amer. Darlington, Win., botanist and politician . . 

Eng. Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist 

Aust. Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander 

Fr. Duunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur 

Eng. Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist . . 

Amer. Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius 

Amer. Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet . 

Amer. Davi6S, Charles, mathematician . . . 

, Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer 

Ital. Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian 

Amer. Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and writer on spiritualism 

Amer. t Charles H., mathematician and naval officer 

Amer. j Jefferson, general and U. S. senator from Mississippi 

Eng. •, John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits 

Amer. , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, <fec. . . 

Fr. Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals . 

Eng. Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist . . 

Amer. Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England . 

Amer. Dayton, "Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman . . 

Amer. Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France 

Amer Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished officer of the two American ?cars 1751 

Amer, De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician . 

Fr. Debruce, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 

Swiss. Decandolle, A P., botanist 

Amor. Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the IT. S. navy 

Eng. Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet . . . 

Eng. Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer . . 

Eng. Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . . 



OKN. 


DIED. 


1842 


1861 


1T85 




1756 


182- 


1708 


1753 


1791 


1844 


1792 




1759 


1817 


1766 


• 1844 


1699 


1778 


1652 


1711 


1813 




1787 




1815 




1795 




1110 


1205 


1752 


1835 


1790 


1845 




1837 


1758 


1841 


1265 


1321 


1759 


1794 


1749 


1838 


1752 


1840 


1815 


1842 


1782 




1705 


1768 


1761 


1S40 


1605 


1688 


1808 


1840 


1823 


1838 


1798 


1 


1724 


1761 


1576 


1631 


1826 




1807 




1808 






1605 


1766 


1850 


1770 


1823 


1778 


1829 


1611 


1668 


1807 




1758 


1789 


1751 


1829 


1820 




1731 


1782 


1778 


1841 


1779 


1820 




1638 


1527 


1618 


1681 


1731 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



945 



STATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBN. 

G. Am. DeKalb, John, baron, maj.-gen. in Am. revol. army * . 1732 
Eng. De la Beche, Sir Henry T., geologist . , . 1796 
Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer . , . 1749 
Delancey, William H., Epis. Bishop "West New York . 1797 
Delavigne, Casimir, dramatist . . . , 1794 
Delille, James, a celebrated poet .... 1738 
Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . . ' 1688 
Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution 1740 
Deluc, Jean Andre, natural philosopher . . . 1727 
Dembinski, Henry K., general in Hungarian revolt . 1791 
Demetrius Phalereua, Athenian orator and statesman . b. c. 345 
, Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great 



Fr. 
Amer. 
Fr. 
Fr. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Swisz. 

PoL 

Gr. 

Maced 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 



Democritus, a celebrated philosopher . . 

De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . . 

Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . . 

Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller 
Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian . . 

Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England • 

Amer. Dennie, author and editor of ' Portfolio,' &c. . 

Amer. Dennis, John, critic, embalmed in ' Dunciad ' . 

Fr. D'Eon, Chevalier, equerry to Louis XV. . . 

Eng. DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . . 

Derby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesman 
Derzhavine, Gabriel R., a poet and statesman 
Desavx, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . 
Descartes, Rene, an eminent philosopher . . 

Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author * 

Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti . 

De Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi . 

Destouches, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer 
Deurhotf, William, founder of a sect, and an author 

Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist 

Eng. Deverenx, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary genei 
De Vigny, Alfred, count, poet and novelist . 

Dewees, W. P., medical writer . . . 

De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic 
Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist . 

Dutch. De Witt, John, an eminent statesman 

Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 

, del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler 

Dibdin, Charles, a dramatic and musical composer . 

, Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and songwriter 

, Thomas Frognall, bibliographer . 



Eng. 

Rubs. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Afric. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Dutch 



Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 



Span. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Scot. 
Eng. 



Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher' 
Dickens, Charles, novelist 
Amer. Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman . . 
, John, author of ' Farmer's Letters * 



Amer 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



Diderot, Denis, first editor of * Encyclopedie Mfithodique' 
Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder 

, Firmin, publisher and member of Deputies 

— — , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller . 

Egypt. Didymus, -who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works ' . 

40* 



. B. c. 460 

1806 

. B. c. 381 

1786 

. :73 

■..7V.} 

im 

1757 
1728 
1786 
1799 
1743 
1768 
1596 
1762 
1760 
1500 
1680 
1650 
1820 
1592 
1799 
1768 
1780 
1794 
1625 

>bt ) 1560 
1748 

1771 
1770 
1772 
1812. 
1800 
1732 
1713 
1730 
1764 
1190 
L 3. c. 30 



DIED. 

1780 

1855 
1822 
186- 

1S43 
1813 
1768 
1S06 
1817 
1864 

B. c. 28 1 ? 

B. o. 283 



CP. 322 
1828 
1813 
1854 
1812 
1783 
1810 
1859 

1816 
1800 
1650 
1794 
1806 
1542 
1754 
1717 

1646 
1863 
1841 
1849 

1672 
1500 

1814 

1841 
1847 
7.859 

1865 
1808 
1784 
1804 
1*S« 



946 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. XAME AND PROFESSION. 

Pruss. Diebitsch-Zabalkansky, count, military commander • 

Ger. Diffenbach, John Fred., Burgeon and surgical author . 

Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 

Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' Athenseum 1 . 

Ger. Dindorf, William, philologist . . . 

Maced. Dinoerates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . . 

Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor . . . 

Gr. Dio-Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher 

Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible • 

Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian . . . 

Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher . ... 

Gr. , Laertins, biographer . •--■•• 

Gr. Dion-Cassius, author of « Roman History ' . . 

Gr Dionysius, a geographer .... 

Gr. , of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church . 

Gr. , the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian 

Gr. — , the elder, tyrant of Syracuse . . 

Gr. , of Halicarnassus, critic and historian . 

Gr. , the younger, tyrant of Syracuse • • 

Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' . . 

Amer. Dix, D'r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums • 

Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. 

Eng. Dixon, W;lliam Pepworth, author and critic . . 

Amer. Doane, leo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &c, 

Eng. Dobell, Rj-diey, poet ..... 

Eng. Dodd, Or. "V illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 

Eng. Doddridge, f'hilip, a gifted and pious divine and writer 

Eng. Dodsley, Kcbert, publisher and author . . 

Ger. Doebere:'me" v 7 "W., chemist . . . 

Span. Dominic De jruzman, founder of preaching friars . 

Rom. Domitian, etiperor .... 

Scot. Don, David, ootanist ... . • 

Ital. Donatsllo (/cneto di Beilodi Bardi) sculptor . 

Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer • • 

Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . • 

Eng. Donovan, Edward, writer on natural history . • 

Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) 

Amer. Dorr, Tr <-mas ■W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island 

Er. En. D'Oiv ay, Gouct Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau ' . 

Hind. Dost-M-jhtmmed, emir of Caboo . . 

Eng. Douce, Fr&ncis, antiquarian and author . . . 

Scot. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . • 

Amer. . Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor . 

Scot. Sir Howard, general, military and naval author 

Amer. , Stephen Arnold, United States senator from Illinois 

Amer. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentric preacher . . . 

Amer, Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 

Amer. Dowmng, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening 
and horticulture ... . . . 

Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 

Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator ... 

Eng. Drake, Dr. Nsthan, physician and essayist • . 



BORN 


1>IE* 


1785 


183] 


1792 


1847 


1775 


1825 


1810 


1864 


1802 




f. b C. 350 




245 


313 


f. B. C.30 




1576 


1649 


f. B. C. 10 




B. 0. 413 


b. 0. 323 




155 


f. 140 




265 




. a. d. 1st cent. 


b. 0. 430 


b. 0. 367 


. 


53 


B. O. 367 


b. 0. 343 


1767 


1848 


1821 




1799 


1859 


1824 




y) 1729 


1777 


1702 


1756 


1703 


1764 


1780 




1170 


1221 


52 


96 


1800 


1840 


1383 


1466 


1797 


1848 


1573 


1631 


1798 


1837 


1468 


1560 


,nd 1805 


1854 


179S 


1852 


1785 


1863 


1762 


1834 


. 1474 


1521 


1817 




- 1776 


1861 


1813 


1861 


1777 


1834 


1786 


1855 


mg 

1815 


1852 


1772 


1856 


f. 623 




1766 


1839 



BIOGBAPHICAL INDEX. 



947 



KATION. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

E. Am. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Drake, Joseph Rodman, poet . . . 

, Samuel G., historian of the Indians, Boston, &o 

, Sir Francis, a celebrated circumnavigator . 

Draper, John W., chemist and physiologist . . 

Drayton, Michael, poet, ' Poly-olbion ' . . 

Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer . 
Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author 
Drouyn de l'Huys, Edward, statesman 
Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer 
Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights 
, Sir 'William, scholar, author and diplomatist 



-, William, poet 



Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in Gaul and Germany 
Dryden, John, an eminent poet . 

Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' . 
Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist 
Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . . 

Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . 
Duchesne, Andrew, a historian ... 

Duclos, Charles Pineau, an historian 
Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician 
Dugdale, Sir "William, antiquarian author . . 

Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . 

Duhalde, Jean B., geographer . . . 

Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c . . 

, Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist 

, J. B., chemist .... 

Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator . 

Dumont, John, traveller and political writer . . 

, P. S. L., writer on legislation . . 

Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 
Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' 

, William, poet .... 

Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . . 

, William, logician and translator • . 

Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman 
Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral . 
Dunglisson, Rohley, M. D., medical author . . 

Dnnlap, William, painter and historian . . 

Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer . . 

Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . . 

Dunstan, Saint, abbot of Glastonbury and politician . 
Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . . 

, Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . 

■ , Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian . 

Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, &c, (at Philadelphia) 
Dupont, Samuel Francis, admiral . . . 

Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . . , 

Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . . 

Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engraver . , 

Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author • 
Durer, Albert, painter aad engraver . . 



BORN. 


T>TBT}< 


1795 


1820 


179S 




1545 


1590 


1811 




1563 


1681 


1572 


1634 


1765 


183£ 


1805 




1773 


IS5C 


1797 


1840 


1760 


1835 


1585 


164» 


B. C. 38 


£ 


1631 


1700 


1760 


1835 


1610 


1688 


. 15th cent. 


1803 




1584 


1640 


1704 


1722 


1823 




1605 


1686 


1314 


1380 


1674 


1743 


1803 




1S24 




1800 




1790 


1842 




1726 


1759 


1829 


1730 


1823 


1774 


1851 


1465 


1535 


1731 


1804 


1714 


1760 


1741 


1811 


1775 


1860 


1798 




1766 


1839 


1731 


1783 


1274 


1308 


925 


988 


1783 


1865 


17S4 




1637 


1719 


1760 


1S44 


1803 


1865 


1778 


1835 


1610 


1688 


1796 




1800 




1471 


152* 



948 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



KATION, 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 



Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ainer. 



Ger. 

Flem. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dmrfee, Job, priest and author . . . 

Durfey, Thomas, dramatic author . . . 

Durham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada 
Duroc, Michael, Duke of Friuli, military commander 
Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer . 

, Theo., author and journalist . . 

, Theo., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian 

Duyckinck, Evert Aug. , author and critic . 

, Geo. Long, author andcritio . . 

Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - . 

Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece ' . . 

Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist 

E 

Eastburn, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Mass. . 
Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critio • 

Eaton, Amos, botanist .... 

, Wm., military officer and consul in Africa . 

Eckerraan, John Peter, litterateur . 

Eckford, 3enry, eminent shipbuilder . . * 

Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian. 
Edgeworth, Maria, novelist . . . . 

Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior . . 

, Bola B., theologian and miscellaneous author . 

Edwards, 3ryan, an historian 

, tTohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism . 

, Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician 

, Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist 

-, W. S 1 ., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) 



Eginhard, S.E historian, biographer of Charlemagne 

Egmont, i amoral, count, patriot and martyr 

Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist . 

Eichbom, E C, theologian and jurist . 

Eldon, L.rl, lord chancellor of England . . 

Elgin, T., 3ruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of ' Elgin' marbles 

Elizabeth, queen ...... 

Eliot, Samjel, author of ' History of Liberty' . 

Ellenboro-:gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice . . 

: — t Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India 

E?lery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence 
Ellesmere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author 
Elle.t, Eliza F., biographer and critic . . 

Elliot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . . 

Elliotson, John, physician and physiologist . . (abt.) 

Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter 

Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England' 

, Ebenezer, poet ' Cora Law Rhymes' 

, J. D., commodore in American navy 

, Stephen, naturalist . . 

Ellis, Geo. E., Unitarian clergyman and author 
. . Sir Henry, antiqtiary and author . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1790 


1841 


1628 


1723 


1792 


1840 


1772 


1813 


1752 


1817 


1765 


1848 




1866 


1816 




. 1823 


1863 


1797 




1700 


1758 


1796 


1720 



1801 




1793 




1776 


1842 


1764 


1811 


1792 


1852 


1775 


1832 


1674 


1730 


1767 


1849 


1330 


1376 


1802 




1743 


1800 


1799 




1703, 


1757 


1777 




771 


840 


1552 


1568 


1795 




1781 


1854 


1750 


1838 


1771 


1841 


1533 


1603 


1821 




1750 


1818 


1790 




1727 


1820 


1800 


1857 


1604 


1690 


1795 




1812 




1817 




1781 




1785 


1845 


1771 


lfcW 


1815 




1777 


'- 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



949 



KATIOH. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Soot. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Amer. 
Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Er. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Span. 

S.Am. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Assyr. 

Span. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Aust. 

Eng. 

Afric. 

Fr. 

Span. 

Swiss. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ellis, "Wm. Rev., missionary and author . 
Elliston, Robert W., actor . . . i 
Ellsworth, Elmer E., military officer in Union army . 
, Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the U. S. 



BORN. 

(abt.) 1795 
1774 
1837 
3745 
1782 
1778 
1811 



Elmes, James, arcbitect and author . 

Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India . 

Elssler, Fanny, danseuBe . . . 

Elzevir, Louis H. G. B., and A., printers 16th and 17th centuries 

Embury, Emma E., poet . . . 

Emerson, Geo. B., educator and author . , ' . 

— ■ , Ralph "Waldo, poet and essayist , . 

"William, a distinguished mathematician . . . 

Emmet, Robert, ' United Irishman ' (executed) 

, Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator • 

Emmons, Eben, geologist and author 

— , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . • 

Empedocles, a Pythagorean philosopher . . 

Encke, John Francis, astronomer .'"'•'"'• 

Endicott, John, governor of Massachusetts • • 

Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist . • 

Enfield, "William, miscellaneous writer . , 

Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) . 

Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and „cldier 
Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . . 

Epictetus, a stoic philosopher 

Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phLotOpliulS . B 
Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and ftltlxr . 
Erastus, Thomas, founder of ' Erastianism' tbeo'iogy • 

Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philosopher 1 
Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet . 

Eriocira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian . 

Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . , 

Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . 
Erman, A. G., ' Travels in Siberia,' &c. . . . 

Ernesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic . • 

Erskine, Ebenezer, theologian . . . 

■ , Ralph, divine, 'Gospel Sonnets' . . 

, Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator 

Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin. - of Assyria 

Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist . 

Espartero, J. B., Duke of Vittoria, statesman and soldier 

Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . . . 

Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . . 

Ess, L. Van, theological miter . . • 

Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . 

Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander , 

Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman 

Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist . 1636 

Euclid, an eminent geometrician . . . f. B. 0. 300 

Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 166S 

Eugenie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France , . 1826 

Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician . . 1707 



DIMl 

1831 

1861 
180J 

185S 



1806 
1797 
1803 
1701 
1780 
1764 
1798 
1746 

1791 
1589 
1804 
1741 
1772 
1728 

40 
342 
1467 
1524 
276 
1525 
1614 
1803 

1806 
1707 
1680 
1685 
1750 

B. C. 

15S9 
1792 
1785 
1772 
1770 
1567 
1729 



17S2 
1803 
1827 
1863 
1840 

1865 
1665 
1849 
1797 
1804 
1810 
b. C. 363 

b. o. 371 
1556 
1583 

b. o. 196 
1595 



1781 
1758 
1752 
1823 
7th cent. 
1669 

1860 
1840 
1847 
1601 
1794 



1694 



1736 



950 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Gt. Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet . . . ] 

Gr. EuteVrus, bishop of Cassarea, a learned father of the church, and 

ecclesiastical historian . • • 

Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • 

Rom. Eutyehes, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect . 

Amer. Evans, Oliver, inventor and engineer . . 

Amer. Evarts, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Missions) . 

']■ ig. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer , . . 

•Amer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist . 

Amer. — ■ — , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author 

fel-er. Ewflld, Geo. H. A. von, orientalist and theologian . 
Kn.Am, Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics 

Amer. Ewing, Thos., statesman and jurist . . 

Eng. Exmouth, V,dw. Pellew, viscount, admiral • 

F 

Eng. Faber, George Stanley, theological writer . 

Eng. , Frederick: Wm., Eoman Catholic priest and theological 

author ..... 

Rom. Fabiu>i, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . . 

Ger. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer . 

Ital. , John Christian, a celebrated entomologist 

Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . . 

Eng. Fabyan, Robeil, chior'oler ... 

"Ital. Facciolato, or Pacciclati. Jac, philologist . . 

Pruss. Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher 

Eng. Fairfax, Edwfcd, poet, translator of Tasso 

Eng. , Thomas, lord, a general in the civil war . 

ling. Falconer, William, a poet .... 

Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) . 

Eng. Falkland, Lucius Gary, viscount, poliiician and author 

Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Richard, poet and diplomatist . 

Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist .... 

Port. Faria y Souza, Manuel, an historian and poet . 

Eng. Farmer, Hugh, theologian .... 

Amer. Farnham, Mrs. Eliia W., traveller and philanthropist 

Irish. Farquhar, George, a dramatist . . . 

Amer. Farrar, John, m?tbe>;i-atician and author * . 

Vi. Fancher, Leon, political economist . . . 

Fr. Fauriel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author 

Ger. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing . . 

St. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician . . 

Eng. Eawkes, Francis, a poet and translator . . 

Amer. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist . . 

Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer , 

Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East . 

Amer. Felton, Cornelius fa., scholar and critic, president of Harvard 

College .... 

Fr. Fenfilon, Francis de Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and 

one of the most virtuous of men . . 

Bwe. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist . 



BORN. 

0. 480 



f. 360 



DIES. 

0. 40« 



343 



1755 1819 

1781 1831 

1620 1651 

1790 1S47 

1794 1865 

1803 

1792 

1789 

1757 1833 



1773 



1815 



1854 



• B 


O. 204 


1668 


1736 


1742 


1807 


1732 


1803 


1450 


1515 


1684 


1760 


1686 


1736 




1633 


1611 


1671 


1730 


1769 




1355 


1610 


1643 


1608 


1668 


1790 


1867 


. 1588 


1647 


. 1714 


1787 


1815 


1864 


1678 


170T 


1779 


1853 


1803 


1854 


1772 


1844 




1463 


1809 




1632 


1693 


1807 




. 1632 


1693 


1799 





1807 



1651 
1743 



186a 



171S 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



951 



NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Scot. Ferguson, Adam, an historian and moral philosopher . 

Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, philosopher, &c. 

Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art ' . 

8pan. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . . 

Scot. Ferrier, Mary, novelist .... 

Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archbishop of Lyons 

Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist 

Amer. , Wm. Pitt, U. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas. 

Ger. Feuerbach, Ludwig, philosopher and author 

Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman and jurist . 

Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Fichte, John G., philosopher . . . 

Ital. Ficino, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . . 

Amer. Field, Cyrus "W., promoter of Atlantic telegraph . 

Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate 

Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author 

Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors . 

Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist 

Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria . 

Amer. Fillmore, Millard, loth president IT. S. 

Amer. Finney, Char'.es G., preacher and theological writer . 

Pers. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses 

Amer. Fisk, "Wilbur, president "Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &c, 

Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . 

Rom. Flaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . 

Rom. , Caiue, general, consul, and censor of tribune 

Eng. • Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal . . 

Eng. Flatman, Thomas, poet .... 

Eng. Flavel, John, an eminent non-conformist divine . 

Fr. Flechier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . . 

Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist ...» 

Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist 

Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author . 

Eng. , Giles, poet .... 

Eng. , John, a dramatist . • . . 

Eng. , Phineas, poet .... 

Fr. Fleury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 

It. , Claude, a divine and historian . . 

Amer. Flint, Rev. Timothy, novelist and historian . . 

Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer 

Ger. Flugel, G. L., philologist and historian . , 

Ger. , John G., lexicographer . . 

Ger. Follen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in U. S.) . 

Fr. Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence 

Fr. Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author . . 

Eng. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor . . 

Eng. Forbes, Edward, naturalist and author . . 

Eng. , John, M. D., medical writer ... 

Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian • • 

Ital. Forcellini, Giles, a Latin lexicographer « , 

Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author . . 



BORN. 

1724 
1710 
1808 
1652 
1782 
1763 
1771 
1806 
1804 
1775 
1701 
1762 
1433 
1819 
1805 
1822 
1787 
1707 

1S00 
1792 
940 
1792 
1743 
B. a. 230 b. 
s. 
1646 
1633 
1627 
1632 
1801 
1785 
1658 
1580 
1576 
1584 
1653 
1640 
1780 
1755 
1802 
1788 
1796 
1787 
1657 
1806 
1721 
1815 
1787 
1790 
1688 
1586 



DIED. 

i8ia 

1.78 

lies 

1854 
1839 
1837 



1833 
1764 
1814 
1499 



1855 
1754 
1547 



1020 

1839 

1798 

C. 17 

G. 17 

719 

1688 

16.1 

1710 

1857 
1716 
1627 
1625 
1650 
1743 
1722 
1840 
1794 

1855 
1846 
1865 
1757 
1863 
1771 
1864 



1640 



952 



THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. 



FiTrOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Ford, Richard, author of works on Spain , 

Itai Foresti, E. Felice, patriot aud litterateur . 
An.er, Forrest, Edwin, actor . . • 

j.'c a . l\->rster, John, journalist and author • 

G6r. , John R., traveller and naturalist . 

Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . 

Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archasologist (Ency. Antiq.) 

Ttal. Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice 

Ital. Foseolo, Nicol Ugo, poet and musical author . 

Eng. Foster, John, essayist 

Fr. Fouche, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist 

Ger. Fouque, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &o, 

Fr. Fourier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system . 

Fr. , Francis M. C, writer on social science . 

Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist . . . 

Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orator 

Eng. , George, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers 

Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' . 

Eng. , Sir Charles, engineer, builder of Crystal Palace . 

Ital. Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . s 

Francia, Jose G. R., dictator of Paraguay . . 

Ame* Francis, John W., physician and author . . 

Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' . . 

Savey. , de Sales, saint and bishop . • • 

Irish. , Sir Philip, political writer ... 

Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 

En£. , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer . . 

Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, jacobite leader, beheaded . 
Piuss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and author . 
Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. S. 
Amer. Frelinghuysen, Theo., statesman ...» 
Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman . 

Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . . . 

Eng. Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . • 

Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. . . 

Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator . • 

Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author '. . . 

Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . . 

Amer. Frothingham, Richard, Jr., historian and journalist . 

Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist ... 

Amer. — , "Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . * 

Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . . 

Amer. , Richard, D. D., Baptist preacher and author 

Amer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, litterateur . 

Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian . . 

Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist ... 

Fr. Furetiere, Anthony, a philosopher . . . 

Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author 
Ger. Furst, Julius, orientalist and philologist . 

Swiss. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art . 



BOEN 


t»p*» 


1796 


1851 


1793 


1853 


1806 




1S12 




1729 


179J 


1780 


1841 


. 1770 


1842 


1372 


14511 


1777 


1827 


1770 


184? 


1763 


1820 


1777 


1843 


. 1772 


1388 


1772 


1831 


1809 




ors 1748 


1800 


1624 


1690 


1517 


1587 


. 1810 




1769 


1806 


1757 


1840 


1789 


1861 


1182 


1228 


1567 


1623 


1740 


1808 


1706 


1790 


17S6 


1847 


1667 


1747 


1712 


1786 


1759 


1835 


1787 


1862 


1813 




1752 


1832 


1769 


1846 


1773 






1594 


1806 




1333 


1400 


1812 




1780 


1845 


1815 


1864 


1754 


1815 


1808 




1810 


1850 


1608 


1661 


1812 




1620 


1683 


>r 1802 




1805 




1741 


1821 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 953 



G 

RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer, Gadsden, Christopher, revolutionary statesman , * 

Amer. , James, statesman and negotiator . • 

Eng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetts • . 

Fr. Gagnier, John, an orientalist and author . . • 

Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..'... 

Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, miscellaneous writer and historian 

Amer. Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander . • 

Rom. Gaius, or Caius, jurist and legal •writer . . • 

Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physician . > • 

EruAm. Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer * . 

Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 
Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the 

science of phrenology .... 

Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet 

S. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnoL 
Amer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for 

deaf and dumb ..... 

Russ. Gallitzin, Ihe name of several distinguished princes . . 

Russ. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . 

Scot. Gait, John, novelist ...... 

ItaL Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dis- 
coverer of galvanic electricity .... 

Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 
Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law . 

Ger. Gans, Edward, jurist . . . . 

Span. Garcia, Manuel, musical composer . . . 

Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry 
Spau. Garcilasso de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru . 
Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate 
Ital. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader 
Pr. Gamier, Count Germain, jurist . . • 

Eng. Gai-rick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist . 

Amer Garrison, "William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . 
Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and poet 

Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince 
of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... 

Eng. Gaskell, Elizabeth C, novelist . . . 

Fr. Gassendi, Peter, a celebrated philosopher . 

Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, general, . . 

Amer. Gates, Horatio, a distinguished officer in the Revolution 
Fr. " Gavarni," real name Snlpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . 

Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet .... 

Fr. Gay-Lussac, N. F. chemist .... 

Span. Gayangos, Pascal de, Oriental scholar and historian . 
Amer. Gayarre, Charles A., historian .... 

Eng. Gell, Sir William, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) 
Ger. Gellert, Chrisiian Furchtegott, a poet and miscellaneous writer 
Rom. Gellius, Aulius. grammarian .... 

Fr Genest, ci Genet, Edwarrt O, diplomatist . . 



BORN. 


DIED 


1724 


1806 


178S 


1858 




1787 


1670 


1740 


1755 


1829 


1"2S 


1806 


1777 


1849 




1st cent. 


131 




1786 




1564 


1642 


1758 


1828 


1808 




1761 


L849 


1787 


1851 


16th to 17th cent. 


1770 


1840 


1779 


1839 


1737 


179S 


le 


1524 




88 


1798 


1841 


1779 


1832 


1503 


1536 




1559 


1483 


1555 


1806 




1754 


1821 


1716 


1779 


1805 




1718 




3 

1350 


1413 


1820 


1865 


1592 


1655 


1489 


1512 


172S 


1806 


1.801 




1688 


1732 


1778 


1850 


1809 




1805 




1777 


1836 


1715 


1769 


A.D, 


2d cent. 


1705 


1834 



954 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NAUOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Bai. GenghiB-Khan; a celebrated conqueror . . 

G-enlis, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of the 12th century 
Geoffroy-Saint Hilaire Etienne, zoologist . . , 
Gerando, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . . 
Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France . 
Germanicus, Tiberius Drusus Caesay, military commander 
Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. 
Gerson, John Charlier de, an ecclesiastic and author . 
Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller 
GervinuB, George Gottfried, historian and politician 
Gesenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critio 
Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist ... 
, John Matthias, a philologist . . 



Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Rom. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ame' 



Giannone, Peter, an historian . . . . , 

Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author . 

Eng. Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians 
Amer. Gibbs, Josiah "W., philologist .... 
Amor. Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both officers in the Revo- 
lution ...... 

, Thomas Milner, statesman . • 

Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman . • • 

Gifford, William, a critic and poet . . 

, John, an historical and political writer * 

Gieseler, John K. L., church historian . . 

Gilbert, James W., writer on banking . 

, Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer 



Eng. 

Amer 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 



Gilfillan, George, clergyman and author . . 

Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author 
Amer. Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering 
Scot. Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. 
Amer. Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire • 

Amer. , Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author . 

Eng. Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' ■ . . 

Eng. , Wm., writer on the picturesque . . 

Eng. Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist . . 

Ital. Gioberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman 
Ital. Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences . 

Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist . . . 

Fr.Am. , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire • 

Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . . 

Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author . 

Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . 

Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author . . 

Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . . • 

Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author . 

Ger. Glnck, Christop W. von, musical composer . 

Swe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist 

Fr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the 

Crusades ..... 

Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, <fcc. 
Eng. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of, statesman . . 



BOBN. 

1164 
1746 

1772 
1770 
1773 

1814 
1363 
1816 
1805 
1786 
1516 
1691 
1676 
1809 
1737 
1790 



1807 
1795 
1757 
1758 
1792 
1791 

1813 
1697 
1816 
1747 
1759 
1731 
1617 
1724 
1757 
1801 
1737 
1822 
1750 
1802 
1809 
1636 
1796 
1349 
1809 
1714 
1748 



1794 
1640 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



955 



WATIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Span. Qodoy, Manuel de, statesman, ' prince of the peace' • 

Amer. Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian . . 

Eng. , William, novelist and metaphysician . • 

Ger. Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist . . 

Ital. Goldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliere . . . 

Irish. Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 

Dutch. Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . . 

Span. Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior . . . 

Eng. Good, John Mason, physician and author . . . 

Amer. Goodrich, Chauncey A., scholar and divine . , 

Amer. , Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author . 

Amer. , Samuel Griswold, ' Peter Parley,' voluminous author 

Amer. Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee . 

Scot. Gordon, ' lord George,' political agitator . . 

Eng. , Wm., author of History of the United States . 

Eng. Gore, Catharine G., novelist . . . 

Eng. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ' lord proprietor of Maine' . 

Hung. Gorgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) 

Gr. Gorgias, an orator and sophist ...» 

Rush. Gortchakoff, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, &c. . 

Russ. , Alexander, prince, diplomatist • . 

Amer. Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author • . 

En.Am. Gough, John B., lecturer on temperance . . . 

Irish. , Hugh, viscount, general in India. &o. . • 

Amer. Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician . . 

Amer. , Hannah F., poet . . » ( 

Eng. , John, naturalist and author . • • 

Fr. Goui-gaud, Gaspard, haron, one of Napoleon's generals 

Eng. Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . . 

Rom. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 

Rom. , Caius Sempronius .... 

Ger. Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . . 

Scot, Grahame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver 
house, general ..... 

Scot. , James, a poet . . . . 

Scot. , James, author of ' History of the United States ' 

Fr. Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of ' Meraoirs' 

Fr. Grandville, J. S. G., caricaturist and artist . . 

Fr. Granier, Adolphe, journalist and historian . . 

Scot. Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &o. . 

Scot. , James, journalist and author . . . 

Scot. , James, novelist .... 

Span. Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman . . 

Eng. Granville, G. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman • 

Eng. , John Carteret, earl, statesman . . 

Ital. Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . , 

Irish. Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman , 

, Thomas Colley, novelist ... 

Dutch. Gravesande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 

Amer. Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of ' Flora,' &o. 

Amer, , Henry Peters, painter, ... 

Eng. , John Edward, naturalist .... 



BORN. 


EIKIJ, 


1767 


1851 


1816 




1755 


1838 


1749 


1831 


1707 


1793 


1731 


1774 


1596 


1667 


1443 


1515 


1764 


1827 


1790 


1860 


1826 




1793 


1860 


1800 


1860 


1750 


1793 


1730 


1807 


1799 






1647 


1818 




f. B. c. 


5th cent 


1792 


1861 


1800 




1600 


1P77 


1817 




1779 




1805 




'abt.) 1800 


1865 


1804 




1783 


1852 




1402 




B. o. 133 




B. C. 121 


1632 


1703 


1643 


1689 


1765 


1811 


. 1770 


1842 


1621 


1707 


1803 


1847 


1805 




1755 


1838 


1806 




1822 




1517 


15S8 


1816 




1690 


1793 


f. 12th cent. 


. 1750 


1821 


1796 


1864 


. 16S8 


1743 


1810 




1819 




abt.) 1800 





956 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATION, 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Scot. 

Irish. 

Scot. 



Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Er. 

Amer 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ft. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ft. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Gray, Thomas, poet ..... 
Graydon, Alex., author of ' Revolutionary Memoirs ' • 

Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . • 

Gregory L, the Great, pope, author . . 

, VII., the Great, pope Hildebrand, celebrate^ despot 

, David, philosopher and mathematician . . 

, George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . 

, James, philosopher and mathematician . . 

, Nazianzen, St. Christian, writer . • 

■ — of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . . . 

, Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer 

of Tours, historian • 



Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . . 

, Horace, physician, author of medical works . 

Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . . 

, Geo. "Washington, scholar and critic . . 

, Matthew, poet .... 

, Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 

, Nathaniel, author and journalist . . 

, Robt., dramatist .... 

Greenhow, Robert, historical writer . . . 

Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author ... 

Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author . • 

Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author 
Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for "William IV. 

, Lady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 

Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist 
Griffin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , . . 

, Gerald, novelist .... 

Grimke, Thomas S., jurist . . » . 

Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer • . 

Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . 

Griswold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England 

, Rufus Wilmot, author and critic . . 

Gronovius, James, an erudite critic . . . 

Grose, Francis, antiquary and author ... 

Gross, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author . 

Grote, George, author of History of Greece . . 

Grotefend, G. F., philologist . . . 

Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar . . 

Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France . 

Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . 

Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist , . , 

Guarini, John Baptist, a poet .... 

Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventor of the air-pump 

Guerrazi, Francesco D., author and politician . 

Guiccardini, Francis, an historian . . . 

Guillotin, Joseph T.. benevolent physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738 

Guise, Charles of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman. 1525 

, Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519 

, Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior , 1550 

Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician . 1787 



BORN. 

1716 
1752 

1811 
544 

1661 

1754 
1648 
328 
331 
1774 
544 
1762 
1802 
1804 
1811 
1696 
1741 
1797 
1560 
1800 
1783 
1805 
1554 
1764 
1537 
1745 
1770 
1S03 
1786 
1785 
1774 
1766 
1815 
1645 
1731 
1805 
1794 
1775 
1583 
1776 
(Tenn.) 1777 
1616 
1537 
1602 
1805 
1482 



DIED. 

1771 
1818 



1085 

1710 

1808 

1685 

389 

396 

1841 

593 

1848 

1866 



1737 
1786 

1592 
1854 
1858 
1852 
1628 
1845 
1554 
1812 
1837 
1840 
1834 
1863 
1852 
1843 
1857 
1716 
1791 



1836 
1645 
1847 
1840 
1664 
1612 
1688 

1540 
1814 
1574 
1563 
1588 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



957 



RATION, 

Nor. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pol. 

Eng. 

Swe. 

Swe. 

Swe. 

Swe 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Fr. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Gaiscard, Robert, a Norman warrior . . . 

Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gunter scale 
Gurney, Joseph John, philanthropist . (Soc 

Gurowsky, Adam de, count,, publicist and author . 
Gurwood, John, Col., editor of Wellington's Despatches 
Gustavus 1., (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden 

IX, Adolphus, king of Sweden ; able warrior 

III., king of Sweden . . , 

IV., Adolphus, king of Sweden . . 

Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce 

, William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c, 



Guttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing . 
Gutzlaff, Charles, traveller and historian of China 
Guyon, Jeanne M. B., de la Motte, mystical teacher and writer 
, Richard D., general in the service of Hungary, &c. 

Sw.Am.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on physical geography . . 

Eng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (' Nell Gwynn ') mistress of Charles II. 

Hg. Au.Gyulai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy 

Eng. Habington, Wm., poet . . . 

Amer. Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic • • • 



Amer 

Pers. 

Gen 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 



-, James H., actor 



Hafiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia , 

Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian . , 

Halm, August, theological writer . . . 

, Simon Frederick, an historian . . • 

Hahneman, founder of 'Homeopathy' in medicine 
Hahn-Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 

Eng. Hakluyt, Richard, author of voyages, &c, of the English 

Scot. Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian 

Scot. Haldeman, S. S., naturalist and philologist . 

Amer. Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author . . 

Amer. , David, journalist, founder of N. T. Journal of Commerce 

Amer. , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy . 

Amer. , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser 

Amer. , Sarah J., poet and prose writer . . . 

Eng. , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge . 

Pr. Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . . 

Eng. Halford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer . 

Eng. Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, ' Sam Siick' . 

Eng. Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, <fcc. . „ 

Amer. , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay . 

Amer. , James, jurist and author . . . 

Amer. , James, geologist and palaeontologist . . . 

Eng. ■ , Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author . 

Eng. , Rev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . . 

Eng. Hallam, Henry, historian . . . , 

Amer. Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet . . . 

Swiss Haller, Albert von, miscellaneous writer . . 

Eng. Halley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician 

Eng. Halliwell, James Orchard, archaeologist and author . 

Scot. Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . • . 

Carth, Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general - . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1015 


1085 


e 1581 


1619 


snds) 1788 


1S47 


1805 


1866 


1791 


1845 


1496 


1560 


1594 


1633 


1746 


1792 


1778 


1837 


1793 




:. 1708 


1770 


1400 


1463 


1803 


1851 


1648 


1717 


1813 


1856 


1807 




1650 


1687 


1798 


1866 


1605 


164£ 


1808 




1800 






1389 


1801 




1807 


1857 


1692 


1729 


1755 


1843 


1805 




1553 


1616 


1764 


1842 


1812 




1797 




;e 1791 


1849 


1758 


1776 


1784 


1863 


1795 




1609 


1676 


1799 


1862 


1766 


1844 


1803 


1865 


1788 


1844 


1784 


1826 


1793 




1811 




1574 


1656 


1764 


1831 


1777 


1859 


1795 




1708 


1777 


1656 


1741 


1820 




1674 


1712 


. B. 


0. 22$ 



958 the world's progress, 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treasury, IT. 9, 

Irish. , Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer . 

Amer. , James, statesman, TJ. S. senator from South Carolina 

Scot. , Sir fin,, diplomatist and antiquary . . 

Scot. , Sir Wm., metaphysician .... 

Irish. , Sir Wm. Rowan, mathematician and philosopher 

Scot. , Thos., Capt., novelist, ' Men and Manners in America 

Eng. , William Richard, archasologist . . . 

Ger. Hammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist . . 

Eng. Hammond, James, poet ..... 

Amer. , James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina 

Eng. Hampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman . 

Amer. Hampton, Wade, general in revolution 

Amer. Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress 

Ger. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers 

Carth. Hannibal, or Annibal, general against Rome • . 

Carth. Hanno, navigator . . . . . 

, the Great, general and statesman . . . 

Nor. Hanstein, G., mathematician and astronomer . . 

Amer. Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works . . 

Ger. Hardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman . . 

Amer. Harding, Chester, portrait painter . . . 

Eng. , James D., artist and author on art , 

Eng. Hardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India 

Eng. Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer . , . 

Eng. Hare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer . , 

Eng. , Robert, chemist and physicist . . , 

Amer. Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist .... 

Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman * 

Sar. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning . , 

Amer. Harper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born 

Eng. Harrington, James, political writer .... 

Eng. Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia , 

Eng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c. . , 

Eng. , John, theological writer .... 

Amer. , Thaddeus Wm., naturalist . . . , 

Amer Harrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president TJ. S. 

Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College 

Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 

Ger. Hase, Henry, classical antiquary . . , 

Ger. , Karl Aug., theological author . . 

Ger. Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) . 

Eng. Haslam, John, writer on insanity . . . , 

Eng. Hastings, marquis of, military commander . . 

Eng. , Warren, governor-general of British India 

Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious " wild boy " . . 

Fr. Haussez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller . , 

Eng. Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor . * 

Fr. Hauy, Rene Just, mineralogist • , 

Eng. Havelock, Henry, general in India * . 

Amer. Haven, Alice B., author of juvenile books . . 

Er 4u Haviland, John, architect • • • 



BORN. 


DIED, 


S. 1757 


1804 


1758 


1818 


1786 


1857 


1730 


1803 


1788 


1856 


1805 




i' 1789 


1842 


1777 


1859 


1774 


1856 


1710 


1742 


1807 




1594 


1643 


1755 


1835 


1737 


1793 


1684 


1758 


B. c. 247 B. 


c. 183 


b. c. 5th cent. 


B. 


o. 202 


1784 




1.817 




1750 


1822 


1792 


1866 


1798 


1863 


lia 1785 


1856 


1821 


1859 


1795 


1855 


1781 


1858 


1796 


1843 


1661 


1724 




808 


1795, '7, 


1801 ,'4 


1611 


1677 


1560 


1621 


1670 


1719 


1804 


1856 


1795 


1856 


3. 1773 


1841 




1688 


1569 


1658 


1789 


1842 


1800 




1810 


1853 


1764 


1844 


1754 


1825 


1733 


1818 




1833 


1778 






1591 


. 1742 


1822 


1795 


1857 


1828 


1866 


1792 


185J 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



959 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Hawes, Joe], Congregational clergyman and author . . 

Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral . 

Eng. Hawksworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . . . 

Eng. Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, originator of the slave trade 

Eng. , Sir John, author of ' History of Music,' &c. . . 

Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian . 

Amer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist .... 

Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer . . 

Eng. Haydon, Benj. A., historical painter • ■•-,-. 

Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author . . 

Eng. Hayley, William, a poet and miscellaneous writer . . 

Amer. Hayne, Eobert Y., governor of South Carolina and senator U. S. 

Amer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot . 

Eng. Haywood, Abraham, translator of 'Faust' . . 

Eng. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic .•-••«•'• 

Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, &c. " . . 

Eng. , Sir George, author of ' Rome,' &c. . . . 

Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories 

Amer. Heath, Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs 

Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . . 

Eng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector . . 

Ger. Hecker, Fred. K. F., politician .... 

Amer. , Isaac F, Roman Catholic clergyman and author . 

Eng. Heckwelder, John, Moravian missionary and author . 

Ger. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer ... 

Amer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author ... 

Ger. Hedwig, John, a physician and botanist . . 

Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian . . ... 

Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician .... 

Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and litterateur ... 

Ger. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author . 

Rom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus, emperor . . 

Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl, 

Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard 

Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist . . , 

Fr. Helvetius, Claude A., philosopher ... 

Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist . . . 

Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess .... 

Eng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist ..... 

Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian 

Eng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, ' orator Henley' 

Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. , 

Eng. Henningsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier . . 

Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch ... 

Amer. , Caleb S., clergyman and author . 

Amer. , Joseph, physicist, director of Smithsonian Institute 

Amer. , Matthew, author of ' Comment, on the Bible' . , 

Port. , the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. . , 

Bcot. , Robert, an historian «... 

Amer. , Patrick, an orator and patriot . . . 

Amer. Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist • • • . 

Rom. Heraclius (born in Cappadocia), emperor of the East . 



BORN. 


DIEU 


1789 


1867 


1713 


1781 


1715 


1773 


1520 


1595 


1719 


1783 


1798 


1866 


1804 


1862 


1732 


1809 


1786 


1846 


1745 


1820 


1791 


1835 


1758 


1834 


1800 




1778 


1830 


1793 




1782 


1855 


1814 




1737 


1814 


1783 


1826 


1773 


1833 


1811 




1819 




1743 


1823 


1675 


1748 


1805 




1730 


1799 


1760 


1842 


1770 


1831 


1799 


1856 


1681 


1741 


247 


327 


. 4th cent, 




1101 


1164 


1817 




1715 


1771 


1581 


1617 


1794 


1835 


1800 




1802 




1692 


1756 


1640 


1699 


1815 




1553 


1610 


1804 




1797 




1662 


1714 


1394 


1463 


1718 


1790 


1736 


1799 




185€ 


576 


641 



960 



THE WORLD'S* PROGRESS, 



HATIOH. KAME AND PROFESSION. PORW. 

Gr. Heraclitus, a philosopher . . . . f. B. o. 504 

Eng. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Cherbury, diplomatist and philosopher 



En§ 
Ens 



Herbert, George, clergyman and poet . 

,Am. , Henry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

6% 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Amer. 



Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Span. 

Mex. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Jew. 

Eng- 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



, Sidney, statesman . . . ■ 

, Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet . . 

, Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher 

Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer . 

Heriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school . 

Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, ' History of Philosophy' &c. 

, J. G. J., philologist . . . 

Hermogenes, a rhetorician .... 

Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer 

Herod, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) b. c. 

, the Great, King of the Jews . 

Herodian, an historian 

Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are 
extant ...... 

Herold, L. G. P., musical composer ... 

Herrera, Anthony, an historian . • • 

, Jose J. de, president of Mexico • . • 

Herrick, Robert, poet .... 

Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer . . . 

, Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers 

Herschel], Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 

, Sir J. F. W., astronomer and natural philosopher 

Hervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer . 
, Thomas K., poet and prose writer 



Herzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author 

Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer 

Heyne, 0. G., a learned critic and writer . 

Heywood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist 

Hickes, George, a theologian and philologist 

Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author 
Amer. Hicks, Elias, preacher of the Society of Friends 
Amer. Hildreth, Richard, author of History of the United States 
Fr. Hilaire, Geoff. St., naturalist . , 

Eng. Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England . 
Eng. Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman . 

Eng. , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at "Waterloo 

Eng. , Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer . 

Amer. Hillard, George S., author and journalist . . 

Jew. Hillel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud . . 

Amer. Hillhouse, James A., poet .... 
Eng. Hind, John Russell, astronomer . . . 

Eng. Hintoh, John Howard, author of History of United States 
Gr. Hipparchus, astronomer .... 
Gr Hippocrates, the father of medicine ... 

Hippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer . . 

Amer, Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., theologian and geologist . 

, Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot 

Bng. Hoadley, William, a celebrated prelate and author . 



er 1581 


1648 


1593 


1632 


1807 


1858 


1810 




1580 


1630 


1778 


1847 


1744 


1803 


1563 


1624 


1804 




1772 


1848 


. f. 180 




1813 


1859 


t) B. c. 7 


A. D. 44 


B. o. 71 


4 


. f. 230 




B. o. 484 




1792 


1833 


. 1659 


1625 




1851 


1591 


1674 


1750 


1848 


1738 


1822 


1760 


1842 


1713 


1758 


, 1799 


1859 


1812 




B. c. 907 




1729 


1812 


1650 




1642 


1715 


1798 




1748 


1S30 


1807 


1863 


1772 


1844 


1795 




1744 


1833 


1772 


1842 


1716 


1775 


1808 




B. c. 112 




17S9 


1841 


1823 




1800 




B. 0. 


2d cent. 


B. C. 460 




A. D. 


3d cent. 


1793 




. 1670 


1761 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



961 



RATIOS 

Araer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Hung. 

Dan. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. ■ 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Hobart, John Henry, bishop of New York . . 

Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. . 

HobhouBe, John Cam., Lord Eroughton, author and statesman 
Hoche, Lazarus, a military commander . . . 

Hodge, Charles, Rev., theological writer . . 

Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses . . 

Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot . . . 

Hofiand, Barbara, novelist . . • . 

Hoffman, David, lawyer and author . • . 

Hoffman, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist . . 

Hogg, James, ' the Ettrick Shepherd,' poet 
Hobenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle worker . 
Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian 

Holbrook, John E., naturalist .... 
Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 
Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy . . 

Holingshed, chronicler . . . . 

Holland, Josiah G., journalist, poet and essayist . . 

, Lord, statesman and litterateur , . 

, Philemon, a translator . . . • 

Hollis, Thomas, benefactor of Harvard College . 

, Thomas, philanthropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) . . 

Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . . 

Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America' , . 

, Oliver "Wendell, physician, poet and essayist . 

Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice ... 

Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist . 

Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, ' Criticism' . . 

, John, a divine, dramatist and historian . 

Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished 
Hone, Wm., author of ' Every Day Book, 1 and political works 
Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval officer 

, Thomas, poet and humorist ... 

Hoogvliel, Arnold, a poet .... 

Hook, Robert, a mathematician . . . 

, Theo. E., novelist and humorist . . . 

Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history . 

Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist . . 

, Richard, an eminent divine ... 

, Sir W. J., botanist .... 

Hoole, John, a poet and translator . . . 

Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . . 

Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, "Anastasius" . 
Hopital, Michel de 1', chancellor of France . . 

Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore TT. S. Navy . . 

, John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author 

, Mark, clergyman and author . . 

, Samuel, an eminent divine and author . . 

, Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737 



, Joseph, jurist and statesman 

Horace, Quintus Flaccus, eminent poet 

41 



BORN. 


DIED, 


1776 


1830 


1588 


1797 


1788 




1768 


1797 


1797 




1812 




. 1765 


1810 


1770 


1844 


1784 


1S54 


1806 




1772 


1S35 


1793 


1849 


1685 


1754 


1795 




1744 


1S09 


1640 


1730 




1582 


1819 




1773 


1840 


1551 


1636 


1659 


1731 


1720 


1774 


1787 


1857 


1763 


1837 


1809 




1642 


1709 


1728 


1829 


1696 


1782 


1724 


1808 


B. o. 907 




1779 


1842 


1724 


1816 


1798 


1845 


1687 


1763 


1635 


1702 


1788 


1841 


1690 


1763 


1816 




1553 


1600 


1785 


1865 


1717 


1803 


1495 


1555 


1770 


1831 


1505 


1573 


. 1718 


1802 


r 1792 




1802 




1721 


1803 


1707 


1785 


thor 1737 


-791 


1770 


1842 


B. c. 65 B. 


0. S 



962 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIGN. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

FJem. Horn, Philip de Mont, count of, soldier and statesman 
Eng. Home, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich 

Eng. , Richard H., poet and essayist . . 

Eng. , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian 

Eng. Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist . • 

Eng. , Leonard, geological writer . . . 

Eng. Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician . 

Rom. Hortensius, Quintus, orator . . • 

Amer. Hosack, David, H. D., medical and scientific writer . 
Heb. Hosea, prophet . • • 

Fr. Houdin, Robert, conjurer . . • < 

Fr. Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . . . 

Fr. Houssaye, Arsene, miscellaneous writer • • 

Amer. House, Samuel G, physician and philanthropist . 
Amer. Houston, Sam., general, governor, and ex-governor of Texas 
Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthropist . 

Amer. , John Eager, revolutionary soldier and statesman 

Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines . 

Eng. , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war . . 

Eng. , Richard, lord, earl, admiral . . * 

Eng. , Sir Wm., commander-in-chief in America . 

Eng. Howell, James, author of 'Letters' . . • 

Eng. Howitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet . 

, "William, traveller, essayist, &c. . . 



Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 



Howley, William, archbishop of Canterbury . 

Hoyle, Edmund, writer on games . . . 

Swiss. Huber, Francis, naturalist . . . 

Fr. Hue, Evariste R, Catholic missionary and author . 

Eng. Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river . 

Ft. Huet, Peter Daniel, an erudite prelate and author . 
Ger. Hufeland, Chris. W., medical author . . 

Fr. Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings 
Irish-Am. Hughes, John, Catholic Archbishop N. Y. 
Fr. Hugo, Victor M., novelist, poet, and statesman 
Amer. Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer.), &c 
Aiuer. . "Wm., general in "War of 1S1 2 . . . 

Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm, baron, statesman and author 

, F. H. A., baron, traveller, geographer, and nat. phil. 



Ger. 

Prnss. 
Scot. 
Eng. 
Amer. 



Hume, David, an historian and philosopher 

, Jos., statesman and reformer . 

Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author . 

Amer. Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist . 

Hung. Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior . 

Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author and journalist 

Eng. , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist . 

-, Leigh, poet and essayist . . 

, Thomas S., chemist and geologist . 

Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author 
, Robert M. T„ IT. S. senator from Virginia 



Eng. 

Amer, 

Scot. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Aro<»r. 



Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodists 

, Wm., Antinomian preacher . , 

— ->— , Jeded. V., poet and novelist . . 



BORN. DIED. 

1522 1568 

1730 1792 

1803 

1780 1862 

1778 1S17 
1785 1864 
1736 1806 

, C. 114 b. c. 50 

1769 1835 
8th cent. b. c. 
1805 

1741 1828 
1815 
1801 

1793 1862 

1726 1790 

1752 1827 
1819 

1724 1758 

1725 1799 
1814 

1596 1666 
1804 
1795 

1765 1848 

1672 1769 

1750 1831; 

1813 1860 

1611 

1630 1721 

1762 1836 

946 996 

1798 1864 

1802 

, 1775 1845 

1753 1825 
1767 1835 
1769 1859 
1711 1776 
1777 1855 

1779 1S59 
1753 1818 
1400 1456 
1804 1S58 

1784 1859 

1785 1859 
1826 

1728 1792 

1809 

1707 1791 

1744 1813 

1815 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



963 



KATIOlf, 

Anier, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger.. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Ind. 

Gr. 

Jew. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author . 
Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &c. . 

Huskisson, Rohon "William, able statesman . 
Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer . 

Hutcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer * 
Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N. E. Antinomians . 
' , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) 



-, Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian 



Hutten, Ulrich von, scholar and reformer 
Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician 

, James, a geologist and philosopher 
Huygens, Christian, a scientific author . 
Hyde de Neuville, F. G., baron de, politician 
Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior , 

Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher . 
Hyrcanus L and IL, high priests . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


. 1319 




172C 


1808 


1769 


1830 


1376 


1416 


1694 


1747 




1643 


1617 


1664 


n 1711 


178C 


1488 


1523 


1737 


1823 


1726 


1797 


1629 


1705 


1776 


1857 


1717 


1782 


. 370 


415 


1st and 2d cent. 



Turk. 
Gr. 

Span. 



Eng. 

Fort. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 



Eng. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Span. 

Span. 

Gr. 

Heb. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Span. 



Iamblichus, Neo, Platonic philosopher . 

Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , * 

Ibycus, a lyric poet . . , 

Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits . 

, Saint, primitive father of the church 

, St., patriarch of Constantinople . . 

Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist , 
Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal . . 

Ingersoll, Charlas J., statesman and historian 

, Joseph E., statesman and lawyer . 

Inglie, Henry D., traveller and author » 

Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar . . 

Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter 

, John, journalist and litterateur . , 

Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . . 

Irenasus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author . 

Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour ' . . 

■ , W. H., author of the ' Shakespeare Forgeries' 

Irene, a Byzantine empress ... 

Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of bis general 

Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels 

, Peter, author (brother of Washington) . 

, Rev. Edward, theological writer 

, Theodore, author of Conquest of Florida' 

, Washington, historian and essayist 

, William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . 



Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus 

II. , queen of Spain ... 

Isaeus, an orator . . . • . 

Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophets . 

Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist . . 

Isocrates, an orator . • . . 

Iturbide, emperor of Mexico • • • 



• 


A. D. 


4th cent. 




1789 




1848 


f. B. 0. 


550 








1491 




1556 


. 






107 




779 




877 


• 


1756 




1821 
1355 


• 


1782 
17S6 




1862 


. 


1795 




1835 




1774 




1850 


• 


1801 




1846 
1850 


. 


402 


to 


1687 




2d cent. 


. 


1750 




1800 




1777 




1835 


. 


752 




803 


rals 


1610 
1810 




1651 




1771 




1838 


• 


1792 
1809 




1834 


• 


1783 




1859 




1766 




1821 


• 


1451 

1830 




1504 


B. 


C. 418 








b. o. (abt; 


800 


, 


1792 




1857 


• E. 


0.436 






. 


1784 




1824 



964 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Amer. Ives, Levi S., ex-protestant episcopal bishop of North Carolina 1797 

Amer. Izard, Ralph statesman (of South Carolina) . • .1742 



1804 



Amer. Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. . 

Amer. , James, eminent physician . . . 

Amer. , Gen. Andrew, military commander, president U. S. 

Amer. , Patrick T., eminent merchant . . 

Amer. , Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall '), rebel general 

Eng. , "William (' of Exeter ') musical composer . 

Heb. Jacob, the Patriarch 

Ger. Jacobi, Fred. H., philosopher, novelist, &o. . 

Ger. Jacobs, Fred., classical philologist 

Fr. Ja'cotot, Jean J., educational writer . . 

Fr. Jacquard, Jos. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom 

Fr. Jacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . 

Dutch. Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist . 

Ger. Jahn, John, an eminent oriental scholar • 

Eng. James, G. P. R., novelist and historian • 

Amer. , Henry, philosophical writer . . . 

Amer. , John Angell, congregational clergyman and author 

, St., the Elder, apostle . . . 

, St., the Less, "... 

Eng. Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art . . 

S C0 t. , Robert, naturalist and author . . 

Pers. Jami, or Djami, poet .... 

Scot. Jamieson, John, D. D., miscellaneous author . 

Fr. Janin, Jules, litterateur .... 

Dutch. Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect . . 

Ital. Januarius, patron saint of Naples . . . 

Amer. Jarves, James J., traveller and author . . 

Amer. Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist 
Fr. Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet . . . 

Amer. Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution . 

Amer. , John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 

Amer. Jay, "William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist . 

Eng. , Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . 

Fr. Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . . 

Ger. Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician 
Irish. Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer 
Amer. Jefferson, Thomas, a patriotic statesman, 3d pros, of the U. 
Scot. Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic . 

Eng. Jeffreys, George, infamous judge 

Hind. Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthrop 
Aust. Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia , 

Eng. Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier . . 

Eng. Jenkyns, William, non -conformist (' on Jude ') . 
Eng. Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculation 
Eng. Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellaneous writer . 

Scot. Jerdan, William, journalist .... 
Heb. Jeremiah, prophet . . • . 



fl. B 



1805 




1777 




1767 


1845 


1780 


1847 


1826 


1863 


1730 


1803 


0. 1836 b. 


C. 1689 


1743 


1819 


1764 


1847 


1770 


1840 


1752 


1834 


1801 


1832 


1727 


1817 


1750 


1817 


1801 


1860 


1811 




1785 


1859 




44? 




66? 


1797 


1860 


1774 


1854 


1414 


1492 


1759 


1838 


1804 




1585 


1638 


272 


305 


1818 




1786 


1S51 


1793 


1864 


1750 


1779 


1745 


1829 


1779 


1858 


1769 


1853 


1412 


1431 


1763 


1825 


1736 


1775 


1743 


1S26 


1773 


1850 


1648 


1689 


1783 


1859 


1801 


1859 


1770 


1828 


1612 


1685 


1749 


1823 


1704 


1787 


1782 




. 0. 678 


67« 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



965 



f. 



RATION. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Er. 

ItaL 

Heb. 

HoL 

Fr. 

Heb. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Pol. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir "William, general and governor in North America 

Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . , 

Scot. , Alex. K., geographer . • . 

Scot. , George, writer and naturalist . . 

Scot. , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author 

Fr. Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler . 

Fr. , Francois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe 

Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louie, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi 
Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer . 
Swiss. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . . 

Heb. Jonah, the prophet . . - . 

Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church . 

, of Prague, reformer, companion of Huss 

Jerrold, Douglas, essayist . . . 

Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral , 
Jewell John, learned prelate and author . 

Jewsbury, Maria J., essayist . » 

Joan of Arc, 'the greatest of heroines' . 

Joanna, queen of Naples . . 

Joel, the prophet ...» 
Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everard), poet 
Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . . 

John, the Evangelist . . . 

, of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster 

, king of Saxony and author . 

— — , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general 

, Edward, historian of N. England . 

Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer in the cause of liberty 

, Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' 

, Alex B., philologist and miscellaneous wr 

, Andrew, president U. S. . 

, Reverdy, jurist and statesman 

, Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. S 

, Samuel, first president Columbia College and author 

, Walter R.. physicist .... 



iter 



Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Icel. 

Irish. 

Dan. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Jew. 

Heb. 



-, Inigo, an eminent architect ... 

-, Jacob, commodore in the U. S. navy 

-, John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States 

-, Owen, architect and decorator . . 

-, Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology 

-, Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 

-, Rev. William, ' of Nayland, 1 Hutchinsonian divine 

-, William, divine and author . . 



Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist 
Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian . . 

Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. 
Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author , 

Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author 
Josephine, empress of the French (born in Martinico) 
Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . 
Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites 



BORN. 


DIED 




420 




1416 


1782 


1857 


1774 


1823 


1522 


1571 




1833 


1410 


1431 


b. o. 800 




1511 


1538 


1803 


1852 




100 


1340 


1399 


1801 




. 1629 


1696 


1600 


1672 


. 1649 


1703 


1709 


1784 


1786 




1808 




1796 




3. 1780 


1850 


1696 


1772 


1794 


1852 


ea 1715 


1744 


1803 


1862 


1804 




1798 


1855 


. 1796 


1855 


1224 


1319 


1818 






1730 


1714 


1744 


1775 




f. B 


. O. 862 


1798 


1858 


. 1572 


1652 


1770 


1850 


1736 


1792 


1809 




1810 




1746 


1794 


1726 


1800 


1726 


1800 


1574 


1637 


1704 


1789 


1762 


1814 


1779 


1830 


1698 


1770 


1761 


1814 


. v 37 


95 


B. 


0. 1509 



966 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



rATiON 

Heb. 
Heb. 
Fr. 
Fr. 

Ger. 
Mex. 



Jew. 

Heb. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Dan. 

Eom. 
Fr. 



Hind. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 



NAME AND PKOFESSION. 

jTosiah, 17th king of Judah . , . 

Jotham, king of Judah . . < 

Jouffroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and statesman 
Jourdan J. B., marshal of France . . 

Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor . . 

Juan, or John, of Austria, don, -warrior , . 

Juarez, Benito, statesman and president . 

Juba, king of Numidia ...» 

, king of Mauritania and historian . . 

Judah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist , 
Judas Maccaheus, patriot . . . 

Judd, Sylvester, author of ' Margaret ' . . 

Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India . 

, Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above . 

, Emily Chubbuck, third wife of above, and author 

(' Fanny Forester ') . . 
, Sarah Boardman, second wife of above . 



Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral . .. 

Jugurtha, Numidian king . . . 

Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, 

tate' ..... 
Julien, A. J., orientalist ... 

Jullien, Louis G., musical composer, &o. . 

Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepaul . • 

Junge, Joachim, philosopher . . 

Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author . . 

Junius, Adrian, voluminous writer 
Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer 

, Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &e. 

Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist 

Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor 

, Latin historian .... 

, Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 

Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor 
Juvenal, Decius Junius, the most vehement of satirists 



1 Apos< 



BORN. 


DIED. 


B. C. 641 


B, o. 609 


B. C. 783 


b. o. 742 


1796 


1842 


1762 


1833 




364 


1546 


1578 


1807 






B. C. 46 




B. C. 18 


129 


194 




B. C. 160 


1813 


1853 


1788 


1850 


1789 


1826 


1817 


1854 


1803 


1845 


1629 


1697 




B. 0. 104 


331 


363 


1799 




1812 


1860 


1816 




1587 


1657 


1740 


1817 


. 1512 


1575 


1771 


1813 


17S4 


1839 


1748 


1836 


450 


627 


B. 0. 200 




91 


165 


482 


565 




128 



Ger. 
Ger. 
Fr. 
Bwe. 



Scot, 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Fr. 



K 

Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . . 

Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer . 
Kalb, baron de, who generously aided the American cause 
Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... 
Kamehameha (or Famehameha) L first king of the Sandwich 



Islands . ... 

— — , II. king, introduced Christianity . 

, III. introduced Constitution . , 

; , IV. (Alex. Liholiho) . . 

Karnes, Henry Home, lord, judge and author . 

Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . 
Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician . . . 

Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire 
Karr, J. B Alphonse, miscellaneous author . . 



(abt) 



1651 
1719 
1717 
1715 

1800 
1824 
1817 
1834 
1596 
1820 
1724 
1765 
1808 



1716 
1799 
1780 
1779 



1854 

1827 
1857 
1804 
1826 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



967 



NATION, 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Soot. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Kater, Henry, mathematician • . 

Kavanagh, Julia, novelist .... 
Kean, Charles John, actor • • • 

, Edmund, tragedian .... 

, Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress 

Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion 
Keats, John, a poet .... 

Keble, John, divine and poet .... 
Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author . . 

Keith, Geo. K. Elphinston, admiral . 

, James, an officer in the Russian and Prussian serri 

, Thos., mathematician, (' Use of Globes ') . 

Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general . 

, Franc Etienne, son of above, general . 

Kelly, Michael, composer and singer . . 

Kemble, Charles, actor .... 

, Frances Anne, actress and author . 

, John M., scholar and historian . . 

, John Philip, celebrated tragedian . 



Kemfelen, "Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-player 
Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imitation of Christ' 
Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological writer 

Amer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . . 

Amer. , George W., journalist and author . , 

Amer, Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author . 

Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . . 

Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist . 

Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . . 

Eng. Kennicott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critio . 

Ir.-Am.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author . 
Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria 
-, James, jurist, chancellor of New York • . 
— , William, judge, esteemed jurist . , 
Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist .... 
, John, poet .... 



Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scot. 



Kepler, John, eminent astronomer ... 

Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . . . 

Kerr, Robert, miscellaneous writer ... 
Amer. Key, Francis S., author of 'Star Spangled Banner' 
Eng. Kidd, "Wm., noted pirate, executed . . . 

Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist . . . 

Scot. Kilmarnock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded . 

Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , . . 

Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New Tork - , 

Amer. , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist . . 

Amer. , Thomas Starr, author .... 

Amer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president 

Eng. Kinglaka, Alex. Wrn., M. P., author of 'Eothen' . 

Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities 
Eng. Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet . 

Amer. Kip, "Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author 
Amer Kirkland, Caroline M., author of travels and essaya . 



BORN, 

1777 
1824 
18,11 
1787 
1805 
1S15 
1796 
1790 
1800 
1746 
1696 
1759 
1735 
1770 
1762 
1775 
1S11 
1S07 
1757 
1754 
1380 
1637 
17S9 
1810 
1809 
1782 
1795 
1660 
1718 
1797 
1767 
1763 

1732 
17S3 
1571 
1726 

1779 

1612 
1702 
1818 
1789 
1755 
1824 
1786 
1802 
1795 
1819 
1811 



DfED, 

1835 



1S62 
1820 



1820 
1758 
1824 
1820 
1835 
1826 
1854 

1857 
1823 
1806 
1471 
1711 



1825 

1728 
1783 
1863 
1S20 
1S47 
1861 
1802 
1S56 
1630 
1786 
1814 
1843 
1701 
1690 
1746 

1S67 
1827 
1864 
1S53 

1837 



1864 



968 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Kitchine,WilliMn, writer on Cookery . . 

Eng. Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author , 

Hung. Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author • 

Pruss. Klapioth, Henry J., philologist aid ethnologist 

Fr. Kleber, John Baptist, military officer . « 

Ger. Klopstock, the ' Milton of Germany ' . 

Ger. Knapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . . 

Amer. , Samuel L., miscellaneous writer . 

Eng. Knight, Charles, publisher, editor, and author , 

Eng. , Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer . 

Irish. Knowles, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor 

Eng. Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and miscellaneous author 

Amer. , Henry, military officer and statesman . 

Ger. Knyphausen, baron, general in British service . 

Ger. Koch, Christopher William, historian . . 

Pr. Kock, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist . 

Ger. Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . . 

Dan. Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer 

Ger. Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet 

Pol. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and pitriot, served in the Ameri- 
can army during the Revolution . . 

Hung. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary . 

Ger. Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Per. von, historian, &c. . 

Hung. Kraitsir, Charles, philologist . . 

Pol. Krasinski, Valerian, count, author . . . 

Ger. Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian • 

Ger. » Fred. William, religious writer . . 

Russ. Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . . , 

Ger. Kugler, Frunz Theodore, writer on art, &c. . 

Ger. Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic .... 

Ger. Kunth, Charles S., botanist .... 

Russ. Kutusofl, Michael L. G., field-marshal . 

Ii. 

Ft. Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian . . 

Ital. Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist . , . 

Eng. Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman . 

Fr. Laborde, A L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. . . 

Fr. Labruyere, see Bruyire .... 

Fr. Lacepede, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist 

Fr. Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author 

Fr. Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur . . 

Fr. Lacroix, Sylvestre ¥., mathematician 

Lactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero 

Rom. Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, praetor and consul 

Fr. Laennel, an eminent physician .... 

Fr. Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner 

Fr. La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c, military commander and states- 
man ..... 

Fr. — , George W., statesman . , 

Fr. Lafitte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman 

Fr. , Jean, corsair, privateer, or pirate . 



BORN. 


DISS 




1821 


1804 


1864 


1820 




1784 


1835 


1754 


1800 


1724 


1803 


1753 


1825 


1784 


1S38 


1791 




1750 


1824 


1784 


1862 


1752 


1821 


1750 


1806 


1730 


1789 


1737 


1813 


1794 




1808 




1804 




1791 


1813 


1746 


1817 


1802 




1761 


1819 


1804 


1860 


1780 


1855 


1768 


1845 


1770 


1846 


1808 


1858 


1768 


1841 


1788 




1745 


1813 


1663 


1738 


1794 


1858 


1798 




1774 


1842 


1756 


1825 


1802 




1766 


1817 


1765 


1833 




325 


C. 186 b. 


O. 115 


1782 


1826 


1816 


1852 



1757 



1834 



1768 1844 
1780 P 182* 



BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 



969 



SATIOV. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ger. La Fontainej Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous 

Fr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist , , 

Ital. Lagrange, Joseph Louis, able mathematician . , 

Fr. La Gueronniere, Louis E. A., viscount de, publicist . 

Fr. Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &c. , 

Scot. Laing, Malcolm, historian . . ... 

Fr. Lalande, Joseph J. le Francis de, astronomer . 

Amer. Lamar, Mirabeau B., second president of the republic of Texas 

Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist . . . 

Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 

Fr. Lamartine, Alphonse de, poet, historian, traveller, and states' 

man ..... 

Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist .... 

Eng. , Bady Caroline, novelist . . . 

Ital. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution . 

Eng. Lambert, A. B., botanist .... 

Eng. ■ , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds . 

Fr. Lammenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer 

Fr. Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general . . . 

Fr. Lamotte Fouque, Fred., baron de, novelist ' Undine' 

Eng. Bancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education . . 

Amer. Lander, Fred. "W., military officer (k. at Ball's Bluff ) . 

Eng. , Richard and John, travellers in Africa . . 

Fr. Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts . 

Eng. , (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist . . 

Eng. Landor, "Walter Savage, poet and essayist . . 

Eng. Landseer, John, engraver and author . . . 

Eng. Lane, Edw. Wm., orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &c, 

Amer. , James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon . 

Ger. Lange, commentator on scripture . . . 

Amer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator . , 

Ital. Langfranc, learned archbishop of Canterbury . . 

Eng. Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author . . . 

Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury 

Fr. Lannes, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France . 

Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis of, president of Council 

Eng. , William Petty, marquis of, premier 

Ital. Lanzi, Buigi, writer on art .... 

Fr. La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator 

Fr. Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo 
metrician ..... 

Lappenberg, Johann M., historian . • , 

Irish. Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science . 

Eng. , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine . . 

Fr. Larrey, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author . 

Fr. La Salle, Robt. C, sieur de, navigator and author . . 

Span. Las Casas, Barth de, missionary and historian . . 

Fr. > biographer of Napoleon, &c. . . . 

Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian . 

Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 

Eng. Latham, John, ornithologist .... 

Eug. — — - — . Robert G., philologist and ethnologist 

41* 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1756 


1831 


1621 


1695 


1736 


1813 


1816 




1739 


1793 


1762 


1818 


1732 


1801 


1798 


1853 


1782 


1807 


1770 


1832 


1802 




1776 


1834 


1785 


1828 


1748 


1792 


1761 


1842 


1770 


1809 


1782 


1854 


1806 


1866 


1777 


1843 


1771 


1839 


1822 


1862 




1834 




1826 


1S02 


1839 


1775 


1864 


1769 


1852 



1801 



1867 



1739 


1819 


1605 


1689 


1735 


17- 




1228 


1769 


1809 


1780 


1863 


1737 


1805 


1732 


1810 


1741 


1789 


1749 


1827 


1794 




1793 


1859 


1684 


1768 


1760 


1842 


1635 


".687 


1474 


1566 


1762 


1843 


1800 




1470 


1555 


1740 


1851 



970 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Land, "William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 
Soot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History 
Amer. Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war 

Amer. } Henry, patriot and statesman . . 

Fr. Laval ette, M. C, count de, military commander . 

Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV 
Swiss. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist . 

Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . 

Scot. Law, John, financier of the ' Mississippi Bubble ' ■ 

Eng. , "Wm., religious and mystical author . . 

Amer. Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . 

Amer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist • 

Amer. , James, captain in U. S. Navy . . 

Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh 
Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . . 

Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist . 

Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to Washington, diplomatist . 
Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet . . . 

Leclerc, John, eminent critic . . . . 

Le Conte, John, naturalist . . . 

, John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) 

, John, M. D., naturalist, (G-eorgia) . 



Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer.' 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

iEng. 

Scotch 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

PoL 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 



Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician . 
Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman 
Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman . . 

, Charles, officer in the Revolution . . 

, Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . . 

, Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . 

, Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist . 

, Henry, general in Revolutionary War . 

, Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies 

, Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . • 

, Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar . . 

, Sophia, Miss, novelist . . • 

Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. 
Lefebvre, Francois Joseph, duke of Dantzick, marshal of France 
Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litterateur . 

Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . 

Leggett, William, political and miscellaneous writer 
Leibnitz, Godfrey William, able and learned philosopher 
Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth 
Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . 

. Leighton, Robert, able prelate . . 

Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer . 

Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . 

, John, eminent divine and author . 

, Thomas, eminent divine and author . 

Lelewel, Joachim, historian 
Lemaitre, Fred., actor . -. ■ • 

Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of ' Punch ' 
Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer 
L'Enclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan 



BOKN. 
1573 

1784 
1756 
1724 
1769 

1644 
1741 
1743 
1671 
1686 
1792 
1786 
1781 
1817 
1792 
1777 
1760 
1729 
1657 
1784 
1825 
1818 
1808 
1751. 
1740 
1730 (7) 
(abt.) 1800 
1734 
1750 
1756 
1S08 
1732 
1783 
1750 
1817 
1755 
1797 
1753 
1802 
1646 
1532 
1752 
1613 



1824 
1691 
1772 
1786 
1798 
1809 
1824 
1615 



MEt» 

164S 
1848 

17S2 
1792 
1830 
1710 
1801 
1794 
1729 
1761 
1855 
1852 
1S13 



1860 
1826 
1807 
1736 



1783 
1782 
1782 

1797 
1824 
1816 

1794 
1852 
1824 
1864 
1820 
1843 
1833 
1840 
1716 
1588 
1842 
1684 
1691 

1766 
1785 



1683 



BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 

NATION NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Dutch. Lennep, David J. van, jurist and poet . . 

Dutch. , Jan van, poet and novelist . . 

Eng. Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in N. T.) . . 

Er. Lenornrand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer 

Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors 

Ital. Leo X, pope (John do Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts 

Ger. Leo, Henry, historian .... 

Gr. Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylae . f. 

Ger. Leopold L, king of the Belgians . 

Ger. I, emperor of Germany .... 

Ger. VI, " " . 

Ger. II, "".... 

Bom. Lepidus, noted Boman family ... 

Ger. Lepsius, Karl Bich., traveller and Egyptologist . 

Buss. Lermontoff, Michael, poet .... 

Fr. Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist ... 

Er. Leroy de St. Arnaud, J. A, marshal of France, general in chief 

Fr. Lesage, Alain Bene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias ' 

Eng. Leslie, Charles Bobt., artist and author ... 

Scot. , John, bishop, theological writer . . 

Scot. , John, mathematician and natural philosopher . 

Fr. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist ... 

Ger. Leasing, Gotthold E., critic and author ... 

Amer. Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author . . 

Eng. LEstrange, Sir Boger, political writer ... 

Fr. Leuret, Francis, anatomist .... 

Fr. Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist . 

Irish. Lever Chas. Jas., novelist .... 

Amer. Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author . . 

Fr. Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer . . . 

Amer. Le Vert, Octavia "W., authoress .... 

Scot. Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher 

Eng. Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author . . 

Amer. Lewis, Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. 

Eng. , Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer, Monk Lewis 

Amer. , Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . . 

Amer. , Samuel, educationist ... 

Eng. , Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman . 

Amer. , Taylor, classical scholar and author . . 

Scot. Leyden, John, author ..... 

Fr. L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France 

Ger. Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher . 

Amer Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin) 

Ger. Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist ... 

Buss. Lieven, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist . . 

Eng. Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . . 

Dutch Ligne, Charles Joseph, military officer and author . 

ItaL Liguori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer 

Eng. Lilly, George, dramatist ...-,. 

Eng. , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer . , 

Eng. , William, astrologer . .' . . 





971 


BORN. 


DIKH 


17T4 




1802 




1710 


1804 


1772 


1843 


s. 1475 


1521 


1799 




B. c. 491 




1790 


186- 


1640 


1705 


1747 


If 92 


1797 




B. c. 200 


86 


1811 




1811 


1841 


1798. 




1S01 ' 


1S54 


1668 


1747 


1794 


1859 


1570 


1671 


1766 


1832 


1S05 




1729 


1781 


1815 




1616 


1704 


1797 


1851 


1753 


1824 


1806 




1803 


1836 


1811 




1820 






1813 


1817 




1713 


1803 


1754 


1S32 


1773 


1818 


1774 




1799 


1854 


1806 




1802 




1775 


1811 


1504 


1573 


1742 


1790 


1800 




1803 




1784 


1857 


1735 


1814 


1735 


181* 


1696 


17S7 


1693 


17E3 


. 1553 


1600 


1602 


1681 



972 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Anaer. 

Swe. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Swe. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Swe. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Hung. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Rom. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Ind. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Russ. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Span. 



, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Limboreh, Philip, theologian and author . . 

Lincoln, Abraham, statesman, 16th president of the U. S, 

, Benjamin, major-general in the Revolutionary War 

, Levi, attorney -general of the U. S. (from Mass.) 

-, Levi, governor of Massachusetts . . 



Lind, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist 

Lindley, John, botanist 

Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &c 

, Sir David, poet . „ . 

Ling, Peter E., physiologist and poet . . 

Lingard, John, author of ' History of England' 
Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian . 
Linnaeus, Charles von, the most celebrated of naturalists 
Lipsius, Justus, critic .... 

Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 
Listou, John, comic actor . . . . . 

Liszt, Francis, performer on piano . . 

Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist . 

Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 
Livermore, Abiel A., clergyman, journalist and author 
Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, premier 
Livingston, Brockholst, soldier and jurist . . 

, Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman 

. , Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

, Bobert B., statesman and jurist 

, William, governor of New Jersey and poet 

Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa 
Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated historian . 
Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &c. . 

Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author . . 

Lobau, count, marshal of France . . 

Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician 
Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of' Quarterly 
Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' 
Logan, English name of a famous Indian chief 

■ , James, colonial statesman and author 

, John A, major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. 

Lofft, Capel, author . . ' . 

Lola-Montez, Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer 
Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne 
Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian 
Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman 
Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author 
Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist 
Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher 
Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house 
Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author „ . 

— , James, rebel general . . 

Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . 

Longworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer 
Loomis, Elias, physicist, astronomer . . 

Lope de Vega, Carpio Felix, poet and dramatist 



BOHIi. 


DIES. 


1633 


17U 


1809 


1865 


1733 


1810 


1749 


1820 


17S2 




1821 




1799 




1812 




(abt) 1490 


1555 


1776 


1839 


1771 


1851 


1736 


1794 


1707 


1778 


1547 


1606 


1S01 


1S42 


1776 


1846 


1811 






1481 


1781 


1840 


1S11 




1770 


1828 


1757 


1823 


1764 


1836 


1716 


1778 


1747 


1813 


1723 


1790 


1815 


1866 


. B. c. 59 A 


P. 17 


1756 


1823 


1729 


1783 


1770 


1838 


1632 


1704 


1794 


1854 


1756 


1S39 




1780 


1674 


1751 


1751 


1824 


1824 


1S61 




1S22 


1711 


1765 


1769 


1822 


1784 




1807 




f. b. c. 250 




1699 


1755 


1790 




1619 


1679 


. 1782 


1865 


1811 




1562 


1635 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



973 



NATION, 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Soot. 

Eng. 
French. 



Fr. 
Ft. 
Fr. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Irish. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Irish. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amor. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Lorraine, Charles de, cardinal and politician 

Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist . . • 

Loudon, J. C, voluminous writer on horticulture, agriculture, 

and architecture . . . 

, Mrs. Jane "W., horticultural -writer 

LOUIS, the name of eighteen kings of France 
Louis I., the Debonnaire . . 

IX, Saint 

XL, 6th of house of Valois . 

XII., 8th " " 

XIII., 2d Bourhon . , 

XIV., 3d «' 

XV., tth " 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. . 
Louis, baron, eminent surgeon . . 

Philippe, king of the French 

Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 

Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason 
Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist • 

, Rev. E. P., abolitionist journalist 

Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer 
Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon 
Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author . 
, James Russell, poet and critic . 



-, John, lawyer and philanthropist 



-, John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute 

, Mary, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer . 

Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union 

, "William J , statesman . . , 

, William Thomas, 'Biblio-Manual' . . 

Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author . 

Loyola. Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits . 

Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea . 

-, Marcus Annaeus, Latin poet . . . 

Lucian, celebrated writer . . . 

Lucilius, the earliest Roman satirist . . . 

Lucke, Gott C. F., theologian . . . 

Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet . . 

Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . . 

Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L • 

Lully, Raimond, ' the enlightened doctor' 
Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist . • 

Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist . 

Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation 
Luttrell, Henry, poet .... 
Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . .. • 

Lycni'gus, the Spartan legislator . * 

Eydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) . . 

LyeU, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller . . 

Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence 



BORN. 

1524 
1813 

1783 
1800 

778 
1215 
1423 
1462 
1601 
1638 
1710 
1754 
1785 
1755 

1773 

1667 
1811 
1802 
1797 
1769 
1782 
1819 
1769 
1799 
1810 
1722 
1782 

1710 
1491 
1800 

120 

:. C. 148 

1792 

. c. 95 

. c. 115 

1620 

1235 

1789 

1484 

1628 
. O. 898 
1375 
1797 
1749 



DIES 

1574 



1813 
1858 

84C 
1270 
1483 
1515 
1643 
1715 
1774 
1793 
1795 
1824 
1837 
1850 

1747 
1864 
1837 

1844 
1861 

1840 
1836 

1800 
1861 
1843 

1787 
1556 

37 

210 

B. o. 191 

1855 

B. o. 49 
1693 
1315 
1839 

1546 
1851 

1695 



1461 
1"7J 



974 the world's progress. 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 

Amer. Lynch, William P., captain U. S. navy, author of* Dead Sea, &c. 1805 
Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, statesman and jurist (born in Boston) 
Amer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist . 

Amer. , Matthew, politician .... 

Amer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at "Wilson's Creek 

Gr. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . . 

Gr. Lysias, orator . . 

Gr. Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals . • 

Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian • 

m. 

Fr. Mabillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . . « 

Scot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . 

Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist . 

Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 

Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman . . 

Eng. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer . 

Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . . 

Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . . 

Irish. MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of North-west passage 

Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist ... 

Amer. Maccorst, David J., political writer . . 

Scot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author . . 

Scot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician 

Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . 

Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union Army 

Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. . . 

Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author ... * 

Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . . 

Fr. Macdonald, S. T. A., marshal of France . 

Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake 

Ohamplain .... 

Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Union Army . . 

Amer. Macdume, Geo., U. S. senator from South Carolina . 

Scot. Macgillivray. Vm., naturalist . . . 

Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . 

Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . 

Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer 

Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 

Amer. Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels 

Scot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . 

Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. . . 

Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist 

Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . 

Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . . 

Scot. Macknight, James, divine and author . . . 

Aust. Mack von Liebenich, Karl, baron, general . 

Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . ■ 

Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician . 

Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Court 

Eng. MacLean, L. E. L., (Miss Landon), poet and novelist 



1772 




1797 


1849 


1746 


1822 


1819 


1861 


. 


B. o. 395 


b. c. 459 




B. c. 360 


B. 0. 281 


1709 


1763 



1632 


1707 


1756 


1836 


. 1737 


1806 


nan 1800 


1859 


1768 


1838 


1733 


1791 


1819 




1807 




1826 




1797 


1855 


1810 




1789 


1864 


1826 




1773 


1835 


. 1779 


1808 


1720 


1790 


1765 


1840 


1783 


1825 


ISIS 




178S 


1851 


1796 


1852 


1797 


1857 


1469 


1527 


1S12 




1734 


1S17 


1803 


1849 


1745 


1831 


1S09 




(ibt.) 1S10 




1766 


1832 


1690 


1796 


1721 


1800 


1752 


1828 


17S6 


1857 


1698 


174« 


17S5 




1804 


183S 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



975 



BATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Irish. Mac.ise, Daniel, historical painter . , . 

Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . . . 

Amer. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . , 

Scot. Maclnre, William, geologist, &c . . , , 

Fr. MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal . 

Scot. MacNah, Sir Allan, Canadian Statesman . . . 

Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. T.) 

Amer. Macomb, Major-General Alex., military commander 

Amer. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N. Carolina 37 years 

Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . 

Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion 

Eng. Macready, "Wm. Chas., tragedian .... 

Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 1772 

Eng. Madden, Sir Fred., antiquarian author . . . 1801 

Ger. Maddler, Johann Henry, astronomer .... 1794 

Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . 1751 

Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America . . 12th 

Span. Madoz, Paecuale, statesman and author . . . 1806 

Horn. Mascenas, Caius C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature 

Ital. Maffei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. 

Amer. Maffitt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . . 

Irish. Magee,"Wm., archbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) . . 

Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . . 

Fr. Magendie, Francis, physiologist .... 

Irish. Maginn, William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 

Fr. Magn an, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France 

Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author . . 

Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which hears his 
name ...... 

Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople 

Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian .... 

Jew. Maimonides, Moses, celebrated rabbi . . . 

Fr. Maintenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen . „ . 

Ital. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics 

Ital. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . 

Eng. ' Maittaire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . 

Heb. Malachi, the prophet . . . 

Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author . 

Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author 

Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' . 

Pr. Malebrahche, Nicholas, metaphysician 

Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) . 

Ital. Malibran, M. P., Madame, vocalist . . 

Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet J . . 

Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer . . 

Swiea. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian . . . 

Eng.. Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . 

Eng, , Jas. H. H., (son of above), statesman . 

Eng. , William of, historian . . 

Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . . 

ItaL Malphighi, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist 

Eng. Malt by, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist . 



BORN. 


DIED 


1811 




1774 


1835* 


1S21 




1763 


1840 


1807 




1798 




1763 


1841 


1782 


1841 


1757 


1837 


1738 


1798 


1S28 


1864 


1793 





1835 



1836 





B. C. 9 


1675 


1755 


1794 


1S50 


1765 


1831 




1521 


1783 


1855 


1793 


1842 


1791 


1864 


1810 




569 


632 


1430 


1480 


1610 


1686 


1131 


1204 


1635 


1719 


1753 


1821 


1C6S 


1747 


B. C. 


5th cent.'' 


1787 


1S64 


1799 




1769 


1833 


1638 


1715 


1721 


1794 


1808 


1836 


1555 


1628 


1702 


1765 


1730 


1S07 


1746 


1820 


1807 






1143 


1741 


1812 


1628 


1694 


1770 


1858 



976 



THE WOELD'S FROGEESS. 



NATION. 

Ger. 
Ger. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Pers. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

ItaL 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Eom. 

Ital. 

Arrer. 

Pt~s. 

SY. 

I>. 

0er. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Aust. 

Span. 

ItaL 

Span. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Malte Bran, Conrad, poet and geographer . 

, M., geographer . . . 

Malthus, T. R., political economist . • 

Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and author . 

Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author 

Manes, or Maniehaaus, founder of the Manichasan sect 

Manfred, prince of Tarentum, king of Two Sicilies 

Manin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . . 

Mann, Horace, statesman and educationist . . 

Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author . 

Mansel, Henry L., metaphysician and theologian . 

Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . 

Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . . . 

, "Win. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman 

Mantell, G. A., geologist . . . 
Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author 
, the Younger, printer and author . 



Paulns, (son of Manutius), printer 



BORN. 

. 1775 

1766 
1799 
1300 
239 
(abt.) 1231 
1804 
1795 
1812 
1815 
15S5 
1803 
1705 
1790 
1447 
1547 
1512 
1784 
1754 
B. c. 267 
1256 
1786 



Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi . . 

Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist • 

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, general . . 

Marco Polo, Venetian traveller . • . 

Marcy, "Wm. Learned, statesman . • • 

Mardonius, Persian general in Greece . • 

Margaret of Angoul&me, queen of Navarre . . 1492 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England . . 1429 

Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 

Margaret, queen of Denmark, &c, ' Semiramis of the North ' . 1353 

Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 1552 

Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 1787 



Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) 
Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 

Mariana, John, celebrated historian .... 

Maria Theresa, empress of Germany . . • 

MarieAmelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . . 

Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . . 

Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . 
Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . . 

Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution 
Marins, Caius, famous general and demagogue . . B. 

Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior 
Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and 
traveller ...... 

Marrnontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . . 

Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet ... 
Mapes, James J., agriculturist .... 

Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi . 

Marrast, Armand, journalist and politician . . 

Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . • •_ 

Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . , 

Marsh, Anne, novelist .... 

Marsh, Geo. Perkins, philu'ogist and diplomatist 



1806 
1574 
1537 
1717 
1782 
1755 
1821 
1810 

J. 153 
1650 

1773 
1723 
1564 

1637 
1800 
1778 
1755 
(abt.) 1800 
1801 



DIED, 

1828 



183- 



1372 
27 



1857 
1859 



1625 
1862 
1793 
185- 
1517 
1597 
1574 

1793 
E. C. 203 
1323 
1857 
B. 0. 479 
1549 
1481 
1530 
1412 
1612 
1847 

1642 
1624 
1780 

1793 



1795 
0. 86 

1722 

1852 
1799 
1593 
1865 
1675 
1852 
1847 
1634 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



977 



CATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 
Amer. Marsh, James, metaphysician , 

Amer. Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer . 

Eng. Marsbman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author , 

Eng. Marston, John, poet and dramatist . . , 

Rom. Martial,. Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist , . 

Eng. Martin, Benj., optician and author , . , 

Fr. Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . . . 

Amer. Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian >. 

Eng. MartineaU, Harriet, miscellaneous authoress . 

Eng. , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 

Prus. Martos, Ivan P., sculptor .... 

Span. Martinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur 
Ger. Mai tius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller . . 

Eng. Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia . 

Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist • • . 

ItaL , Peter, reformer and theologian . . 

Eng. Marvell, Andrew, author and statesman ... 
Eng. Mary I., first queen regnant of England . . 

Eng. , II., queen regnant with Wm. of Orange . . 

Scot. Stuart, queen of Scots .... 

Eng. Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller ... 
Eng. Maseres, Francis, 'baron,' mathematician . . 

Eng. Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer ...» 
Amer. Mason, George, statesman ...» 

Amer. , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman ... 

Amer. , John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . 

Eng, , John, divine and author .... 

Amer. , John M., eminent divine . . . 

Amer. , John, M., senator from Viiginia, rebel . . 

Amer. , John T., statesman and minister to France . 

Amer. , Lowell, musical teacher and composer . . 

Eng. , William, divine and poet . . . 

Ind. Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags . . . 

Fr. Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals 
Eng. Maesey, Gerald, poet .... 

Fr. Massillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . 

Massinissa, king of Numidia .... (ab 
Scot. Masson, David, biographer and essayist . . . 

Eng. Maunder, Samuel ' Treasury of Knowledge ' . . 

Amer. Mather, Cotton, divine and author ... 

Amer. , Increase, clergyman and author . . 

Irish. Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' . . 

Eng. Mathias, Thomas, author of ' Pursuits of Literature ' . 
Eng. Matthew of Westminster, historian . . . 

Eng. Matthews, Charles, actor and humorist 
Amer. ' Matthias ' (Robert Matthews), religious impostor . . 

Fr. Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . . 

Irish. Maturin, Charles Robert, divine, dramatist and poet . 

Eng. Maundrell, Rev. Henry, -traveller in the East . . 

Fr. Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. 
Hoi. Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder 



BORN. 


mm 


175S 


1S39 


1794 


184T 


1755 


1S3S 


1767 


1^37 


(abt.) 1570 


1634 


40 


100 


1704 


1782 


1704 


1782 


1S10 




1764 


184S 


1800 




1753 


1S35 


1786 




. 1781 


1812 


103? 


167? 


1500 


1561 


1621 


1678 


1515 


1558 


1662 


1694 


1542 


1587 


1792 


1848 


1731 


1824 


1732 


1SU 


1726 


1792 


1768 


1S48 


1600 


1672 


1706 


1763 


1770 


1829 


1795 


1859 


1792 




1725 


1797 




1661 


1758 


1817 


1828 




1663 


1742 


) B. C. 240 b 


c, 143 


1823 




1790 


1849 


1663 


1728 


1639 


1723 


1790 


1856 


1750 


1835 


13th 


sent. 


1776 


1835 


'abt'/ 1790 


183- 


1791 




1782 


1825 


1650? 


1710 


1698 


1759 


1567 


162* 



978 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



EATIOST. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author . 
Eng. , Thos. Rev., histor* of Hindostan, &c. . 

Mauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzantine emperor . 

Amer. Maury, Matthew F., naval officer, astronomer, rebel, &c. 

Fr. , John Siffrein, cardinal and statesman 

Eng. Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. . 
Ger. Mavrocordato, statesman . . . 

Eng. Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and conchologist . . 

Ger. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany . . 

Ger. , prince, emperor of Mexico . . 

Rom. Maximums, Caius J. V., emperor of Rome . 

Eng. Maxwell, Wm. R., ' Life of Wellington,' &c. . . 

Amer. Mayer, BraDtz, lawyer and historical writer . 

Ger. Mayer, Johann T., astronomer . . . 

Eng. Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Horace, brothers, 
morous and miscellaneous •writers . . 

Amer. , Jonathan, clergyman and author . . 

Fr. Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . . 

Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks . . 

Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) . 
Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac . 

Amer. , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author 

I.Amer.Meagher, Thos. F., gen, in Union armies, gov. Idaho 
Eng. Medhurst, Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary 

Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal .... 

, Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany 

,' pater patriae,' Florence . . 



(shot) 



hu 
(abt) 



Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Turk. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Port. 

Span. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Bubs. 

Ger. 

Ger. 



-, Lorenzo de, poet, gov. of Florence, and patron of arts 
-, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts . 



Mehernet-Ali, pasha of Egypt . . . 

Meinei's, Christopher, historian . . . 

Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . . 

Melbourne, Wm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . . 
Mellen, Grenville, poet .... 
Melmoth, Win., ' Letters,' translation of Cicero, <fec. . 

■ , ' Religious Life' . . 

Melville, Andrew, religious reformer . . . 

, Herman, author of travels, romances . 

, Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author . 

Menander, comic poet .... 
Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer 

, Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher 

Mendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying 
Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman 
Mengs, Anton Rafael, painter and writer on art . 
Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . 
Mentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman , . 
, Alex., S., admiral . . . 



Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of 'Mennonites' 
Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian . . 

Dutch. Mercator, Gerard, geographer 

Amer. Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary war , 



BORN. 


DIED 


1805 




1755 


1821 


539 


602 


1806 




1746 


1817 


1758 


1837 


1790 




1755 


1829 


1459 


1519 


) 1834 


1867 




238 


1795 


1851 


1809 




1723 


1762 


) 1812 




1720 


1766 


1602 


1661 




1709 


1809 




1S15 




1789 






1867 


1796 


1857 


1511 


1535 


1519 


1574 


1389 


1464 


1448 


1492 




14fc9 


1769 


1849 


1747 


1810 


1497 


1560 


1779 


1848 


1799 


1841 


1710 


1799 


1666 


1743 


1545 


1622 


1819 




1535 


1607 


342 


B. c. 290 


1809 


1847 


1729 


1786 


1510 


1580 


1503 


1575 


1728 


1779 


1623 


1698 


1672 


1769 


1789 






1561 


1798 




1512 


1594 


172C 


1777 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



979 



KATIOW. NAME AND PROFESSION, 

Amer. Meigs, Return J., revol. officer 

Amer. Meriam, Eben, statistician and meteorologist 

Fr. Merimee, Prosper, novelist . . 

Eng. Merivale, Charles, historian . . 

Eng. , John Herman, poet 

Swiss. Merle d'Aubign6, J. H., D. D., historian . 

Fr. Merovasus, founder Merovingian dynasty 

Fr. Mery, Joseph, poet and novelist 

Ger. Meetner, Fred. A., founder of ' Mesmerism ' 

Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet 

Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada 

Rom. Metellns, the name of several famous plebeians 

Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist 

Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic . . . 

Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . 

Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. R., antiquarian author . 

Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . . 

Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist. . . 

Gr. Miaulis, naval commander . . 

Heb. Micah, the Prophet . . ■ , 

Ital. Micari, Guiseppe, historian . . 

Ger. Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and critio 

Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian 

Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana ') 

Fr. Michel, Francisque, archssologist 

Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian . . 

Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical -writer 

Pol. Mickiewicz. Adam, poet .... 

Eng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of ' Lusiad,' tea. 

Eng. Middleton, Conyers, divine and elegant writer . 

Amer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman 

Eng. , Thomas, dramatist 

Amer. Mifflin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary war 

Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian ..... 

Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 

Amer. Milbnrn, "William Henry, 'blind preacher' and author 

Scot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 

Eng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . . . 

Eng. Millais, John Everett, 'pre-Raphaelite' painter . , 

Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c, (' I'll try, sir') 

Eng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests . 

Scot. ■ , Hugh, geologist ..... 

Amer. , William, founder of the ' Millerites,' or second adventists 

Fr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet 

Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &c 

Eng. Millman, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian 

Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian 

Eng. Mills, Charles, historian 

Fr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist . . 

Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman 

Eng. Milner, Joseph, author of ' Church History ' 

Amer- Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman 



BORN. 


J>IEP. 


1740 


1823 


1794 


1864 


. 1800 




1779 


1844 


1794 




411 


457 


1798 




1734 


1815 


1698. 


1782 


1785 


1846 


3. C. 250 


69 


1773 


1859 


1579 


1639 


1791 




1783 


1848 


1610 


1682 


1774 


1849 


1772 


1835 


f. B 


0. 750 




1839 


1717. 


1791 


1767 


1839 


1746 


1802 


1809 




1798 




1801 




1798 


1S55 


1734 


1788 


. 1683 


1750 


1743 


1787 




1627 


1744 


1800 


1796 




1802 




1823 




1775 


1838 


1806 




1829 




1776 


1851 


1684 


1738 


1802 


1856 


s 1781 


1849 


1782 


1816 


1759 




1791 




1726 


1785 


. 1788 


1826 


1800 




1809 




1744 


1797 


1773 


1844 



980 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



RATION 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Er. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Hex. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Er. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Turk. 

Bar. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Fr. 

HoL 

Eng. 

Er. 

Fr. 

Span. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Swiss 

Swiss. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Er. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Er. 

Er. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PKOFESSIOH. 

Miltiades, illustrious Athenian general . 

Milton, John, the Homer of Britain . . 

Minie, Claude E., inventor of the Minie rifle-bullet 
Minot, George R., historian . . . • 

Minutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer . 

Miramon, Miguel, military leader . . a 

Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general 



1810 
1758 
3d cent, 
(abt.) 1830 
1750 



Mirabeau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the 

Revolution and author ..... 1749 
Mirbel, Charles F. B. de, naturalist .... 1776 
Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general . 
Mitchell, Donald G., essayist .... 
, Maria, astronomer ..... 



, Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist 

, Thomas, classical scholar and critic . . 

Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist . . 

, Rev. John, editor of poets, .... 

, "William, historian and philologist . . 

MithridateB, king of Pontus, warrior . . . 

Mitscherlich, E., chemist ..... 

Mittermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman . 
Mohammed-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) 

— Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites 

Mohler, Johann Adam R., catholic theologian . . 

Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist .... 

Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . . 

Molle, M. L., comte, statesman . . • • 

Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist . . 

Molesworth, Sir William, statesman avid author 
Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian 
Moliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist 
Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . . . 

Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist . . . 

Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . . 

Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military officer . 

Monod, Adolphe, ' reformed pastor ' and author . . 

, Dr. Frederick, ' reformed pastor' at Paris . . 

Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president TJ-"i + °<l States . 

Monse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician . . . 

Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler .... 

Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author .... 

, Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' <fcc. . . 

, — , Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer . . 

Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, statesman and poet . 
Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist 
Montalembert, Charles F., count, statesman and author . 
Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada . 

Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal ... 
Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior .... 

MonteBpan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. * 

Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer . « 

Montei, Lola, female adventurer • * • 



1810 
1822 
1818 
1763 
1783 
1786 
1781 
1734 

0. 123 
1794 
1787 
1769 

f. 1650 
1796 
1774 
1798 
1781 
1822 
1810 
1754 
1622 
1585 
1714 



1802 
1794 
1759 
1746 
1390 

177a 

1720 
1690^ 
1661 
1533 
1810 
1712 
1769 
1609 
1641 
1689 
1824 



DI3I*. 

0. 483 
1674 

1802 

1867 

1818 

1791 

1854 
186- 



1831 

1845 
1855 
1859 
1827 
!. 64 
1863 

1850 



1851 
1855 

1855 
1817 
1673 
1600 
1799 
1265 
1670 
1856 
1863 
1831 
1818 
1453 
1851 
1802 
1762 
1715 
1592 

1759 
1809 
1681 
1707 
1755 
1861 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



981 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Mex. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns . 

Mex. II, last Atzec emperor . . • 

Fr. Montfaucon, Bern, de, archaeologist and author 

Eng. Montgomery, James, poet .... 

Amer. , Richard, intrepid military officer . 

Eng. , Robert, poet .... 

Tr. Montbolon, eomte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon 

Fr. Montmorenci, Anne de, constable of France . 

Ital. Monte, Vincent, poet .... 

Pr. Montmorency, noble family of France . . , 

Pr. Montpensir, Madame, author of Memoirs &o 

Scot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader . 

Amer. Moore, Geo. H., author .... 

Amer. , Frank EL, author . • 

Amer. , Clement C, writer of verses, Ac. . • 

Amer. , Jacob Bailey, journalist and author . . 

Scot. -, John, miscellaneous author . . 

Scot , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna 

Ital. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer 

Eng. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . . 

Eng. ■ , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher 

Tr. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . . 

Amer. Morflt, Campbell, chemist and author . , 

Amer. Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in revolutionary war . 

Amer. , Jno. Henry, rebel flllibuster general . 

Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels &c. . 

Eng. , Sir Henry J., buccaneer . 

Eng. Morier, James, novelist, 'HajjiBaba 1 &c. . 

Eng. Moruington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer 

Pr. Morny, Chas. A. count of, minister of Napoleon III. . 

Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player 

Eng. Morrell, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . 

Amer. Moms, Geo, P., poet and journalist 

Amer. ■ , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . . 

Amer. , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier 

Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 

Eng. , Robert D. D., missionary and philologist 

Amer. Morse, Jedediah, geographer and statistical writer 

Amer. — , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph 

Amer. — '- — , Sidney E., journalist and geographer . 

Pr. Mortier, marshal of France, killed by Fieschi . 

Scot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent . 

Amer. , John, signer of Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist 

Amer. , Wm. T. G dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?) 

Heb. Moses, lawgiver of the Jews 

Ger. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . 

Boot. Motherwell, "William, poet . . . 

Amer. Motley, John Lothrop, historian ... 

Amer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' and philanthropist 
A,mer. , Valentine, surgeon and author . . 



BOSS. 


PIED. 




1471 


. 1480 


1520 


• 1655 


1741 


1771 


1854 


. 1737 


1775 


1807 


1855 


1783 


1853 


1493 


1567 


1753 


1828 


10th to 19th century 


1627 


1693 


1612 


1651 


1779 


1863 


. 1797 


1853 


1728 


1802 


l . 1761 


1809 


1526 


1555 


1744 


1833 


1614 


168? 


1763 


1813 


1820 




1736 


1802 


• • 
1780 


1859 


. 1637 


1690 


1780 


1849 


. 1720 


1784 


. 1811 


1865 


1837 




. 1703 


1784 


. 1802 


1864 


. 1752 


1816 


1726 


1798 


icier 1703 


1806 


1782 


1834 


1782 


1834 


1761 


1827 


1791 




. 1794 




1768 


1835 


1530 


1581 


(Penn) 1724 


1777 


1799 


1851 


?) . 1819 




. b. 0. 1571 B 


C. 1451 


1695 


1755 


. 1797 


1835 


1814 




1793 




1785 


1861 



982 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. BOBS. 

Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit . . 1660 

Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . • . f. B. 0. 160 

Amer. Moultrie, fm., general and statesman . ■ • 1731 

Mouradgea, D'Ohason, Armenian historian . . 1740 

Amer. Mowatt (Ritchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress . (abt) 1826 

Ger. Mozart, C. "W. T., eminent composer . . . 1756 

Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on Natural History, &c. 1777 

Ger. Muller, C. O., historian, archaeologist classical scholar . . 1797 

Swiss. Muller, John von, celebrated historian, ' Universal History' 1752 

Ger. , John, physiologist . . . . • 1801 

Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. E., proverbial for 'stories' • . 1720 

Eng. Manden, Jos. S., comedian . . • 1758 

Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of Naples , 1771 

Ital. Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian , . • 1672 

Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator • . 1727 

Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist . • . • 1775 

Scot. , Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) . • . 1779 

Scot. , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent . . . 1531 

Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher • • 1778 

Amer. ■ , Lindley, grammarian , . • • 1745 

Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman . • . . 1761 

Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet . • • . f. b. 0. 1243 

Fr. Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet , • • • 1810 



DIED. 

1717 

1805 
1807 

1793 

1842 
1840 
1809 
1S58 
1797 
1832 
1815 
1750 
1805 
1813 
1846 
1570 
1843 
1826 
1803 

1857 



* N. 

A.ssyr. Nabonassar, first king of the Chaldeans . 

Assyr. Nabopolassar, king of Babylon . • 

Pers. Nadir Shah, or Thainas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king 

Heb. Nahum, prophet 

Irish. Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c. 

Scot. , John, baron, inventor of logarithms 

Eng. , Sir Charles, admiral . . . 

Fr. Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) . . 

Fr. , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) , 

Fr. , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor . 

Eng. Nares, James, musical doctor, composer . 

Eng. , Rev. Edmund, ' Thinks I to myself 

Pers. Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor 

Span. Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman 

Eng. Nash, Richard, styled ' Beau Nash ' . . 

Dutch. Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general . 

Pers. Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . . 

Span. Navarrete, Martin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages' 

Eng. Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &o 

Amer. , John, novelist 

Amer. , Joseph C, litterateur . . « 

Ger. Neander, J. "W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian 

Gr. NeaTchus, admiral and voyager • • 

Chald. Nebuthadnezzar, king of Babylon . • 

Fr. Necker, James, eminent financier and statesman 
Swiss. ■ , Madame J. C, wife of James, essayist 



fl. b. o. 747 



fl. b. C. 626 




1688 


1747 


f. B. c. 


7th cent. 


1782 


1853 


1550 


1617 


1786 


1860 


1769 


1821 


1811 


,1832 


1808 




1715 


1783 


1762 


1841 


. 


567 


1795 




16*4 


1761 


, 1567 


1625 


1201 


1274 


, 1765 


1844 


1678 


1743 


1794 




. 1807 


1843 


, 1789 


1850 


. B. 0. 


4th cent. 




B. 0. 462 


. 1732 


1804 


1739 


1794 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



933 



NATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Neele, Henry, poet aud miscellaneous writer . . 

Swiss. Neil", Felix, apostle of the Alps .... 
Heb. Neherniab, governor of Judea . . . . 

Eng. Nelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral , 

Rom. Nepos, Cornelius, historian . • • • 

Rom. Nero, infamous ernperor .... 

Rom. Nerva, emperor ..... 

Russ. Nesselrode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist . 
Gr. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, founder of Nestorians 
Ger. Neukonim, Sigism. chevalier, composer . . 

Ger. Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c. 
Eng. Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer . 

Eng. , Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers . 

Eng. , Thomas, learned prelate, (on Prophecies) . 

Fr. Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave ' . 
Gr. Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantine historian . . 

Russ. Nicholas I., emperor, (18:15-55) . . . 

Eng. Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist . 
Eng. Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic . 

Eng. , William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 

Amer. Nicklin, P. H, bookseller. and miscellaneous writer 
Ger. Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author . . 

Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . . . 

Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian . . 

, Carsten, celebrated traveller . . 



Eng. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Pol. 

Eng. 



Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author 
Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . . 

Amer. Niles, Hezekiah, journalist 'Register' . . 

Swe. Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... 

Amer. Noah, Mordecai M., journalist, politician and author . 

Ger. Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . 

Fr. Nodier, Charles, novelist . ,, . 

Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author 

Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman 

Eng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' . . 

Eng. , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George IIL . 

Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer ... 

Amer. Norton, Andrews theological, Unitarian author . 

Eng. , Hon. Mrs., poetess .... 

Amer. Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . 

Amer. ,• Eliphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author 

Eng. , John, poet and translator . . . 

Ger. Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . . 

Eng. Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) . 

Amer. Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . . 

Irish. Nugent, lord, author of ' Life of Hampden,' &o. . 

Rom, Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. 

Span. Nunez, Alva C. de Vaca, explorer . . • 

O. 

Eng. Oates, Titus, infamous pretender of the ' Popish plot' . 
Fr. Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist . . . 



BORN. 


i:ed, 


. 1798 


1828 


1798 


1829 


B. o. 444 




1758 


1S03 


. B. 


c. 30 


37 


63 


32 


98 


1780 


1862 




439 


1778 


1857 


C. 1782 




1725 


1807 


1642 


1727 


1704 


1782 


1769 


1815 


14bh 


cent. 


1796 


1855 


1S07 


1863 


y 1753 


1815 


17S6 


1842 


, 1733 


1811 


1799 


1848 


1776 


1830 


1733 


1815 


1756 


1841 


. 1777 


1839 


1787 






1851 


1770 


1S26 


1783 


1844 


1797 


186J 


1637 


168£ 


1732 


1795. 


1746 


1837 


1790 


1835 


1834 


1859 


1773 


1866 


1751 


1826 


1772 


1801 


1781 


1861 


1805 


1864 




1850 


b. 0. 714 






1564 


. 1619 


1708 


1740 


183« 



984 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 

Irish. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet .... 

Iiish. , Wra. Smith, political agitator . . 

Irish. O'Coimell, Daniel, political agitator . . . 

Irish. O'Connor, Fergus, chartist orator . . . 

Eng. Ockley, Simon, orientalist . , 

Arab. Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . , 

Fr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman . . . 

Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy . . 

Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of electro-magnetism . 

Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . . 

Irish. O'Keefe, John, dramatist . . . 

Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist .... 

Ger. Olbers, H. "W. M., astronomer ... 

Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham ... 

Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author 

Span. Olivan, don Aless., publicist .... 

Amer. Olmsted, Denison, professor, astronomer, &c . 

Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian . . 

Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . . 

Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author . 

Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons . 

Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and education 

Gr. Oppian, poet ..... 

Dutch. Orange, William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 

Dutch. ■ , William II., prince of, stadtholder . 

Dutch. , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England 

Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and tosicologist . . 

Origen, one of the fathers of the church . . 

Er. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of ' Egalite,' guillotined . . 

Fr. , Per. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe • 

Russ. Orloff, Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . . 

Eng. Orme, Robert, historian of India .... 
Eng. Oimond, James Butler, duke of, statesman . . 

Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the 'father of poetry' • 
Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy . 

Irish. , Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author . 

Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author . . 

Amer. Osgood, Prances, poetess .... 

Amer. , Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author . 

Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 
Scot. Ossian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century 
Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt . . . . .i 

Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statesman . . . 

Amer. , Harrison Gray, statesman and jurist . * . 

Ger. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) . * 

Eng. Ottley, ¥ra, Young, writer on art ... 

Eng. Otway, celebrated dramatist, ' Venice Preserved ' . 

Pr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France ... 
Eng. Ouseley, Sir Gore, diplomatist ... 

Ger. Overbeck, Fred., founder of modern religious school of art 
Eng. Overbury, Bir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) . 
Rom. Ovid, Publius N \eo, poet .... 



BORN. 


DIED. 




1863 


1806 


186- 


1775 


1841 


1795 


1855 


1678 


1720 


• 


267 


1791 






493 


1777 


1851 


1698 


1785 


1748 


1833 


1778 


1851 




1840 


1360 


1417 


1797 


1851 


1791 


1859 


1796 


1839 


581 


644 


1778 


1836 


1691 


1768 


1771 


1853 


f. 150 




ablic 1533 


15S4 


1626 


1650 


md 1650 


1702 


1787 




185 


253 


1747 


1793 


1810 


1842 


1734 


1783 


1728 


1801 


1610 


1688 


1676 


1731 


1621 


1679 


1717 


1783 


1812 


1850 


1812 




1502 


1580 


abt.) 1500 




1725 


1772 


1767 


1848 


1815 


1867 


1771 


1836 


1651 


1685 


1767 


1847 


1769 


1844 


1780 




1581 


1612 


B. C. 43 


u 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



985 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Span. Oviedo, J. G., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Indies ' 

Amer. Owen, David Dale, geologist .... 

Eng. , John, independent theologian . . 

Eng. , Richard, surgeon and naturalist .... 

"Welsh. , Robert, political theorist . . . 

Amer. , Robert Dale, statesman and author , . 

Eng. Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author . , 

P. 

Amer. Paine, Elijah, jurist ..... 

Amer. , Elijah (son of above), jurist ... 

Amer. , John Howard, dramatist, ' Home, Sweet Home ' 

Amer. , Robert Treat, lawyer and patriot . . , 

Amer. , Robert Treat, son, poet, . . . 

Eng. , Thomas, political and deistical writer . . 

Fr. Paixhan, general, inventor of guns bearing his name . 

Ven. Paez, military commander and president "Venezuela , 

Ital. Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . . . 

Eng. Paley, William, eminent divine and author . . 

Eng. Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author , . 

Fr. Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist . . • 

Fr. Palissy, Bernard, ' the Potter' . , . 

Ital. Palladio, Andrew, architect .... 

Pruss. Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . , 

Eng. Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . . 

Ger. Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer . . . 

Ital. Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general . . 

Can. Papineau, L. J , politician and patriot . , 

Rom. Papinian, ./Emilius, civil lawyer .... 

Swiss. Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de H., alchemist . . 

Eng. Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist .... 

Fr. Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe 

Eng. , Matthew, historian .... 

Scot. Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller 

Amer. Parker, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 

Eng. Parkes, Samuel, chemist and author . . 

Ital. Parma, Alexender Farnese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 

Irish. Parnell, Thos., poet and divine . . . 

Eng. Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . 

Eng. , Thomas, lived 152 years . . 

Eng. Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . . • 

Amer. Parsons, Theophilus, jurist .... 

Amer. , Theophilus (son), jurist .... 

Amer. Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essayist . 

Amer. , Mrs. Sarah, ' Fanny Fern,' authoress . . 

Fr. Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer . 

Russ. Paskewitsch, Ivan F., prince of "Warsaw, general . . 

Eng. Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. "W., engineer . . . 

Fr. Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . . 

Ger. Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 

Rom. Paterculus, Caius Velleius, historian . . (abt.) b. e. 

42 



OKM. 


BIED. 




1640 


1807 


1860 


1616 


1683 


1771 


I860 


1717 


1797 



1757 


184a 


1796 


1853 


1791 


1851 


1731 


1814 


1773 


1811 


1736 


1809 


1782 


1854 


17S7 




1784 


1835 


1745 


1805 


1788 


1861 


1730 


1815 


1510 


1590 


1518 


1580 


1741 


1811 


1784 


1865 


1729 


1812 


1726 


1806 


1789 




145 


212 


1493 


1541 


1812 


1862 


1838 






1259 


1771 


1804 


1810 


1860 


1759 


1829 


1546 


1592 


1679 


1717 


1746 


1825 


1483 


1635 


1790 


1856 


1750 


1813 


1811 




1623 


1662 


1782 


1856 


1781 


1861 


1767 


1862 


1786 


1839 


20 





9SG 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Patinore, Coventry, poet ...» 
Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland . . , 

Eng. , Simon, bishop of Chichester, Bible commentary 

Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) . . , 

Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . . 

Fr. , St. Vincent de, Catholic missionary . , 

Amei. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . * 

Rom. Paulus-^Emilius, Lucius, fell at Cannes . . 

Gr. Pausanias, spartan commander . . 

Gr. , topographical writer ... 

Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect . 
Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder . . . 

Amer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine . 
Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer . . 

Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer . 

Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . 

Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Chester, ' On the Creed' 
Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria II.) 

Port. , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal 

Eng. Peel, Sir Robert, 1st baronet, cotton manufacturer . 

Eng. , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman • . 

Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) . 

Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect . 

Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias 

Fr. Pelissier, A. J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal 

Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot 

Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general . 

Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist . 

Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of . 

Eng. Penn, Granville, author 

Eng. ■ , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 

Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania 

Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary . 

Ital. Pepo, William Florestan, general , . " 

Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general . . . 

Ital. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur . . 

Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of « Diary' 

Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated 

Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic 

Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, ' Religious Ant, Poetry ' 

Fr. Pe'refixe, Hardouin de Beaumont de, historian . 

Eng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., ' Materia Medica' 

Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer 

Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman 

Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist . 

Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 

Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, &c. 

Eng. f Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 

Fr. Perouse, John F. Galaup, circumnavigator . • 

Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . « » 

Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') . . 

Amer. , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy • 



BOBN. 

1823 

372 

1626 

1552 



DIES, 



1576 
1779 



493 

1707 

1623 

65? 

1669 

1860 

b. 0. 216 

B. o. 470 

f. (abt.) 120 

1802 1865 

1739 1797 

1783 1827 

1802 

1799 1848 

1858 

1613 16S6 

1837 186- 

1834 

1750 1830 

1850 

1552 1598 

354 

757 

1794 1864 
1789 1854 

b. o. 364 
1807 

1621 

1761 1844 
1621 1670 
1644 1718 
1726 1798 
1780 1855 
1697 1759 
1801 

1632 1703 

1762 1812 

1795 1857 
1728 1811 
1605 1670 
1804 1853 
1710 1736 

b. c. 490 B o. 429 
1785 1854 
1599 1660 
1766 1849 
1764 1854 
1741 1788 
1777 1832 
1795 1858 
1785 1818 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 



987 



KAT10H NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Persigny, Jean G. V., politician and diplomatist . 
Rom. Persius, FJaccus Aulus, satirist . . . 

Ger. Perthes, Christian Frederick, bookseller, (life by son) 
Rom. Pertinax, emperor ..... 
Swiss. Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 
Buss. Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior „ . 

Fr. the Hermit, first mover of the crusades . 

Eng. Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic ' . . . . 

Eng. Peterborough, CharlesMordaunt, earl of, warrior 
Ger. Petermann, August H., geographer . . . 

Arner. Petigrew, James Louis, of S. C, Union statesman . 

Petion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti . . 

Ital. Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 
Fr. Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. andhistor 

Ger. Pfeiffer, Ida, traveller and author . . 

Rom. Phasdrus, fabulist ..... 
Fr. Philidor, Andrew, writer on chess . . 

Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . . . 

St., of Neri, founder of the Oratory . 

Phillimore, John G., author on law . . 

Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist . . 

, John, poet ' Splendid Shilling ' . . 

, Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . • 

Philo-Judseus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria . 

Philopoemen, celebrated general . . . 

Phipps, Sir "William, colonial governor Massachusetts 

Phocion, eminent Athenian general . . 

I'hotius, learned patriarch of Constantinople . 

Physic, Philip Syng, M. D. . . . 

Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer ... 

Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist . 

Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . . , 

Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman , 

, John, philologist . 

Pictet, Benedict, theological and historical writer 

Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . . . 

Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th president U. S. „ 

Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist 

, William, distinguished orator and diplomatist 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Jew. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Amer, 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Scot. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Ital. 



Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets . . 

Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author 
Pinzou, Vincent Tanez, navigator, discovered Brazil 
Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 
Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . . 

Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens . . . 

Pitkin, Timothy, historian and statistician . 

Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator . . 

, William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman 

, WiLiam, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham 

Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages . 

Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) . . 



BORN. 

1808 
34 
1772 
126 
1745 
1672 
1050? 
1599 
1658 

1789 

1770 

1304 
ian 1778 

1795 
f. 30 

1726 
3. 0. 383 B. 

1515 

1809 

1676 
1768 
f. A. 
B. O. 253 B. 

1651 
B. C. 400 B. 

815 
1768 
1746 
1769 
1761 
1746 
1772 
1655 

1804 



1765 
B. c. 522 
1758 
f. 1500 
1789 
1689 

1765 
1899 
1708 
1759 
B. O. 650 
1702 



DIED. 

61 
1843 
193 
1827 
1725 
1115 
1660 
1735 

1863 
1813 
1374 
1854 

1858 

1795 

0. 336 

1595 

1865 

1749 

1708 

1840 

D. 40 

0.183 

1695 

. O. 318 

891 

1837 

1826 

1824 

1804 

1829 

1846 

1724 

1815 

38? 

1825 

1822 

. o. 442 

1826 

1821 
1773 

0. 527 
1847 
1743 
1778 
1806 
. 570 



988 THE "WOKLD'S PROGRESS. 

NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Span. Pizarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . . 

Eng. Platoche, James E., dramatist and miscellaneous writer 

Gr. Plato, illustrious philosopher, founder of the Academic sect 

Eom. Plautus, comic poet .... 

Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 

Eng. , Lyon, chemist, (horn in Bengal) . 

Eom. Pliny, the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natural history 

Rom. , the younger, warrior and author . . 

Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher . . • 

Irish. Plunket, "W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland • • 

Gr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . • • 

Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. . • 

Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator c . • 

Eng. ..i-, D. E., learned prelate and traveller . . 

Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . ■ 

Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist . 

Amer. Poinsett, Joel E., statesman, diplomatist, and author • 

Pr, Poisson, D. S., mathematician . . . 

Eng. Pole, Eeginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury . 

Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. » 

Ft. , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman „ . 

Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . . • 

Amer. : Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general . . 

Eng. Pollok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' . . 

Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller . . 

Gr. Polybius, eminent historian 

Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author . 

Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesman . 

Eng. Pomfret, John, poet ..... 

Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . 

Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and warrior . (' The Great.') 

Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America 

Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France . 

Pol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland . 

Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief . . » . • 

Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' & o. . . 

Eng. ———i Matthew, able divine and author . . • 

Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet 

jLmev. — t John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist. 

Porphyry, Platonic philosopher . . . 

Eng. Porson, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic . 

Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher . . 

Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist . . . 

Amer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy . • 

Amer. 1 David D., rear-admiral . . . 

Eng. , Jane, novelist, .... 

j; ng> j sir Robert Ker, author of ' Travels,' &c. . 

Eng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate 

Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania, and educa- 
tional author ..... 1800 1863 

Amer. _____ Horatio, D. D., episc. bishop of New York • 

Eng. , John, archbishop of Canterbury. ' Gr. Antiq.' . 1674 1747 



BORN. 


DIED, 


1475 


1541 


1796 




B. o. 430 


b. c. 347 


b. o. 227 


B. 0. 184 


r 1749 


1819 


1819 




23 


79 


61 


115 


203 


270 


1765 


1854 


50 


120 


• 


16X7 


1604 


1691 


1704 


1765 


1811 


1856 


1796 




1773 


1851 


1781 


1840 


1500 


1558 


1780 


1847 


1611 


1741 


1795 


1819 


1806 


1864 


1799 


1827 


1250 


1323 


B. c. 205 


b. C. 123 




169 


1699 


1782 


1667 


1703 


1772 


1764 


b. o. 106 


b. c. 48 


1460 


1521 


1763 


1813 


1732 


1798 


1712 


1769 


1624 


1779 


1688 


1744 


t, 1823 




233 


304 


1759 


1808 


1540 


1616 


1781 


1832 


1780 


1843 


1776 


1850 


1780 


1842 


1731 


1808 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



989 



BATION. HAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator . 

Eng. Pottenger, Sir Henry, diplomatist . , 

Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . , . 

Kuss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist . . 

Eng. Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, poet . . 

Amer. Pradt, Abbe Dominique de, political writer 

Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in the TJ. S. Navy 

Amer. Prentiss, Sargent 8 , lawyer and politician, famed for eloquence 

Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian 

Amer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina . 

Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty 

Eng. , Sir Uvedale, writer on the Picturesque . 

Eng. Prideaus, Humphrey, learned divine. . 

Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy . 

Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer 

Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of N". England . 

Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . . 

Eng. Prinsep, Cbas. R., political economist . ■ 

Eug. Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . . 

Eng. Pritehard, J. C, ethnologist, 'Natural History of Man 

Rom. Piobus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor . . 

Ital. Procida, John of, patriot . . . 

Gr. ProMus, a Platonic philosopher . . 

Procv *iius, historian .... 

Rom. , Antbemius, emperor . . 

Eng. Proctor, Miss Ade aide A., poetess . . 

Eng. , Bryan "W. (' Barry Cornwall '), poet and critic 

Rom. Propertius, Sextus Aurelius, poet 

Fr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist 

Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary 

Fr. Psalmanazar, George, literary impostor 

Egypt. Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographe: 

Ger. Puckler-Huskau, H.L. H., prince of, author of Travels, &c, 

Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian 

Eng. Pugin, Augs. Welby, architectural writer 

Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service . 

Ital. Pulci, Louis, poet .... 

Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author . . 

Eng. Purcell, Henry, musical composer . . 

Eng. , Thos., musical composer . . . 

Eng. Purchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage 

Amer. Pursh, Fred., botanist .... 

Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., founder of ' Puseyites ' 

Amer. Putnam. Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution 

Amer. , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio 

Eng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, 'Art of Eng. Poesie' 

Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate . . 

Eng. Pym, John, republican politician . . , 

Amer. Pynchon, "Wm., founder of Springfield, MaFB. 

Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect . 

Pyrrbus, king of Epirui . . . 

Gr. Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher . . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1721 


1804 


1787 


185? 


1795 


1841 


1768 


184J 


1802 


1839 


1759 


1837 


1761 


1807 


1810 


1850 


1796 


1859 


1794 


1860 


1728 


1791 


1747 


1829 


1648 


1724 


1799 


1851 


1733 


1804 


1687 


1758 


1789 


1834 


1788 


1864 


1664 


1721 


1785 


1848 


232 


282 


1225 


1303 


410 


487 


410 


487 




472 




1864 


1787 




O. 52 B 


"0. 12 


1809 


1865 


1609 


1669 


1679 


1763 


70 




1785 




1632 


1794 


1811 


1852 


1747 


1779 


1432 


1487 


1814 




1658 


1695 




1682 


1577 


1628 


1774 


1820 


1800 




1718 


1790 


1738 


1824 




1600 


1745 


1813 


1584 


1643 


1591? 


1662 


0. 300 




B. 


O. 273 


0. 586 b. 


c. 497 



990 



THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 



NA1 /ON. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Fr. 

Fr. 



Span, 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Span. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Amer. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Quain, Jones, M. D., anatomist . , , 

Quarles, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' . 

Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . • . 

Quekett, John, microscopist ... 

Quesne, Abraham du, admiral . , . 

Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' , • 

Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician . 

Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poel . . 

Quin, James, actor ..... 
Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist . . 

Qm'ncy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author . 

, Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier 

Quinet, Edgar, litterateur 

Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian , 

Quratilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator . 
Quintus-Curtius, historian . . . f. time 

Quitman, John A, general and gov. of Mississsipi 



n 

Fr. Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . • 

Fr. Racine, John, eminent dramatist , . 

Fr Rachel, Eliza Rachel Felix, actress . . 

Eng. Radcliffe, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of Udolph 

Aust. Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander in Italy 

Eng. Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector 

Bug. , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of ' History of Java 

Amer. Kafinesque, S. C. J., botanist 

Dan. Rafn. C. C, historian and antiquary . 

Eng. Raglan, J. H. Fitzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea 

Amer. Raguet, Condy, political economist . 

Eng. Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools ' 

Eng. Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir Walter, ' a man illustrious in 

literature' ... . . 

Hind. RamrnobuD, Roy, philanthropist . , 

Scot. Ramsay, Allan, poet .... 

Amer. , David, historian . . . 

Span. Ramusio, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' . 

Amer. Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman 

Amer. , Peyton, first president of Congress 

Ger. Ranfee, Leopold, historian . . . 

Fr. Raoul, Rochette, archaeologist and traveller , 

Heb. Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher 
Fr. Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England' 

Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . 
Pan. Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer . 

Fr. Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman 
Pruss. Rauch, Fred. A., metaphysician . . 

Ger. Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . . 

Amer. Rawle, William, jurist ...» 



BORN. 


t«EB. 




186S 


1592 


1644 


1782 


1857 


1815 


1861 


1610 


1688 


1699 


1774 


. 1796 




1580 


1645 


1693 


1766 


1635 


1668 


1772 


1864 


1802 




1803 




1772 


1857 


42 


122 


isian 


1st Cent. 


1799 


1858 


1483 


1553 


1589 


1699 


. 1820 


1858 


1764 


1823 


1766 


1858 


1788 


1863 


1781 


1826 


1784 


1842 


1795 




1788 


1855 


. 1784 


1842 


1785 


1S11 


1552 


1618 


1776 


1833 


1685 


1758 


1749 


1812 


1485 


1557 


1773 


1833 


1728 


1775 


1795 




1790 




1798 




1661 


172S 


1770 


1847 


1784 


183g 


1794 




1806 


1841 


1781 




1759 


1836 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



991 



KATIOS. HAME AND PBOFESSIOH. 

Eng. Rawlfnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist 

Eng. Ray, John, naturalist and author 

Fr. Raynal, "William Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher 

Bcot. Reach, Angus B., journalist and author . 

Amer. Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral . 

Eng. Reade, Charles, novelist . . , 

Fr. Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . . 

Eng. Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author . 

Amer. Redfleld, William C, meteorologist 

Red Jacket, Thayendanega, Indian Chief , 

Amer. Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist 

Eng. , Isaac, critic and editor . , 

Amer. , Joseph, general in revolution , 

Amer. , Wm. B., politician and author . , 

Eng. Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopsedia &o. 

Eng. Reeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' a 

Eng. , John, comic actor 

Eng. , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher 

Fr. Regnard, John Francis, comic writer 

Fr. Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . ♦ 

Ger. Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist 

Irish. Reid, Capt, Mayne, novelist 

Bcot. , Col., Sir Wm., engineer and metereologist, • Use of Storms 

Amer. — — , Samuel C, naval commander 

Scot. , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician . 

Ger. Reinhard, Francis V., (founder of Christ,) 

Fr. Remnsat, J. P. A, historian and Unguist . 

Fr. Rene, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . 

Eng. Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller 

Scot. Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architect 

Amer. Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army . 

Eng. Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . 

Turk. Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey 

Fr. Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. 

Ger. Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer 

Amer. Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg 

Eng. Ricardo, David, -writer on political economy and finance 

, Joseph Lewis, (on International law) • 

Fr. Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . . 

Eng. Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . . • 

Eng. Richard I, Cceur de Dion, king of England * 

Eng. III, king, killed at Bosworth . 

Eng. Richardson, Charles, philologist (Eng. Diet.) . 

Scot. , James, traveller in Africa . • 

Eng. , Samuel, eminent novelist . . 

Scot. , Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 

Fr. Richelieu, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman 

Ger. Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. . 

Eng. Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr . . 

Span.- Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . • 

ItaL Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer , 

Ital. Ristori, Adelaide, actress . . • 



BORy 

1810 
1623 
1713 
1821 



1777 

1785 

1789 

1759? 

1808 

1742 

1748 

1743 
1723 
1799 
1814 
1647 
1810 
1788 
1818 
1791 
1783 
1710 
1753 
1788 
1409 
1742 
1761 
1825 
1752 
1802 
1614 
1779 
1820 
1772 
1S12 



1157 
1450 
1775 

16S9 
1787 
1585 
1763 
1500 
1783 
1313 
1821 



1703 
1796 

1862 

1849 

1S57 
1830 
1854 
1807 

1785 

1825 
1803 

1838 
1865 
1709 



1S58 
1861 
1796 
1812 
1832 
1480 
1830 
1821 
1862 
1818 
1858 
1679 
1859 
1863 
1823 
1862 
1700 
1850 
1199 
1485 
186& 
1851 
1761 
1865 
1642 
1825 
1555 
182S 
1354 



992 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 



ffATTOK. HAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Ritchie, Leitch, journalist and author , . 

Amer, Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, ' Richmond Enquirer' . 

Eng. Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • 

Amer. Rittcnhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer • * 

Ger. Bitter, Aug. H., 'History of Philosophy' . . 

Ger. , Charles, geographer . • • 

Span. Rivas, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 

Amer. Rives, M. C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist . . 

Amer. Rives, John 0., journalist, ' "Washington Globe ' . 

Amer. Rivington, Jas., royalist printer of N. Y. • . 

Scot. Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . 

Scot Robertson, William, celebrated historian . . 

Fr. Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist ' of the revolution 

Amer. Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 

Scot. Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) 

Fr. Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal . 

Fr. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, F. A. F., duke de la . 

Fr . Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . . 

Amer. Rodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy . , 

Eng. Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral . 

Eng. Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman . . . 

Eng. Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . . 

Amer. , Henry Darwin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow 

Eng. , Samuel, poet .... 

Eng. Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist . 

Fr. Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author 

Fr. , M. J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . 

Fr. Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian . , 

Eng. Romaine, "William, divine and author . . „ 

Eng. Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman . 

Rom. Romulus, founder and first king of Rome . . 

Ger. Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer 

Eng. Rooke, Sir George, admiral .... 

Span. Rosa, don Francisco Martinez do la, statesman, poet, historian &c 

Span. Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . 

Rom. Rosclus Quintus, actor of proverbial talent 

Eng. Roseoe, Henry, biographer .... 

Eng. , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer 

Eng. Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . 

Ger. Rose, Gustave, chemist .... 

Eng. -, Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' , . 

Eng. — , Win. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . . 

Ital. Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &c, 

Amer Roseorans, W. S., gen. in Union army . 

Ger. Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phi! 

osophy ..... 

Ger. Rosenmuller, E. F. C, orientalist . . . 

Ital. Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic . . 

Eng. Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator . . 

Eng. , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer . . 

Eng Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer » • 

Ital. Rossini, Joachim, musical composer . . 



BORN. 


d:ed. 


1800 


186S 


1778 


1854 


• 1752 


1803 


1731 


1793 


1791 




1779 


1850 


1791 




1796 


1864 


1724 


1802 


1796 


1864 


1721 


1793 


1759 


1794 


1794 


1864 


t) 


1763 


1725 


1807 


. 1747 


1827 


1773 


1794 


1771 


1838 


1717 


1792 


1802 




1806 




1763 


1855 


1779 




1733 


1793 


1754 


1793 


1661 


1741 


1714 


1795 


1757 


1818 


• B 


0. 716 


1813 




1G50 


1708 


!& 1789 




1793 




B. 


O. 61 


1800 


1836 


1751 


1831 


1633 


1684 


1795 




1795 


1838 


1775 


1843 


1800 


1843 


1819 




1805 




1768 


1835 


1783 


1854 


. 1777 


1856 


1800 


1883 


. 1800 




1792 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



993 



EATION. HAMS AND PROFESSION. 

Ger.Jw.Rothschild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great banking-house 

, Anselni at Frankfort, Nathan at London (d 1836) and 

Solomon, sons of Meyer Anselm Rothschild . . 

Ger. Rotteck, Chas. "W. E. von, historian .... 
Fr. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet ...» 

Ft. ! — , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer • 

Eng. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . . 

ItaL Eubini, Jno. Baptist, tenor vocalist .... 
Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet .... 

Amer. Eumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, officer (in foreign service) and 

philosopher ..... 

Amer. Eumsey, James, inventor . • . . 

Ger. Rupert, prince, warrior ..... 
Amer. Ruschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 1807 
Amer. Rush, Richard, diplomatist .... 

Eng. Rushworth John, ' Historical Collections ' . . 

Amer. Rusk, Thos, J., TJ. S. senator from Texas » . . 

Eng. Ruskin, John, writer on art .... 
Eng. Eussel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters' 

Eng. , Lord 'William, one of the martyrs of liberty 

Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . 

Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author 

Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe . . 

Irish. , William H., Times correspondent and author * 

Amer. Rutledge, Edward, statesman ...» 

Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . • 

Dutch. Ruyter, M. A de, admiral .... 

Eng. Rymer, Thomas, antiquary, ' Federa ' • . 



BORN. 


D1ER 


1780 


1821 


1775 


1840 


1670 


1741 


1712 


1778 


1673 


1718 


1795 


1S54 


1789 




Id 

1753 


1814 


1743 


1792 


1619 


168? 


1807 




1780 




1607 


1690 


1803 


1857 


1819 




1636 


1723 


1641 


1683 


1808 




1792 




1746 


1794 


1821 




1749 


1800 


1739 


1800 


1607 


1679 


1713 





s. 

Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist . . 

Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition 

Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . 

Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . 

Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet ..... 

Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian . , 

Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt . . 

Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal . . 

Amer. St. Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution . . 

Fr. St. Hilaire, Auguste de, botanist . . , , 

Fr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist 

Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of 'Paul and Virginia,' &c. 

ItaL St. Real, Csesar Vichard abbi de, historian . . 

Fr. St. Simon, ClaudiuB, count de, philosopher . 

Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral * . 

Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales . . 

Eng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author . . 

Bar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior 

Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . 

Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman . 

Bom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, historian ... 

42* 



f. B. O 



1790 




1672 


1724 


1613 


1684 


1758 


1838 


1175 


1296 


1567 


15S7 


1822 


1863 


1798 


1854 


1735 


1813 


1799 


1861 


1772 


1844 


1736 


1814 


1639 


16S3 


1760 


1823 


1734 


1823 


1790 




1827 




1137 


1193 


1680 


1736 


1550 


1619 


. 86 B. 


O. 35 



994 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



KATIOH. SAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ft. Salmasius, Claudius, scholar and author . . 

Fr. Salvandy, N, A., comfce de, statesman . , . 

pi - ; Salverte, miscellaneous writer . , . 

Heh. Samson, judge of Israel .... 

Heh. Samuel, last judge of Israel . . . 

Phce. Sanconi.itho, philosopher and historian . • 

Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist . 

Amer. Sanderson, John, litterateur .... 

Amer. Sands, Robt. C, poet and litterateur . . 

Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . 

Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer 

Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president 

Gr. Sappho, poetess ..... 

Chald. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh 

Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian 

Heh. Saul, 1st king of Israel .... 

Fr. Sauley, Louis P. J., count de, antiquarian . 

Fr. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . • 

Fr. Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . 

Fr. Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . . 

Fr. -, Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, &o. . 

Eng. Savage, Richard, poet .... 

Fr. Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' ' Letters on Egypt' 

Ger. Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law 

Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, famed for zeal and eloquence 

Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 1696 

Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior . 

Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian . . . 

Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say 

Fr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy . 

Amer. — , Thomas, naturalist .... 

ItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian 

Ital. , Julius Caesar, learned critic . 

Scandenberg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 

Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer 

Eng. Scarlett, James, 1st lord Ahinger, jurist . . 

Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . . . 

Ger. Schadow, Juiien Gottfried, sculptor . . 

Swe. Scheele, Charles Win., eminent chemist . • 

Ger. Schelling, Pred. Augs., novelist . . , 

Ger. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . . . 

Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . 

Pruss. Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer 

Ger. Schiller, John Frederic C, eminent historian and dramatist 

Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem. Port Royal' 

Ger. Schlegel, A. W. von, critic and essayist 

Ger. , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian 

Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian 

Ger. Schlosser, M. S. F., historian . . . 

Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . . , 

Amer. Schofield, major-general and governor Virginia . . 

Ger. .Scholl, historian ...... 1766 



BOBN. 


DrBD, 


1588 


1653 


1795 


1858 


. 1771 


1839 


. b. c. 12th Cent. 


B. c. 11th 


Cent. 


f. B. C 


. 760 


1804 




1785 


1844 


1790 


1832 


1623 


1672 


1600 


1667 


1798 




f. b. c. 606 




B. 0. 


876 "i 


orian 1522 


1623 


B. c 


. 1055 


1807 




1757 


1836 


1677 


1730 


1740 


1799 


1767 


1845 


1697 


1743 


1750 


1788 


1779 


1861 


1452 


1498 


service 1696 


1750 


1600 


1639 


1134 


1208 


1794 




1767 


1832 


1787 


1834 


1540 


1609 


1484 


1558 


warrior 1404 


1467 


15-10 


1600 


1769 


1844 


1610 


1660 


1764 




1742 


1786 


1766 


1839 


. 1775 


1854 


. 1773 


1809 


1759 


1805 


1778 


1856 


. • 1767 


1845 


1772 


1829 


1768 


1834 


. 1776 


186; 


1736 


179a 



1833 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



995 



BATIOH. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Er. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Chald. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Span. 

Egypt, 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. BOEN. 

Schomberg, Armand Frederick, warrior . . 1619 

Schomburgk, Sir Robert H., naturalist and traveller . 1801 

Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 

Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 

Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . . . 1615 

Schullembourg, John Matthias, warrior • . . 1661 

Schumacher, H. C, astronomer .... 1780 

Schutz, C. G., critic and litterateur .... 1747 
Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution . . 1731 

Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . . . 1771 

, prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 

Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian . . 1576 

Scipio, iEmilianus Publius, able warrior, (minor) . 

, Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) 

Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician . . 

, Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . . 1747 

, Sir Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular 

writers of modern times .... 1771 

, "Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. S. army 1786 

1791 
1775 
1693 
1511 
1790 
1815 
1780 
1811 
1639 
1753 
1584 



Scribe, Eugene, dramatist .... 

Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman 
Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate ... 

Secundus, John, Latin poet ... 

Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 

, John, (of Conn.) Union general . 

, Theodore, statesman and political economist 

, Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer . 

Sedley, Sir Charles, poet .... 

Segur, count Louis de, diplomat! st and writer . 

Selden, John, antiquary and historian . , . 

Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer f . 

Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) . . 

Semiramis, queen of Assyria . . . f. b. 0. 1250 

Seneca, Lucius Annseus, philosopher, statesman and moralist b. c. 2 
Senior, Nassau W., political economist ... 1790 

Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography . 1771 

Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian . . . 1490 

Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . . . 1779 

Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander . . 

Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin . 1509 

Sesostris, king of Egypt .... f. b. c. 1500 

Sevign6, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer . 1627 

Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) . . . 1747 



, "William H., statesman, U. S. senator from 1ST. Y., sec of state 1801 

Shadwell, T., poet laureate .... 1640 

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman . 1621 

, Anthony A. Cooper, 3d earl, 'Characteristics' 1671 

Shakespeare, John, orientalist . . . 1774 

■ , William, the greatest of dramatic poets . 1564 

Sharp, Granrille, philanthropist .... 1734 

, James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated . . 1618 

Shaw, George, naturalist ..... 1761 



DIED 

169a 

1864 
1864 
1838 
1667 
174T 
1850 

1804 
1820 
1852 
1649 
B. 0. 128 
B.C. 189 
1291 
1821 

1832 
1866 
1861 
1851 
1768 
1536 
1867 
1864 
1839 
1859 
1701 
1830 
1654 
1723 



65 
1864 
1834 
1572 
1852 

73 
1553 

1696 
1809 

1692 
1683 
1713 
1858 
1616 
1813 
1679 
1818 



996 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION, 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Hind. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion , . 

Shedd, "W. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critio 
Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . « 

Shelley, Mary W. widow of P. B., the poet, novelist < 

, Percy Bysshe, eminent poet and atheist . . 

Shenstone, "William, poet .... 
Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department 

, Richard Brinsley, dramatist and orator . 

, Thomas, actor, and author . . . 

Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of "London . * 
Sherman, Rogei - , patriot and self-taught statesman . « 
, John, U. S senator from Ohio . . • 



, "William T., general . . « 

Sherwood Mrs., novelist . . . » 

Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist . . 

Shirley, James, dramatist . ... 

Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval officer , • 

Shuhrick, John Templar, naval officer . . 

, William B., rear admiral ... 

Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Oldand New Tesament' 
Sibbes, Richard, theologian, ' Bruised Reed ' 
Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses . 

Sidmouth, viscount, (H. Addington) statesman . 

Sidney, Algernon, martyr of liberty and author . . 

-, Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author . 
Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and "botanist . . 

Sigel, Franz, general in Union army, war 1861-65 • 

Sigourney, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . . 

Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . . 

, Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . 

Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor . 

, Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic . . 

Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet . . 

Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet . . 

■ , of Eos, lyric poet .... 

Simpson, Robert, mathematician ... 

, Thomas, " ... 

Sinclair, Catharine, authoress . . . 

Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere . 
Sismondi, J. C. L., historian . . . 

Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII . • 

Sleidan John Philipson, historian . . . 

Sloane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist ... 

Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy 

, Alex, poet ..... 

, Charlotte, poet .... 

■ , General Samuel, military commander and statesman 

, Horace, poet, ' Rejected Addresses,' &c. . 

, James, poet, '■'■... M « • 

, John, * History Viginia' . . 

, John Pye, theological writer • . • 

— — , Joseph, Mormon prophet • . • 



BORN. 


DIED, 


1740 


1824 


1787 


1863 


. 1798 


1851 


1792 


1822 


1714 


1763 


1751 


1818 


1722 


1788 


1678 


1761 


1721 


1793 


1775 


1852 


1792 


1851 


1594 


1666 


1650 


1705 


1778 


1815 




1754 


1577 


1635 


1755 


1831 


. 1757 


1844 


1620 


1683 


. 1554 


1586 


1796 




1824 




1791 


1865 


1779 


1864 


1759 


1836 


392? 


461? 


1806 




B. o. 660 ? 




550? 




16S7 


1768 


1710 


1761 


1800 


1864 


1779 


1839 


. 1773 


1843 


1450? 


1529 


1506 


1556 


1660 


1752 


y 1723 


1790 


1830 




1749 


1806 


1752 


1839 


1779 


1849 


1775 


1839 


1579 


1631 


1774 


1851 


1805 


1844 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



997 



NATION, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot, 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pol. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Heb. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 



SAME AND PROFESSION. 

Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist . • 

, Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . * 

, Sir William Sidney, military commander . 

, T. Southworth, writer on sanitary reform . 

, William, classical scholar and author . 

Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (XL S.) 

Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian 

Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer 

, Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer . . 

Soane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . 

Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, warrior . . 

Socinns, Faustus, founder of the Socinian sect . 

Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers • 

, ecciesiastical historian . . • 

Solis, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . . • 

Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs , 

Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . . . 

Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer . 
Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer . . . 

, Wm., poet, 'The Chase' . . . 

Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Rossi, vocalist . . 

Sophocles, eminent tragic poet . . . 

Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the S. College at Paris. 
Soule, Pierre, V. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist 
Souli6, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . . 

Soulouque, Faustin, ex-emperor of Hayti 
Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of France 

and statesman ..... 
South, Robert, eminent divine 

Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator U. S., N. Y. 
Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) . 
Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . . 

Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . . 

, Robert, poet, historian, biographer * 

Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... 
Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . 
Sozomen, ecclesiastical historian . . 

Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer 
Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . 
Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . 

Spence, Wm., entomologist . . • 

Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York • 

, earl of, statesman . • • 

, John C, jurist and sec. navy . • 

, Wm. R., translator . . • 



Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . . • 

Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior » 

Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) . . 

Spohr, Louis, musical composer . • 

Spooner, Shearjashub, {Diet of Painters) . . 

Sprengel, Kent, botanist . ... 

Spurgeon, Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman 



BORN. 

1768 
1759 
1764 
1790 
1814 

1721 
1764 
1788 
1753 
1629 
1539 
B. c. 470 B. 
5th cent. 
1610 

B. 
f. B. 



1650 
1790 
1692 
1804 

?. 495 
1201 

1800 
1789 

1769 
1638 
1787 
1750 
1662 
1787 
1775 
1806 
1800 



(abt.) 1794 
1827 
1561 
1783 
1765 
1758 
17S8 
1770 
1553 
1571 
1633 
1783 

1766 
1834 



DIED. 

184S 
182S 
1840 
1861 

1835 
1771 
1849 
1S65 
183T 
1690 
1594 
. c. 400 

, A. D. 

1686 
0.975 
c. 598 

1716 

1743 

1854 

C.404 

1274 

1847 



1851 
1716 
1842 
1814 
1746 
1854 
1843 
1854 
1858 
450 
1866 
1864 
1643 
1860 
1848 
1835 
1855 
1834 
1598 
1630 
1677 



1838 



998 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Russ. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Bcot. 



, NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) 
Sprague, Charles, poet ...... 

, Wm. B., D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian 

Squier, E. Geo., traveller and antiquary . . 

Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist. Bible ' . 
Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress . 

, Madame, talented writer . . • 

Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E. . • 

Stanfield, Clarkson, marine painter . . • 

Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor . . 

Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller 

, Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian 

Stanton, Edwin M., sec! etary of war . . „ 
Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 
Statius, Publius Pepinus, poet . . . 
Staunton, Sir Geo. L. ' Embassy to China' . , . 
Steele, Sir Richard, essayist and dramatist . . 
Steevens, Geo., ' Comment, on Shakespeare ' • • 
Stephen, Henry, Prof. Hist., statesman and author . 
Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers 
, John L., traveller and author . . 



Stephenson, George, engineer . . * 

, Robert, «« . . 

Sterling, Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic ■ 

Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author 

Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer . . 

Sternhold, Thos., versifier of Psalms . 

Steuben, Fred. W. A , baron, who generously aided the American 

cause ...... 

Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor . . 

Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England . 

Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author 

, Dugald, eminent philosopher and writer . 

Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian . . . 

Stillingfleet, Dr. E., bishop of "Worcester and author 

Stone, Wm. L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red 

Jacket' ..... 

Storch, Henry F., political economist . . 

Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . 
Stow, John, antiquary and historian . . 

Stowe, Calvin E., biblical critic . . . 

, Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist . 

Stowell, lord, jurist .... 

Strabo, eminent geographer . . . 

Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . 
Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist . 
Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical ' Life of Jesus' 

, Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author 

Strickland, Agnes, historian of ' Queens of England' 
Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian 
Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer , • 

Stuart, Gilbert, historian . . , . 



BOEN. 

1776 

1791 

1795 

1820 

1680 

1766 

1693 

1584? 

1798 

1753 

1776 

1805 

1728 
61? 
1737 
1671 
1736 
1789 



16th 



1805 
1788 
1803 
1806 
1806 
1713 



1749 
1784 
1798 
1753 
1727 
1633 

1793 
1766 
1779 
1525 

1814 
1746 
19 
1593 
1788 
1808 
1786 
1806 
1643 
1793 
1742 



DIB3 

1S39 



1753 
1817 
1750 
1656 
1867 
1S16 
1839 



1822 
96? 
1801 
1729 
1800 
1859 
cent. 
1652 
1848 
1859 
1844 

1768 



1794 
1838 

1857 

1828 
1795 
1699 

1844 
1835 
1845 
1605 



1838 
1641 



173? 

1864 
1789 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



999 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. St> art, James, architect and author . . 

Amer. , James E. B., Confederate general « 

Amer. , Moses, theologian and philologist . . 

Eng. Sturge, Joseph, philanthropist 

Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, 'Reflections,' &c. 

Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands 

Fr. Suchet, Louis Gabriel, celebrated marshal . . 

Eng. Suckling, Sir John, poet and dramatist , . 
Sue, Eugene, novelist . . . . 
Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior ...» 
, Tranquillus Caius, historian , . 



Fr. 

Horn. 
Kom. 
Dan. 
Gr. 



Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian « 

Suidas, Greek lexicographer . • . 

Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer » 

Amer. , John, revolutionary general . . 

Amer. , We LL. D., political writer 

Fr. Sully, Maximilian de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 

Amer. , Thomas, portrait painter 

Amer. Summerfield, John, eloquent Methodist preacher 

Amer. Samner, Charles, TJ. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist 



Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Russ. 



— Edwin Vose, Union general . 

— John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author 



Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. C. 

Sunderland, Robt. Spencer, 2d earl, statesman • 

Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet . 

Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet . , 

Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. III. . 

Sutton, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury . 

Suvarofl", or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel 

rior .... . , 

Swain, Charles, poet .... 
Dutch. Swammerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . , 

Swe. Swedenborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect . . 

Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist . . • 

Swinburne, Algernon, poet , . . 

Swinton, Wm,, critic aDd historian, ' Army of Potomac' 
Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen. of Canada, &c, 
Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurper 
Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to Ava ' , . 

Syphax, Numidian prince .... 



Eng. 



Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Afric. 



T 
Rom. Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian • 

Rom. , Marcus Claudius, emperor . . • 

Swe. Taglioni, Marie, dansuese . . • 

Eng. Talbot, Jno., 1st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . 

Amer. , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . 

Eng. Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist 
Fr. Talleyrand, prince, statesman, and diplomatist 

Eng. Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . . 

Amer. Tallmadge, Benj., RevoL officer . . . 

Fr. Talma, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors . 



BORN. 


DIED. 


. 1713 


1788 


1832 ? 


1864 


. 1780 


1851 




1854 


1740 


1788 


1602 


1682 


1772 


1826 


1613 


1641 


. 1808 


1851 


37 




f. 100 




1728 


1798 


t abt. 1000 




1744 


180& 


1740 


1795 


1774 


1839 


an 1560 


1641 


1783 




1798 


1825 


opist 1811 




.' 1796 


1863 


17S0 


1862 


1734 


1832 


1641 


1702 


1515 


1547 


1779 


1834 


1773 


1843 


1755 


1828 


ruel war- 




1730 


1800 


1803 




1637 


1681 


1689 


1772 


. 1667 


1745 


1793 


1841 


B. c. 137 B. 


C. 78 




1809 


■ B. 


o. 201 


. 56 


135 


200 ? 


276 


1804 




1373 


1453 


1750 


1813 


1795 


1854 


1754 


1838 


1529 


1585 


1754 


1835 


. 1763 


1826 



1000 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



nation. 
Tartar. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

ItaL 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Amer. 



Eng. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 



Amer., 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Fr. 
Gr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince 
and conqueror . . , . 

Taney, Roger B., chief-justice TJ. S. . . 

Tannahill, Robt., poet .... 
Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer . 

Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America . 
Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul 

, Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian poets 

Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic 

, Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . 

Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer . 

, Isaac, essayist .... 

, Jeremy, prelate and eloquent writer ... 

, John, ' the Water Poet ' . . . 



, Sir Robert, sculptor and architect . 

, Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . 

, Tom, dramatist . . 

„ Wm., miscellaneous writer. ... 

, Zacbary, major-general TJ. B. Army, victor in Mexico, 

pres. U. S. . 
Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) 
Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . . 

Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty 
Temple, Sir "William, statesman and writer . 

Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer . 

, Rev. Wm., famous for ' France' . . 

, Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer 

Tennyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' . 

Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate 

Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B, 

Terence, or Terrentius, comic writer . 

Tertulliau, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of 

the Church ..... 

Terry, Alfred H., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher 
Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . . 

Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture . 
Thalberg, Sigismund, pianist .... 
Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of 

Philosophy .... 
Themistocles, eminent Athenian ... 
Thenard, chemist and statesman . . 

Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . . . f. b. 

Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare . 
Theodorefc, ecclesiastical historian . . 

Theodosius, Flavius, Roman emperor and warrior 
Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . .. 

Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer 
Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . 
Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy 
Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian . . 

Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian • • 

— — — — , Amedee S. D., historian . « 



177T 


1864 


1774 


1810 


1754 


1833 


1493 


1569 


1544 


1595 




1836 


1825 




1787 


1865 


1613 


1667 


1580 


1654 


1714 


1788 


1758 


1835 


1817 




1800 


1849 


1784 


1850 




1813 


1757 


1834 




1354 


1628 


1698 


1703 


1764 


1705 


1777 


1S04 




1761 


1819 


1810 




1762 


1832 


. 192 





160 



245 



1811 


1863 


1752 


1828 


1812 




c. 639 b. 


O. 543 


o. 535 b. 


o. 470 


o. 285 






1744 


386 


457 


346 


395 


c. 371 




1515 


1582 


1794 




C. 576 




1795 


1859 


1797 





BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 



1001 



ITATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Thiers, A dolphe, historian and statesman . . 

Ger. Thiersch, F. W., Greek philologist, &c . . 

■ Ger. Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian 

Ger. Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian 

Amer. Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . 

. , Col. Thos. Peyronnet, political reformer and author 

Scot. Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer . 

Amer. , Chas., president of Congress . . 

Scot. , Dr. Thomas, chemist • • . 

Boot. , James, popular poet . . 

Amer. Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . 

Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor . . . 

Gr. Thrasybulus, Athenian general ... 

Gr. Thucydides, historian .... 

Eng. Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . 

Rom. Tiberius, Claudius Drusus Nero, warrior and emperor 

Rom. Tibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet . . . 

Eng. Tickell, Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator . 

Amer. Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature . 

Ger. Tieck, Ludwig, poet and essayist . . . 

Eng. Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, ' Psyche' . . . 

Tillotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury 

Ger. Tilly, John F., count de, military commander. . 

Gr. Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse . 

Tart. Timour Beg. See Tamerlane ... 

Hind. Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior . 

Swiss. Tissot, Simon A., medical writer 

Rom. Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavius, emperor, father of his people 

Eng. Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' . 

Fir. Tocqueville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman . 

Eng. Todd, Robt. B., ' Medical Cyclopaedia ' &c. 

Russ. Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . . 

Eng. Tomline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop of Winchester 

Amer. Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. TJ. S. . 

Irish. Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion 

Eng. Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . . 

Eng. , Thos., 'History of Prices ' . . 

Eng. , Wm., miscellaneous writer ... 

Eng. Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . . 

Span. Torqueniada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . . 

Irish. Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist 

Amer. Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . . . 

Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, iuv. of barometer 

Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . . 

Amer. Totten, Joseph G, military engineer . . 

Amer. Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . . 

Toussaint l'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti . 

Eng. Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment, on Bible ' 

Fr. Tracy, A L. C. Destutt, comte de, writer on Education and Phi 

losophy ..... 

Eng. Traill, Thos. J., editor 'Encyclo. Britannica' . . 

Bom. Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior . 



BORN 


BIED 


1798 




1784 


1860 


1797 




1799 




r 1783 




1778 


1849 


1729 


1824 


1773 


1852 


1700 


1748 


1817 


1862 


1771 


1844 


B. 


O. 389 


B. 0. 459 B 


c. 400 


1732 


1806 


b. c. 84 


37 


b. c. 30 




1686 


1740 


1791 




1773 


1853 


1774 


1810 


1630 


1694 


1559 


1632 


B. 


C. 337 


1739 


1799 


1728 


1797 


pie 40 


81 


1770 


1804 


1805 


1859 


1810 


1866 


1818 




1750 


1787 


. 1774 


1825 


1763 


1798 


1736 


1812 


1774 


1858 


1744 


1820 


1740 


1778 




1498 


1783 


1840 


1608 


1647 


. 


352 


1788 




1776 


1854 


1745 


1802 




1857 


1754 


1836 


. 1781 


1862 


62 


117 



1002 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIUN. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Tredgold, Thos., civil engineer and author . . 

Eng. Trench, Rev. Rich. Ohenevix, poet, philologist and theologian 
Ger. Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . 
Eng. Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer . . 

Er Tristan, l'Hermite, Erancis, poet . . . 

Eng. Trollope, Mrs. Frances, novelist and traveller . 

Dutch. Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral . . 

Amer. Troost, Gerard, chemist and geologist . . 

Amer. Trumbull. Col. John, stateBm.au and hist, painter . 

Amer. , Benj., historian of Connecticut . . 

Amer. , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut • 

Amer. , John, poet, born in Ot. . . 

Eng. Truro, TIiob., baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . 
Amer. Truxton, Thos., naval commander . . 

Eng. Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer . . 

Amer. , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . 

Amer. Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist . . 

Amer. ■ , Jos., writer and philanthropist . 

Amer. Tudor, Win., editor K. Amer. Rev. and biographer . 

Eng. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist . 

Er. Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . 

Er. Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman . ■ 

Eng. Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary . . 

Eng. , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry ' . 

Amer. , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critio . 

Eng. , Sharon, 'History of England' . . 

Amer. , Wm. W., printer and philologist . . 

Turretin, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) . 

, Francis, (son) " " " • 

, John A. (son) " " " 

Eng. Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' 

Amer. Twiggs, David E., rebel general . 

Eng. Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle . . 

Amer. Tyler, John, ex-pres. U. S., and rebel 

Eng. Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible into 

English . . • . . • 

Amer. Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author . 
Eng. Tyrrell, James, historian . ' . , . 

Gr. Tyrtaeus, poet .... 

Scot. Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc. writer 

g co t. ( Patrick Eraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots' 

Scot. , Wm., historical and misc. writer . • 

U 

Ger. Uhland, Ludwig, poet .... 

Span. Ulloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . . 

UncaB, North American Indian chief (Monegans) . 

Eng. Upcott, William, autograph collector and historian . 

Amer. Upshur, Abel P., of Va., judge and secretaiy of state . 
Scot. Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . . 

Irish. Usher, James, learned divine and historian . 



a URN. 

1788 
1807 
1726 
1741 
1601 
1778 
1597 
1776 
1756 
1735 
1740 
1750 
1782 
1755 
1705 
1784 

1778 
1779 
1810 
1611 

1727 

1798 
1791 
1768 
1810 
1588 
1623 
1671 
1500 
1790 
1734 
1790 

1500 
1800 
1642 
. o. 668 
1747 
1790 
1711 



»IEH 

1829 

1794 
1810 
1655 
1863 
1652 
1850 
1843 
1820 
1809 
1831 
1853 
1822 
1774 
1851 

1840 
1830 

1675 
17S1 
1858 
1839 
1861 
1847 
1859 
1631 
16S7 
1737 
1536 
1862 
1804 
1862 

1536 

1718 

1813 

1849 
1792 



1787 




1716 


179o 


1680 




1779 


1845 




1844 


1778 


1857 


1580 


1653 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



1003 



STATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Fr. Vailliant, Sebastia.1, eminent botanist . . 

Dutch. Valcknenaer, Louis Gaspar, able philologist and critic . 

Ft. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses . 

Valentia, George A., viscount, ' Voyages and Travels ' 

Horn. "Valerian, emperor .... 

Rom. Valerius Flaccus, poet . ' . . . 

Rom. Maximus, historian . . . 

Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . . 

Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States 

Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator . . . 

Eng. Vandenhoff, John, actor . . . 

Amer. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . . 

Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India ■ 

Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general . . 

Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • 

Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist . 

Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' the Patrooa ' . 

Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans . 

Ital. Vasari, George, architect and biog., * Lives of the Painters ' 

Ger. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist 

Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations . 

Fr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer 

Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ' dissenting ' divine and historian 

Span. Vega, Garcilasso de, poet . . . 

Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet ■ . 

Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon . 

Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior . 

Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' . 

Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . . 

Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet . . 

Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter . . 

Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral . . . 

Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Gallery . 

Fr. Veron, Louis Desire, author and journalist . 

Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic . 

Fr. Vertot, Ren6 Hubert, abbe de, historian . . 

Eng. Vertue, George, engraver and antiquary 

Rom. Vespasian, Titus Plavius, warrior and emperor 

Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given 

to the new world . - . , 

Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress . 

Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . „ 

Eng. Victoria Alexandrinu, queen of Great Britain . 

Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. - . , 

Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . * 

Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police 

Fr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist . , c 

Fr. Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critio « 

Fr. Villars, Louis Hector, duke of, able general 

Fr. Villemam, Abel, Fr. politician and author . 



BORN. 


1MKD 


i 1669 


1722 


1715 


1785 


f. 12th cent. 


. 1770 


1844 




260? 




88? 


f. 30 




1406 


1457 


1782 


1864 


1750 


1798 


1790 




1776 


1852 


1593 


1645 


1823 


1863 


1612 


1662 


1781 


1853 


1764 


1839 


B.C. 116 


B. c. 27 


1512 


1574 


1771 


1826 


1714 


1767 


1633 


1707 


ian 

1503 


1536 


1562 


1636 


1795 




1654 


1712 


1725 


1797 


1814 






1846 


1789 


1864 


1684 


1759 


1774 


1849 


1798 




1655 


17S5 


1684 


1756 




79 


1451 


1516 


1797 


1853 


1820 




1819 




1826 


1855 


. 1490 


1566 


1775 


1850 


, 1820 




. 1799 




1653 


1734 


1791 





1004 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PUOFESSION. 

Eng. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer 

Fr. Vinet, Alex. R., theologian 

Rom. Virgi 1, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets 

Ital. Visconti, Phil. Aur., antiquary 

Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . < 

Ital. Vittoria Colonna, scholar . . 

Russ. Vladimir the Great, grand duke , • 

Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden « 

Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht . • 

Ger. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist . , 

Fr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . • 

Ital. Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) 
Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, 

and historian , . . 

Ger. Voss, J. G., historical painter . . 



>mer 


BOBN. 


DIED 

1821 


. 


1797 


1847 


oman poets 


b. c. 70 


B. c. 19 
1831 


f. 


B. c. 27 




, . 


1490 


1547 


, . 




1015 


# . 


1647 


1714 


# , 


1619 


1667 


m m 


1829 


1856 


. m 


1757 


1820 


, . 


1745 


1826 


philosopher, 


1694 


1778 


• • 


1577 


1649 



w 



Ger. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic . . 

Amer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist . 

Amer. , James S. (son), patriotic general . 

Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist . . 

Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York , 
Eng. Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist 

Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic . . 

Amer. Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . . 

Fr. Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . . 

Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . . 

Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury 

Amer. , "William, ' filibustering' adventurer 

Amer. Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist 

Scot. , "William, patriot and hero 

Irish. , William Vincent, musical composer . 

Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general . 

Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet . . • 

Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general . 

Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author . 

Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman . 

Amer. Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . . 

Eng. Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . 
Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New Tor 
Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist . , 

Eng. — , Izaak, angler and biographer . . 

Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. T. 
Eng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . 
Amer. Ward, Artemas, officer in the Revolution . 

Scot. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian 
Amer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author 

Amer. , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author 

Amer. f William, novelist, ' Zenobia,' &c. . 

Amer. Warren, John Collins, emineBt surgeon 

Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 



1794 




1768 


1844 


1807 


1864 


1805 




1792 


1854 


1796 


1862 


1756 


1801 


1762 


1864 


1810 




1732 


1807 


1801 




1824 


1860 


1817 


1852 


1276 


1305 


1815 


1865 


1583 


1634 


1603 


16S7 


1597 


1688 


1718 


1797 


1676 


1745 


1784 


1858 


1536 


1590 


1815 


1865 


1600 


1661 


1593 


1683 


1789 




1698 


1779 


174S 


1800 


1780 


1853 


1764 


1845 


1794 


1S43 


1797 


1852 


1778 


1856 


1741 


1776 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



1005 



WATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Wanen, Mrs. Mercy, historian, ' American Review' . 

Eng. -, Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Tear ' • . 

Eng. Sir John Borlase, naval officer . . , • 

Eng. Warton, Joseph, poet and critic . . . 

Eng. ■ , Thomas, poet and critic 

Eng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' 



Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of IJ. S. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Scot. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Eng. 



, George, the father of his country . 

, Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution . 

Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer 
Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agriculturist, and historian 

Robert, historian 

, Richard, eminent prelate and writer . 



Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer . 

, Robert, bibliographer . 

Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist . . . 

Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer , 

Amer. Wayiand, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. 
Amer. Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution 
Eng. Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. . 

Amer. Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author . 

Ger. Weber, Carl Maria \on, eminent composer . . 

Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic . , 

Webster, John, dramatic poet . t . , 

, Daniel, statesman .... 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Amer. 



, Noah, author of English Dictionary . ( 

Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . . 

Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain . . 

Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies . 

Amer. Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . . 

Irish. Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. 
of Ireland ... . . 

Eng. Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman 
Amer. Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . 

Eng. , Edward, theologian and scholar . , 

Amer. , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia . . 

Scot. Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . 



BORN. 

1728 
1807 
1754 
1720 
1728 

1759 
1732 
1752 
1683 
1758 
1730 
1737 
1736 
1774 
1799 
1674 
1796 
1745 
1792 
18i9 
1786 
1783 

17th 
1782 
1758 
1733 
1731 

1821 

1760 
1769 

1663 
1815 
1794 



Eng-Am. Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. Hamp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 



Eng. 
Ger. 
Ger. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 
Eng. 



— , Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford 



Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist . . 

, Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist . . 

Wesley, Kev. Charles, ' Hymns ' ... 

, John, founder of Methodist society 

Westal!, Richard, historical painter ... 

WTiateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu 
cational writer ..... 
Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... 

Eng. > Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Common Prayer' 

Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . 
Eng. Wheatstone, Charles, electrician . . . 

Amer. Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College 
Eng. Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer 



1593 
1750 
1768 
1708 
1703 
1765 

1787 
1753 
1686 
1785 
1802 
1711 
1795 



DIED. 

1314 

1822 
1800 
1790 
1471 
1829 
1799 
1810 

174a 

1842 
1780 
1816 
1819 
1819 
1864 
1748 
1865 
1796 
1862 
1856 
1826 
1813 
cent. 
1852 
1843 
1805 
1795 
1825 
1852 

1842 
1852 

1727 
1848 
1845 
1820 
1641 
1817 
1823 
1788 
1791 
1837 

1863 
1794 

1743 
1848 

1779 

1868 



1006 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOif. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Whipple, Edwin P., critic arid essayist . • 

Amer. Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Russian railways 
j£ng. Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . 
Eng. "Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament 
Eng. White, Hei:ry Kirke, poet .... 

, Rev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author 

Eng. , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church 

in United States .... 

Eng. Whitefleld, George, founder of the Calvanistic Methodists . 
Amer. Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . . . 

Amer. Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist 
Amer. Whittingham, Wm. R., epis. bp. of Maryland and author 
Eng. Whittington, Sir Richard, lord mayor of London 
Eng. Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Reformation 
Ger. Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . . 

Eng. Wiffen, J. EL, poet and historian . . • 

Eng. Wilberforce, Samuel, bp. of Oxford and author . « 

Eng. , William, statesman and philanthropist . 

Amer. Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and litterateur . • 

Eng. Wilkes, John, celebrated political character . • 

Scot. Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter 
Eng. Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian 

Eng. , Sir Charles, oriental philologist . . 

Amer. Wilkinson, James, general in Revolution and author . 

Eng. , Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist . • 

Eng. Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman 
Amer. Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVII. a 

Eng. , Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . a 

Eng. , John, missionary and author . . • 

Eng. , Major-gen. Sir Fen wick, defender of Ears . 

Amer. , Otho H., general .... 

En.Am. — — , Roger, colonizer of Rhode Island . . 

Amer. Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina . 
Amer. Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour 

nalist ...... 

Scot. - Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist . . 

Eng. , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . . 

Eng. , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit 

Scot. , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist 

Eng. , Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author 

Ger. Winckelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art ' . 

Anst. Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo 
Eng. Windham, William, statesman ... 

Ger. Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . . 

Swiss. Winkelried, Arnold von, patriot . . . 

En.Am. Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . 

Eng. — , Forbes, physician and WTiter on insanity , 

Amer. , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author 

Amer. , Miron, D, D., missionary and orientalist . 

Bng. Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter' . 

En. Am. Wintbrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . • 

Sa.Am , John (son), governor of Connecticut . 



BORN. 


DIKE-, 


. 1819 




1800 


1849 


1667 


1752 


t 1638 


1726 


1785 


1806 


1775 


1841 


1747 


1836 


1714 


1770 


1765 


1825 


1808 




1805 






1419 


on 1S24 


1384 


1733 


1813 


1792 


1838 


1805 




1759 


1853 


1789 


1847 


1717 


1797 


17S5 


1841 


1614 


1672 




1838 


1757 


1825 


1797 




. 1324 


1404 


17S7 1 ? 


1858 


1762 


1827 


1796 


1839 


1800 




1748 


1794 


1606 


1683 


1735 


1819 


1807 


1867 


1766 


1813 


1778 


1858 


1808 


1860 


17S5 


1854 




1846 


. 1717 


1768 


1787 


1862 


1750 


1810 


1789 


1858 




1386 


1595 


1655 


• 1810 




1800 


1864 


1789 


1864 




1803 


1588 


1649 


1606 


1676 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 



1007 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Wintbrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot 

Amer. Wirt, William, attorney-general U. 8. and biographer 

Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author 

Amer. . Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist 

Eng. Withers, George, poet .... 

Amer. Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . 

Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian ... 

Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian . 

Irish. Woffington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . » 

Eng. Wolcott, John, known as Peter Pindar, poet . 

Amer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 

Amer. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. . 

EDg. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller . 

Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . . 

Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . . 

Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir John Moore ' . . 

Ger. WolfF, John Christian, philosopher and mathematician 

Eng. Wollaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. . 

Eng. "Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman . 

Eng. "Wollstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author a . 

Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer . 

Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state . 

Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . . 

Eng. Woodfall, William, newspaper publisher (Junius) . 

Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer 

Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler (seeTytler) historian 

Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian . . . 

Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . . 

Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, ' Oaken Bucket ' . 

Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S. army , . 

Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philanthropist . 

Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general . . 

Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions 

, Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • 

Wordsworth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece ' . 
, William, poet laureate . . . 



Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Aust. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng 

Eng. 

Eng. 



Worth, William J., major-general IT. S. army . 

Wortley, Lady Emeline C. E., traveller and author 
Wotton, Sir Henry, statesman and poet . . 

Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian 
Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect . 

Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Reformer 

, Silas, governor of New York and senator TJ. S. 

, Thomas, antiquarian author . . 

Wurmser, D. S., field-marshal in Austrian army . 
Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author . 

, Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . . 

Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . . . 

Wycliffe, see Wickliffe, reformer ' . . 

Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth 
Wyndham, Sir William, statesman 



BORN. 


DIED. 


1828 


1861 


1772 


183d 


ithor 1802 


1865 


1761 


1818 


1590 


1667 


1722 


1794 


1636 


1708 


. 1679 


1734 


1719 


1760 


1738 


1S18 


nee 1727 


1797 


1079 


1767 


1795 


1862 


1759 


1824 


1726 


1759 


1791 


1823 


1679 


1754 


1766 


1828 


1471 


1530 


1759 


1797 


1632 


1695 


1716 


1771 


1789 


1851 


1745 


1822 


1773 


1827 


1747 


1813 


1770 


1851 




1486? 


1785 


1S42 


1789 




1720 


1773 


1710 


1777 




1667 


17S4 


1865 


1770 


1850 


1770 


1S50 


1794 


1849 


1806 


1S55 


1568 


1689 


1751 


1831 


1632 


1723 


1796 


1853 


1795 


1847 


1810 




1717 


1797 


1820 




1503 


1540 


1640 


1715 


1324 


1404 


th. 1324 


1404 


1687 


1748 



1008 



THE WOBLD'S PEOGEESS. 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Eng. Wyso, Sir Thomas, M. P., -writer on education , 

Amer. Wythe, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 



1809 



Fr. Xavier, St. Francis, 'Apostle to the Indies' . . 

Gr. Xenocrates, philosopher . 

Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics 

Gr. Xenophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and general 

Pers. Xerxes I., king of Persia .... 

Pers. II., king of Persia . . . 

Span. Ximenes, Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman • 



Amer. Yale, Elihu, early patron of Yale College . . 

Eng. Yarrcll, "William, naturalist and author; . , 

Eng. Youatt, William, author of works on the horse . 

Amer. Young, Ales., D. D., historian of Pilgrims . * 

Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer . . . 

Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons . . , 

Eng. , Charles, actor . 

Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer . . 

Eng. , Thomas, physician and philosopher . . 

Gr. Ypsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. 

Span. Y riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet . . 

Z 

Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A, voluminous writer . • 

Heb. Zechariah, the prophet . . . • . 

Ital, Zeno, Apostolo, eminent writer . • • . 

Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . . . • 

Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . 

Zenohia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of 
the arts . 

Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet .... 
Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist . . 

Swiss. , John George, miscellaneous writer . 

Ger. Zinzendorf, N". L., count, chief of the Moravians . 

Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian . . . 

Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher . < 

Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer 
Gr. Zozimus, historian ..... 
Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales ' 
.Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer . . 

(for. Zumpt, Earl, author of Latin Grammas * . 



. 


1506 


1552 


B. 


o. 406 B 


0. 314 


£b. 


O. 540 




B. 


C. 446 b 


c. 360 




B 


c. 465 




B. 


C. 425 




1457 


1517 




1648 


1721 




1T84 


1856 




1777 


1847 




1800 


1854 




1741 


1820 




1801 






1777 


1856 




1681 


1765 




1774 


1829 




1792 


1828 




1750 


1790 




1714 


1795 


f.B. 


c. 520 






1668 


1750 


B 


c. 463 




B. 


o. 362 b 


O. 264 


sof 




300 


f.B 


O. 520 






1743 


1815 




1728 


1795 




1700 


1760 




1730 


1788 




1737 


1815 




f. 400 






1771 


1848 




1484 


1531 




1793 


i85a 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 



1009 



ARTISTS. 



PAINTERS— ENGRAVERS— SCULPTORS— ARCHITECTS. 



B. 0. 

1578 
1400 



NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Gr. A gatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. 

Gr. Ageldas ..... Sculptor. 

Gr. Agesander, sculptor of 'Laocoon and his Children' Sculptor. 

Ital. Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 

Ital. Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., So., and Archit. 

Ital. Albertinelli, Mariotto . . Painter. 

Gr. Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) . . Sculptor. f. 

Scot. Allan, Sir William . . . . Painter. 1781 

Amer. Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Painter. 1779 

Ital. Andrea del Sarto .... Painter. 1488 

Ital. Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., So., and Arch. 1474 

Ital. Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 15C9 

Gr. Apelles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. f. 

Gr. Apollodorus, an Athenian ... Painter. f. : 

Ital. Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 1754 

Gr. Aristides, of Thebes .... Painter. f. 

Fr. Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 1640 
(Eight painters and engravers named Andran nearly contemporary.) 



BORN. DIED. 

b. c. 480 

f. b. c. 5th Cent. 

5th Cent. 

1660 

1490 

1520 

0. 450 

1850 



1843 

1530 

1568 

1609 

. 330 

. 408 

1817 

240 

1703 



Ital. Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- 





meo) . . • 


. . Painter. 


1469 


1517 


Eng. 


Bacon, John . . . 


. Sculptor. 


1740 


1799 


Amer. 


Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) . 


. Port. Painter. 






Flem. 


Bal en, Henry van . , 


. . Painter. 


1560 


1632 


Ital. 


Bandinelli, Baccio . . • 


. Sculptor. 


1489 


1559 


Eng. 


Banks, Thomas 


. . Sculptor. 


1745 


1805 


Dutch. 


Barents, Dietrich ... 


Histor. Painter. 


1534 


1582 


Irish. 


Barker, "Robert, inventor of panoramas 


. . Painter. 


1740 


1SC6 


Irish. 


Barry, James ... 


. Painter. 


1741 


1805 


Eng. 


Barry, Sir Chas. . . 


. . Architect. 


1795 


1860 


Ital. 


Bartolini, Lorenzo . . 


Sculptor. 


1777 


1850 


ItaL 


Bartolozzi, Francesco . • 


. Engraver. 


1730 


1813 


Ital. 


Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco . 


Painter. 


1469 


1517 


Ital. 


Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. 


ICth ( 


Century. 


ItaL 


Batoni, Pompey . . • 


. . Painter. 


1708 


1787 


Ger. 


Bauer, Ferdinand ... 


Botanical Painter. 




1826 


Eng. 


Beechy, Sir William . . 


. Landscape Painter. 


1753 


1833 


Amer. 


Beard, Wm. H. (N. T.) . . 


• Painter. 






Eng. 


Beaumont, Sir George H. . 


. . Painter. 


1753 


1827 


Ital. 


Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine • 

43 


• Engraver. 


1610 


1684 



1010 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



NATIOE 


r. NAME AND PROFESSION. 


BOBK. 


wsm 


Ital, 


Bellini, Giov., founder of the Venetian school . Painter. 


1462 


151? 


Ital. 


Bellini, Gen tine . . . 


Portrfc't Painter. 


1421 


1501 


Ital. 


Benini, Giovanni L. . . Painter, Sculp'r, and Aren't. 


1598 


168? 


Flem 


Berchem, Nicholas . 


Engraver. 


1624 


1689 


Eng. 


Bewick. John, publisher of various works with wood- 








oats . . 


Wood Engraver. 


1760 


1795 


Amer. 


Bierstadt, Albert (N. T.) 


Landscape Painter. 






Eng. 


Bird, Edward . . , 


Painter. 


1772 


1819 


Eng. 


Blake, William 


B Painter and Engraver. 


1757 


1826 


Flem. 


Bologna, John of (in Italy) . 


Sculptor and Architect. 


1524 


1608 


Eng. 


Bone, Henry . . 


, Enamel Painter. 


1755 


1834 


Ital. 


Bordone, Paris . . . 


. . Painter. 


1503 


1588 


Dutch. 


Both, John and Andrew . 


, . Painters. 


1610 


1650, '56 


Ft. 


Bourdon, Sebastian , . 


Painter and Engraver. 


1616 


1671 


Swiss. 


Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in London). . Painter. 


1756 


1811 


Eng. 


Boy dell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 


1719 


1804 


Dutch. 


Brentel, Francis . . 


. . Painter. 


f. 1635 




Ital. 


Bramante D'Urbino, Francis L., (1st 


of St. Peter's 








Church) 


. . Architect. 


1444 


1514 


Amer. 


Brevoort, J. R. (N. T.) 


Landscape Painter. 






Dutch. 


Brill, Matthew . . 


. . Painter. 


1550 


1584 


Dutch. Brill, Paul . . . 


Landscape Painter. 


1556 


1626 


Amer. 


Brown, Geo. L. , , 


e * Painter. 






Amer. 


Brown, Henry Kirke , . 


. Sculptor. 


1814 




Flem. 


Bruges, John of, or John Van Eyck . 


„ Painter. 


1370 


1441 


Ital. 


Biunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence . Architect. 


1377 


1444 


Ital. 


Buonarotti, see Angelo 








Eng. 


Burnett, James . . , 


, Landscape Painter. 


1788 


1816 


Ital. 


C 

Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 


1532 


1588 


Ital. 


Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and 








sons of Paul 








Eng. 


Calcott, Sir A. W. . 


. Landscape Painter. 


1779 


1844 


ItaL 


Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio • 


. . Painter. 


1495 


1543 


Gr. 


Calimachus ... 


Sculptor and Architect. 


f. B 


. C. 540 


Ital. 


Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese 


. . Painter. 


1527 


1587 


ItaL 


Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a Venetian Lands. Painter. 


1697 


1768 


Ital. 


Canova, Antonio ... 


. Sculptor. 


1757 


1822 


Ital. 


Caracci, Ludovico . . 


. . Painter. 


1555 


1619 


ItaL 


Caracci, Agostino . . , 


. Painter. 


1558 


1601 


Ital. 


Caracci, Annibale . . 


, . Painter. 


1560 


1609 


Ital. 


Caracci, Anthony . . , 


, . Painter. 


1583 


1618 


ItaL 


Caravaggio, see Angelo . 


. . 






ItaL 


Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro 








with three plates to imitate drawings 


. 


1486 


1530 


Fr. 


Casas, Louis Francis . , 


Painter and Architect. 


1756 


1827 


Amer. 


Casilear, John W. (N. V.) 


. Lands. Painter. 






Span. 


Castilio y Saavedra, Anthony • 


PaiDter. 


1603 


1667 


Ital. 


Cavendone, James . . 


. Fresco-Painter. 


1577 


1508 


Ital. 


Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine artist, 


author of auto- 







1500 



1670 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — ARTISTS. 



1011 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Painter, Sculptor, Architect. 

, . Painter. 

, Painter. 

, . ■ Sculptor. 

. Hist. Painter. 

. Painter. 

Painter and Sculptor. 

a Lands. Painter. 

, Painter. 



MATION. 

Bpan. Cespede.s, Paulde 

Flem. Champagne, Philip de . . 

, John Baptist 

Eng. Chantry, Sir Francis . . 

Amer. Chapman, John G. . . 

Gr. Chares ...» 

Fr. Chaudet, Anthony Denis . 

Amer. Church, Fred. E. . . 

Ital. Cignani, Carlo . . 

Ital. Cimabue, Giov., Florentine , 

Ital. Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine 

Gr. Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the Medicean Venus) 

Amer. Cievenger, Shobal Vail . 

Amer. Cole, Thomas . . . Lands, and Hist. Painter, 

Eng. Collins, William . . Lands, and Fam. life Painter, 

Amer. Colrnan, Saml. (N". T.) . . . Lands. Painter, 

Eng. Constable, John . * . 

Eng. Cooper, Samuel . 

Amer. Copley, John Singleton (born in Boston) 

Ger. Cornelius, Peter von . . 

Ital. Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard school 

Dutch. Cort, Cornelius . . . 

Ital. Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan . . 

Eng. Cosway, Richard . , 

Fr. Courtois, James, known as H Borgognone 

Fr. , William (brother) 

Fr. Couture .... 

Fr. Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) 

Fr. , William. 

Fr, Cousin, John . 

Eng. Cox, David . . 

Ger. Cranach, Lucas . 

Amer. Cranch, Christr. P. • 

Amer. Crawford, Thomas . 
Amer. Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. V.) 
Dutch. Cuyp, Jacob G. . 

Dutch. , Albert (son of Jacob) 

Dutch. , Benjamin ■ 



BOBN. 

1538 
1604 
1643 
1781 



DIED. 
1608 
1671 
1688 
1841 



Painter. 
Painter. 

Sculptor. 
Sculptor. 



Painter. 

Miniature Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Engraver. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

Sculptor. 

Sculptor and Architect. 

. Paint., Sculp., etc. 

Lands. Painter. 

Engraver. 

. . Painter. 

Sculptor. 

. Lands. Painter. 

Lands, and Cattle Painter. 

Lands, and Cattle Painter. 

• • Hist. Painter. 



f. I. 0. 300 

1763 1810 

1628 1719 

1240 1300 

1600 16S2 

f. b. C. ISO 

1812 1844 

1802 1848 

1788 1847 



1776 
1689 
1737 
1787 
1493 
1536 
1596 
1740 
1621 
1628 

1658 
1716 
1500 
1723 
1470 

1814 

1568 
1606 
1650 



1837 
1776 
1815 

1534 
1578 
1669 
1828 
1673 
1679 

1731 
1777 
1590 
1859 
1553 

1857 

1649 
1667 



Eng. 


Danby, Francis . , . . Painter. 


1793 


1861 


Eng. 


Daniel, Thomas . . • . . Lands. Painter. 


1749 


1840 


Eng. 


, Wm» .... Lands. Painter. 


1769 


1837 


Ger. 


Dannecker, John Henry, ' Adriadne,' &c. . Sculptor. 


1758 


1841 


Amer. 


Darley, F. O. C. . . . Painter and Designer. 


1822 




Fr. 


David, James Louis . . . . Painter. 


1750 


1825 


Fr. 


, Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French 








school) . . . . • Sculptor. 


1789 


1856 


Fr. 


Delacroix, F. V. E. . . ... Painter. 


1798 


1863 


Fr. 


Delaroche, Paul ... Hist. Painter, 


1797 


1S58 



1012 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



SATIOJJ 

Get. 

Dutch. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Painter. 
De "Witt, James .... Painter. 

Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. 
Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 
Domenichino, Dominic Zampieri (excelled in expression) Painter. 



Donatello, or Donato 

Dore, Gustave . 

Doughty, Thomas 

Douw, or Dow, Gerard 

Dubuffe, 

Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse 

Dunlap, "William 

Durand, Asher B. (N. T.) . 

Durer, Albert (and author) 



. Florentine Sculptor. 

Painter and Designer. 

Lands. Painter. 

. Familiar Life Painter. 

, Hist. Painter. 

Painter. 

Hist. Painter. 

Painter and Engraver. 

Paint., Eng., Sc, and Arch. 



BORN. 


MFD 


16S5 


17« 


1695 


1747 


f. b. o. 330 


1616 


1688 


1581 


1641 


1383 


1466 


1793 


1S56 


1613 


1674 


1611 


1665 


1766 


1839 



1471 



E 

Eng. Eastlake, Chas. L. . . . . Painter. 

Ger. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 

Eng. Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on 

glass ..... Painter. 

Amer. Ehninger, .Tohn "W". (N. Y^ . . . Painter. 

Amer. Elliott, Chas. L. (N. Y.) . . Port. Painter. 

Eng. Etty, "Wm. 

Gr. Eupompus (founder of school at Sicyon) 



Ital.Am.Fagnani, G. 

Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . 

Eng. Flaxman, John . 

Eng-. Finden, "Wm. 

Amer. Forbes, Edwin . 

Scot. Forrest, Robert . . . 

Fr. Frere, Edouard 

Swiss. Fuseli, Henry (resided in England 

Swiss. , John G. . . . 

G 

Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas 

Fr. Gerard, Fran. P. S., baroi. . 

Fr. , John I. (Granville) . 

Ital. Ghiberti, Lawrence 

Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak 

Eng. Gibson, John 

Amer. Gifford, Sanford E. . 

Fr.Am. Gignoux, Regis . . 

Ital. Giordani, Luke (the Proteus of Painting) 

Ital. Giorgione, Barbarelli . . 

Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) 

Fr. Girardon, Francis 

Fr. Girodet, Trioson Aim6 Louis 



1793 
1768 



1865 
1859 



1805 



Painter. 


1787 


1849 


Painter. 






ainting in oil) Painter. 


1370 


1411 


. Port. Painter. 






. Lands. Painter. 






. Sculptor and Artist. 


1755 


182* 


Engraver. 


1787 


18591 


. . Painter. 






Sculptor. 


1790 


1852 


. Genre Painter. 






. Painter. 


1741 


1823 


. . Painter. 


1706 


1781 


. Lands. Painter. 


1727 


1788 


Painter. 


1770 


1837 


Caricaturist. 


1803 


1847 


. Florentine Sculptor. 


1378 


1456 


oak . Sculptor. 


1648 


1721 


Sculptor. 


1791 


1867 


. Lands. Painter. 






Lands. Painter. 






j) . Painter. 


1629 


1704 


. . Painter. 


1477 


1511 


Paint. Sculp, and Arch. 


1276 


1338 


. Sculp, and Arch. 


1630 


171S 


. Painter. 


1767 


1824 



BIOGRAPHICAL IOT)EX. — ARTISTS. 



igi; 



RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Ital. Giulio Romar.o (Pippi) .... Painter. 

Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. 

Amer. Greenotigh, Horatio . . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. 

Er. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter. 

Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter. 

ItaL Guido, Reni (excelled in "beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 



BOEN. 


DIED. 


1492 


1546 


1515 


1572 



1805 

1726 
1590 
1574 



1852 

1805 
1606 
1642 



H 

. . . Painter. 

Painter. 

. • . Painter. 

. Landscape Painter. 

+• . Architect. 

. Historical Painter. 

... Painter. 

Engraver. 

. . . Painter. 

Painter. 

Historical Painter. 

. . Landscape Painter. 

Painter. 

Portrait and Historical Painter. 



Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry 

Amer. Hart, ¥m., b. in Scotland 

Amer. Hart, Jas. M. " 

Amer. Haseltine, W. Stanley 

Eng. Haviland, John . 

Eng. Haydon, R. B. . 

Amer. Healy, Gr>o. P. 

Eng. Heath, Charles . 

Amir. Hennessy, W. L • 

Amer. Hicks, Thos. 

Eng. Hilton, William . 

Flem. Hobloema, Mynderhout 

Eng. Hogarth, William . 

Swiss. Holbein, Hans . 

Ger. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates . Engraver. 

Amer. Homer, Wir.slow .... Painter. 

Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) . Painter. 

Amer. Hosmer, Harriet .... Sculptor. 

Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . . . Engraver. 

Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) . Sculptor. 

Fr. Houel, John, Travels, &c. Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 

Amer. Hnbbard, Rich. W. .... Painter. 

Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England) . . . Sculptor. 

Amer. Huntington, Dan. . , , Painter. 

Eng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . . . Painter. 

Dutch. Huysum, John van (flowers and fruit) . Painter. 

Dutch. , Justus (The Old) . , . Painter. 

Dutch. (The Young) . . Painter. 



1787 
1823 
1828 

1792 
1786 

1808 



1823 
1786 
1611 
1697 
1498 
1607 

1592 
1831 
1698 
1746 
1736 

1806 
1816 
1827 
1682 
1659 
1684 



1853 
1846 



1849 



1839 
1699 
1764 
1554 
1677 

1660 

1780 
1828 
1813 



1749 
1716 
1706 



Amer. Inman, Henry 



I 
Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1S01 



1840 



Amer. Jarvis, J. W. 

Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. Y.> 

Amer. ' , David (N. T.) 

Fr. Johannot, Chas. H. A. 

Fr. , Tony (brother) 

Amer. Jones, Alfred, IS. Y. 

Eng. , Inigo . 

Amer. , Thos. D. 



. Portrait Painter. 






. Painter. 






. . Painter. 






Painter and Designer. 


1S00 


1887 


Painter and Designer. 


1803 


1852 


i . Engraver. 






• Architect. 


1572 


1652 


. . Sculptor. 







1014 



THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 



RATIOS. 

Flem. Jordacns, Jacob 
Ital. Julio, Eoniano 



NAME AND PBOFESSION. 



BORN. 

Painter. 1595 
Painter and Architect. 1492 



K 



Swiss. Kauffman, M. A. Angelica 0. (in England) Poetical Painter. 1747 

Amer. Kensett, John F. .... Painter. 1818 

Ger. Kiss, August .... Sculptor. 1802 

Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) . Painter. 1648 



DIEIv. 

1678 
1516 



180-i 



1723 



Dutch. Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 
Fr. Landon, C. P. . . Writer on Art and Painter. 

Eng. Landseer, Chas. . . . Painter of Genre. 

Eng. , John .... Engraver. 

Eng. , Sir Edwin .... Painter. 

Amer. Lang, Louis (h. in Germany) ... Painter. 

Eng. Lawrence, Sir Thos. .... Painter. 

Lehrun, Charles (painter to Louis XrV.) . . Painter. 

Leech, John . . . Humorist Artist. 



1640 



1711 

1826 



1852 



Fr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Amer 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 



Amer. 

Scot. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 



Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) 

Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) . 

Leslie, Chas. E. (resided in England) 

Leasing, Carl Fred. 

Leutze, Emanuel (b. in Germany) 

Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . , 

Liverseege, Henry . . 

Lysippus (made 600 statues) 



Painter. 

Painter. 

Painter. 

. Painter. 

. Painter. 

Painter and Engraver 

. Painter. 

. Sculptor. 



Malbone, Edward G. 
Marshall, ¥m. O. 

, Wm. C. . 

Martin, John . 
Masaccio 

Matsys, Quintin . 
Mayer . . 
Mazzuolo, Francis 
McEntee, Jervis 
Meissonier, Justus A. 
, Jean L. 



Mengs, Anthony R. (the 
Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel . 

Dutch. Mieris, Francis . 
Fr. Mignard, Peter 
Amer. Mignot, Louis R. 
Amer. Mills, Clark . . 

Swiss. Mind, Gottfried . 
Ital. Morghen, Raphael , 

Amer. Morse, Samuel F. B. 
Amer. Mount, William Sidney 
Eng. Moreland, George 
Bp&n. Murillo, Bartholomew 3. 



m; 

. Miniature Painter. 

. . Sculptor. 

. . Engraver. 

. . Painter. 

. . Painter. 

... Painter. 

. . Bculptor. 

. . . Painter. 

. . Painter. 

Painter, Sculptor, and Architect. 

Painter. 

of Germany) . Painter. 

Familiar Life Painter. 

. Familiar Life Painter. 

. . Painter. 

. . . Painter. 

<, . Sculptor. 

. . Painter. 

, . Engraver. 

, . . Painter. 

. . Painter. 

. . . Painter. 

, . Painter. 



1769 
1803 
1814 
1769 
1619 
1816 
1618 
1617 
1794 
1808 
1816 

1494 1533 

1803 1832 

f. B. O. 324 



1830 
1696 

1680 
1655 
1859 



1777 
1813 

1789 
1402 
1460 

1503 

1695 
1815 
1729 
1615 
1635 
1610 

1815 
1768 
1758 

1807 
1764 
1613 



1807 



1854 
1427 
1529 

1540 

1756 

1779 

1669 
1681 
1695 



1814 



1S04 
1683 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. — ARTISTS. 



10 J 5 



N 

RATION. NAMB AND PROFESSION. BOBN. DIEB^ 

Dutch. Neefs, Peter . . . Architectural Painter. 1570 1651 

Eng. Newton, Gilbert (Stuart) , . Historical Painter. 1785 1835 

Eng. Nollekins, Joseph, .... Sculptor. 1737 1823 

Eng, Northcote, Janiea . . . . Painter. 1746 1831 



Eng. Opie, John . . 

Dutch. Ostade, Adrian van (interiors) 
Dutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) 
Eng. Owen, William . . 



Painter. 1761 1801 

Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1686 

. Painter. 1617 1671 

. Painter. 1769 1825 



Amer. 


Page, Wm. ... 


. , Painter. 


1811 




Fr. 


Pajou, Augustin ... 


. Sculptor. 


1730 


1809 


Ital. 


Palladio, Andrew . . 


. a Architect. 


1518 


1580 


Span. 


Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. 


Painter. 


1653 


1728 


Itai. 


Pannini, Giov. Paolo . . 


Architectural Painter. 


1691 


1764 


Gr. 


Parrhasius, of E-pbesus . . 


Painter. 


f. B. 


0. 420 


Amt/, 


Peale, Charles W. . Historical and Portrait Painter. 


1741 


1827 


Amer. 


, Rembrandt 


Painter. 


1778 


1860 


Er. 


Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre.) Architect. 


1613 


1688 


Ital. 


Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) 


Painter. 


1446 


1524 


Swiss. 


Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) 


, . Painter. 


1607 


1691 


Bel. 


Peters, Bonaventura . , . 


Marine Painter. 


1614 


1652 


Bel. 


, Francis Lucas . . 


. . Painter. 


1606 


1654 


Bel. 


, John 


Marine Painter. 


1635 


1677 


Gr. 


Phidias (the most famous of anoient sculptors) . Sculptor, b. 


0.498 b. 


0.431 


Eng. 


Phillips, Thomas, R. A. . . 


. Port. Painter. 


1770 


1S45 


Fr. 


Picart, Bernard . . 


. Engraver. 


. 1663 


1733 


Er. 


Pigalle, John Baptist . . 


, Sculptor. 


1714 


1785 


Ital. 


Pietro, da Pietre . . 


Hist. Painter of Rome. 


1671 


1718 


Fr. 


Piles, Roger de . . . 


Author and Painter. 


1635 


1709 


Ital. 


Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) 


. Ed graver. 


1707 


1778 


Ital. 


Polidors, da Caravaggio . . 


, Painter. 


1495 


1543 


Gr. 


Polycletus (statue of Juno at Argos) 


. Sculptor, b. 


c. 430 




Ital. 


Pordenone, Regillo da 


, Painter. 


1484 


1540 


Dutch. 


Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) . Painter. 


1625 


1654 


Fr. 


Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape 


painting) Painter. 


1594 


1665 


Ital. 


Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) . 


Landscape Painter. 


1613 


1675 


Ital. 


Piombo, Sebastiano del . . 


. Painter. 


1485 


1547 


Amer. 


Powers, Hiram . . 


. . Sculptor. 


1805 




Ft. 


Pradier, Jacques - . , 


. 'Sculptor. 


1798 


1852 


Amer. 


Pratt, Mathew . . 


. . Painter. 


1734 


1805 


Gr. 


Praxiteles , '. , 


„ Sculptor, f. 


B. c. 350 




Eng. 


Prout, Samuel ... 


Water-colorist. 


1783 


1S52 


Fr. 


Prudhon, of Cluny , . 


. . Painter. 


1760 


1823 


Fr. 


Puget . . Sculptor, 


Painter and Architect. 


1622 


1694 


Eng. 


Pugin, Augustus A. W. . . . 


. . Architect, 


1811 


1852 



1016 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



R 



NATION 


NAME AND PROFESSION. 




BORN. 


dibr 


Ital. 


Raphael, d' Urbino (real name Sanzio) A 


. prominent Painter. 


1483 


152(1 


ItaL 


Raphael daRhegio (Raffaelino) Hist, and Port. Painter. 


1552 


158C 


Ger. 


Raucb, Christian David . . 


Sculptor. 


1781 


1859 


Dutch. 


Rembrandt van fiyn, Paul Geritz . 


. 


1606 


1669 


Ger. 


Retsch, Moritz . . . 


. Art Designer. 


1779 


1859 


E-ag. 


Reynolds, Sir Joshua , . 


Painter 


1723 


1792 


Eng. 


Richardson, Jonathan . Writer 


on Art and Painter. 


1665 


1745 


Ger. 


Riedinger, John Elias # 


Animal Painter. 


1695 


1767 


Fr. 


Rober, Fleury • . • 


. Painter. 


1797 




Scot. 


Roberts, David 


. o Painter. 


1796 


1864 


Fr. 


Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) 


• Sculptor. 


1746 


1816 


Eng. 


Romney, George ... 


. Painter. 


1734 


1802 


Flem. 


Roos, Philip Peters . . . 


• Painter. 


1655 


1705 


Ital. 


Rosa, Salvator • . • 


. Paint"?. 


1614 


1673 


Amer. 


Rossiter, Thomas P. . . 


. Painter. 






Fr. 


Roubilliac, L. F. . . 


• Sculptor. 


1695 


1762 


Fr. 


Rousseau, James . . 


. Painter. 


ie3o 


1693 


Eng. 


Rowlaiidson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng. 


1756 


1827 


Flem. 


Rubens, Peter Paul , . . 


. Painter. 


1577 


1646 


Scot. 


Runciman, Alexander . . 


Painter. 


1736 


1785 


Dutch. 


Rnysdael, Jacob . . 


Landscape Painter. 


1636 


1684 


Dutch. 


Ruysdael, Solomon ... 


Painter. 


1616 


1670 


Dutch. 


Ryckaert, David ... 


Painter. 


1615 


1677 


Dutch. 


Ryckaert, Martin . . 


Landscape Painter. 


1591 


1636 


Dutch. 


RysbraecU, Ieter . . . 


Landscape Painter. 


1657 


1718 


Eng. 


Rysbiach, John M. (works in Westminster i 


Lbbey) Sculptor. 


1694 


1770 



Ital. Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) . 

Ital. Salvi, Nicholas ... 

Ital. Sanmicheli, Michael ... 

Ital. Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanucchi . 

Eng. Savage, James ... 

ItaL Seamozzi, Vincent . . 

Pruss. Schadow, J. G. . . . 

Ger. Schadow, Godenhaus F. W. . 

Ger. Schadow, Rudolf ... 

Dutch. Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) 

Ger. Scheffer, Ary .... 

Ital. Schidone, Bartolomeo . . 

Gr. Scopas • • . . 

Eng. Sharp, William ... 

Amer. Shattuck, Aaron D. . . . 

Eng. Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy 

Eng. Sherwin, John Keyse ... 

Amer. Smillie, James ... 

Amer. , George H. • , . 

Amer. ■ -, James D. . . . 



Painter. 


1605 


1685 


Architect. 


1699 


1752 


Architect. 


1484 


1559 


Architect. 


1778 


1852 


Architect. 


1550 


1616 


Sculptor. 


1764 


1850 


Painter. 


17S9 




Sculptor. 


17S6 


1822 


Painter. 


1643 


1708 


Painter 


1795 


1858 


Painter. 


1560 


1616 


Sculptor, b. 


C.460 B. 


C. 353 


Engraver. 


1740 


1824 


Painter. 






Painter. 


1795 


1850 


Engraver. 


1751 


1388 


Engraver. 






Painter. ' 






Painter. 







iOEN. 


DIED 


1084 


1751 


1579 


1657 


1714 


178.1 


1716 


1822 


1589 


1656 


1636 


1689 


1721 


1792? 




1854 


1749 


1802 


1713 


1788 


1756 


1823 



BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. ARTISTS. 1017 

RATIOU. NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Amer. Smybert, John (b. in Scotland) . . . Painter. 

Flera. Snyders, Francis . Landscape and Animal Painter. 

Fr. Soufflot, J. G. (church of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect. 

Dutch. Spaendonck, Gerradvan . , Flower Painter. 

Span. Spagnoletto, Giuseppe Ribera la • , . Painter. 

Dutch. Steen, Jan . , , Painter. 

Amer. Stone, William O. « , , Portrait Painter. 

6cot. Strange, Robert . , . Engraver. 

Amer. Strickland, "William * . ; Architect. 

Eng. Strutt, Joseph, .... Author and Painter. 
Eng. Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. 
Amer. Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. 

Ger. Sunder, Lucas (see Cranach) . . . Engraver. 



ItaL Tenerani, Pietro . . . 

Flem. Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Rubens) 

Flem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) 

Scot. Thorn, Jas. (Tarn O'Shanter, &c.) 

Eng. Thornhill, Sir Jas. . 

Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert . . . 

Ger. Tieck, Christ Fried . 

Qr. TimaDthes (contemporary with Parrhasius) 

ItaL Tintoretto (Venetian — pupil of Titian) 

ItaL , II (James Eobusti) 

ItaL Titian, the greatest of the Venetian school 

Fr. Troyon, Constantino . . • 

Amer. Trumbull, John . . . 

Eng. Turner, J. W. M. . . . 



Eng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A. . . • Painter. 17S3 



Amer. Van Beest (b. in Holland p) . . Marine Painter. 

Eng. Vanbrugh, Sir John (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arch't. 

Amer. Vanderlyn, John . . . Historical Painter. 

Dutch. Vander Neer, Arnold . . Landscape Painter. 

Dutch. Vandervelde, Adrian . . . Landscape Painter. 

Dutch. , the younger . . ... Painter. 

Dutch. , "Wm., marine and battle . • Painter. 

Dutch. Vanderwerf, Adrian . . Historical Painter. 

Flem. Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait Painter. 

Dutch. Vaneyck, Hubert .... Painter. 

Dutch. Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) . Painter. 

Ital. Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . . . Painter. 

Ital. Van Vitelli, Louis, a Neapolitan . . Architect. 

Ital. Vasari, George, biographer of artists Architect and Painter. 
Bic. Vasi, Joseph . . Designer and Engraver. 

43* 



• 


Bculptor. 


1789 




, 


. Painter.' 


1582 


1649 


) 


Painter. 


1610 


1694 




Sculptor. 


1790 


1850 


Historical Painter. 


1676 


1732 




Sculptor. 


1772 


1844 


. 


Sculptor. 


1770 


1851 


. 


Painter. 


f. B. 


c. 240 


. 


Painter. 


1480 


1579 


. 


Painter. 


15!2 


1594 


. 


Painter. 


1480 


1579 




Painter. 


1813 


1865 


Historical Painter. 


1756 


1843 




. Painter. 


1775 


1851 



1672 


3720 


1776 


1852 


1619 


1633 


1639 


1672 


1633 


1707 


1610 


1693 


1654 


171 S 


1598 


1643 


1366 


1426 


1370 


1441 


1488 


1530 


1700 


1773 


1512 


1574 


1710 


1783 



1018 



THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 



IIATION. 

Span. 

Flem. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 



NAME AND PROFESSION. 

Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . Painter. 

Verboeckhoven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 

Ver Bryck, C. . Landscape Painter. 

Vemetj Horace . . Historical Painter. 

Vernet, Joseph ..... Painter. 
Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 
Ven-ochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking 



features in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. 

Vertue, George (500 plates) . . . Engraver. 

Vigtiola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter's Architect. 

Vinci, Leonardo da . Painter. 

Vitruvius, contemporary of Augustus . . Architect. 

Volpato, John ..... Engraver. 

Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- 
ry of Charles I. . . . Painter. 



BOBfi. WEB 

l599 1660 

1799 

1813 1844 

1789 1863 

1714 1789 



1422 1488 

1684 1756 

1507 1575 

1452 1519 

f B. o. 30 
1733 1802 



1582 



1649 



W 

Fr. Wailly, Charles de 

Amer. Ward, J. Quincy A. 

Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engraving 

Fr. Watteau, Antoine 

Amer. Weir, Robt. W. . 

Amer. , James F. 

Dan. Wertmuller, (?) (painted in America) 
Amer. "West, Benjamin . . . 

Eng. Westall, Richard . 

Eng. , William R. A. br. 

Amer. White, Edwin 

Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . . 

Scot, Wilkie, David 

Eng. Wilson, Richard 

Eng. Woollett, William 

Dutch. Wouverman, Philip 

Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &o.) 

Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, & 

Eng. "Wyatt, R. J. . . 



on steel 



Architect. 

Sculptor. 

Engraver. 

Painter. 

. . Painter. 

. Painter. 

Port. Painter. 

Painter. 

Historical Painter. 

Designer. 

Painter. 

Landscape Painter. 

Familiar Life Painter. 

Landscape Painter. 

Engraver. 

Painter. 

. . Architect. 

3.) . Architect. 

. . Sculptor. 



1729 



1684 
1803 



1738 
1781 

1781 



17S5 
1713 
1735 
1620 
1632 
1743 
1795 



179S 



1823 
1721 



182(1 
1836 
1856 



1841 
1782 
1785 
1668 
1723 
1813 
1850 



X 



Span. Ximenes, Fran. 



Painter. 



1598 



1666 



Slem. Vples, Charles de 



Painter. 



1510 



1563 



Ital. Zablia, Nicholas . . 

Gr. Zes^is, celebrated ancient . 

Ger. Zincke . . . 

ItaL Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo 

Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo , 

Ital. Zuccarelli . . . 



Architect. 

. . Painter. 

Enamel Portrait Painter. 

. Painter. 

Painter. 

. Painter. 



1674 1650 

B. c. 490 B. O. 400 
1684 1789 

1539 1639 

1529 1568 

1710 1788 



PAINTING. 



1019 



PAINTING. Chronological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged ia 
Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement at 
the Nineteenth Century. 

(From Bell's Edition of Bredow's Tables of Universal History.) 

1. Florentine School.— Stylo elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to 
please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace— 1240, Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, 
Andrea Tafli; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Verrochio, 
Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Leonardo da Vinci; 1469, Bartolommeo 
di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Per uzzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 1434, Dominico 
Beccafumi; 1488, Andrea del Savto; 1493, Jacopo Carrucei da Pontormo; 149 i, Del Eosso.. 
1500, Perino del Vaga; 1509, Daniel da Volterra; 1510, Francesco Salviati; 1510, G iorgio Vassari ; 
1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luigi Oardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 1578, Matteo Bosselli; 
1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona; 1611, Pietro Testa; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo- 
foli; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni; 1702, 
Pompeo Battoni. 

2. Eoman School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical 
study of the antique and of nature ; heads of the most sublime beauty ; coloring and chiaro 
oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 14S3, Eaffr.el; 
1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero ; 1543, 
Frederico Zucchero; 1589, Dominico Feti; 1594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo 
Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine; 1602, Ceriozzi' 
1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspro, 
±616, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Bomanell; 1623, Giacinto Brandi; 1623, Filippo 
Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Maratti ; 1634, Ciro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Baffael Mengs. 

8. Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent 
coloring, admirable effect; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; this 
school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgione ; 1477, 
Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore) ; 14S0, G. A. Begillo ; 1485, Sebastiano del Piombo ; 1510, 
Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Robusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrea 
Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539, Dario 
Varotari; 1540, Felice Biccio ; 1540, Jacopo Palma (ifVecchio); 1544, Jae Palma; 1549, Giov. 
Contarino; 1560, Maria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 15S6, Tiberio Tinelli; 1590, Aless. 
Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti; 1642, Andrea Pozzo ; 1656, Franc. 
Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Eicci ; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Eosa Alba Camera; 1675, 
Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 16S2, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canaie; 1693, Giov. Bat. 
Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 

4. Lombard and Bolognese Schools. — Correggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded 
a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools 
are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and voluptuous (though 
perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his colo r - 
ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their 
pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Correggio. 1450, Francesco Franco ; 
1490, F. Prirnaticcio ; 1494, Correggio Antonio Allegri ; 1495, Polidorl Caldari ; 1504, Fr. Maz- 
zuoli; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi j 1546, Carnillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Car- 
ravaggio; 1555, Lodov. Caracci: 1557, Agostino Caracci; 1560, Annibale Caracci; 1560, Bartol. 
Schidone ; 1575, Guido Eeni, called Guido ; 1576, Lionello Spada ; 1577, Aless. Tiarini ; 1578, 
Francesco Albano; 15S0, Giacomo Cavedone ; 1581, Dora. Zampieri, called Domenichino; 1581, 
Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov. Lana ; 1600, Mie. Aug. 
Colonna ; 1606, Grimaldi ; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani ; 1612, Simone Canlarini ; 1624, P. Fran. 
Mola; 162S, Cignani; 1633, P. F. Caroli ; 1643, Lodov. Quaini ; 1643, Ant. Franceschini ; 1654, 
Guis. del Sole f 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 1665, Guis. Maria Crespi; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani; 
1671, Donato Creti ; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1691, G. P. Panini. 

(Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as having founded 
general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the great Italian Schools." Neapol- 
itan. — The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. 
Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fil del Tesauro, 1320 ; 1500,"and Sabbatani ; 1560, Guis 
Cesare d'Arpino; 16u0, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator 
Eosa; 1631, Luca Giordana ; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Ferajoli; 1679, Sebast. Concr., 
1693, Carl Corrado. Genoese are often incorrect in design, — 1400, Nich. da Vottri ; 1527, Cam- 
biasi; 1544. G. B. Paggi; 1557, Bern. Castelli; 1581, Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590 Gio. Ca.-lone; 1618, 
Benedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni; 1639, G. B. Gauli; 1664, Greg. Ferrari, 1654, Bart, 
©uidoboni ; 1660, II Molinaretto ; Spaniards. — These painters have especially imitated the 
Venetian School, and often display its brilliant coloring.— 1400, Alonso Berragente; 1487, Bla*B* 



1020 PAINTING. 

dePrado; 1519, Morales; 15£8, Luis de Vargas ; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete ; 1550, Pabl* 
de las Rovias; 1589, Joseph Ribera; 1599, Don Diego "Velasquez de Silva; 1601, Alonso Canoj 
1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolme Esteban deMurillo; 1617, Franc. Rizzi ; 1681, 
Matias de Torres; 1640, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan de Alfaro; 1651, Juan O. Falco; 1668, P. 
di Pietri.) 

5. German School. — This School having never had a common point of union, bears no 
general and distinctive character; it produces, in the different styles of painting, rival artists 
to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1357, Theo. de 
Prague ; 1367, N. Wurmser ; 1479, Albert Durer ; 1492, Lucas Muller : 1498, Hans Holbein ; 
1E..5, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmer; 1550, Christ. Schwartz ; 1556, John Van Aachen: 
1564, J. Rottenhammer ; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzbeimer; 1593, S;im. Hofmann : 
1600. J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611, Ch. Loth ; 1616, Govaert Flink; 1618, P. Van de* 
Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J. Hen Roos ; 
1637, Jos. Warner; 1639, Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon ; 1647, M. S. Merian ; 1648, Godfrey 
Kneller; 1666, G. P. Ruggendas; 1668, J. R. Hnber: 1669, Anna Waser; 1685, Balthasar 
Denner; 16S9, Fr. P. Fergl 169S, J. E. Riedenger ; 1709, Brinkman; 1712, 0. W. E. • Dietrich ; 

1728, Raffael Mengs ; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 

6. Flemish or Belgio School. — This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imi- 
tation of nature, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design ; it produces 
eminent artists in every style; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birth ia 
this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but 
there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442. — 1306, Eubert Van Eyk; 
1870, John Van Eyk; 1450, Qnentin Messis; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabiise ; 
1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- 
bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 154S, O. Van Mander; 1550, H. Steenwyck; 1555, Denys Calvart ; 
1556, Otto Venius ; 1569, P. Van Breughel : 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S. Frank ; 1576, Fr. Sneyders; 
1577, Peter Paul Rubens; 15S0, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van 
Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1613, J. Van Artois ; 1618, Gonzales 
Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1663, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. 
Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort, 

7. Dutch School.— This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence 
of the chiaro oscuro ; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- 
nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this School 
1467, Erasmus ; 1494. Luke of Leyden ; 149S, Martin Hemskerk"; 1518, An. Moro ; 1564, 
Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol de Brey; 1585, Cornelius Poelenberg ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. 
D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynants; 1606, Albert Cuyp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn; 
1608, Gerard Terburg; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade ; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met- 
zu; 1620, Philip Woiivermans; 1624, Nicholas Bergham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolph 
Bakhytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1635, Jac. Buysdael, Hobbema; 1635. Fran, Mierirs; 1636, 
John Steen ; 1637; Van den Heyden ; 163S, Adrian van der Velde; 1640, Karel du Jardin; 
1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1632, John Van Huysum. 

English Painters. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools; 
excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Hans Holbein ; 1543, F. 
Zucchero; 1572, Inigo Jones,; 1601, P. Oliver; 1609, S. Cooper; 1610. W. Dobson ; 1620, Ric. 
Gibson; 16J9, John Greenhill ; 1648, Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James 
Thornbill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Rich. Wilson; 1723. Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thorn. 
Gainsborough; 1733, Sawrey Gilpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbourg ; 1735, David Allan; 1738, 
Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Northcote ; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, 
Philip Reinagle ; 1751. William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beechey ; 1755, Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, 
Francis Bourgeoise; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1.774, 
Edward Bird ; 1776, John Constable ; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Tho- 
mas Daniell ; 1785, David Wilkie ; 1786, R. B. Haydon ; , A. W. Calcott ; 1789, W. Etty. 

8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the differ* 
ent Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics ; they are in general more 
successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation 
and affected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most numer- 
ous and flourishing school of all. — 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Rosso de Rossi ; 1502, J. Cousin ; 
1582, Simon Vouet; 1594, Nicholas Ponsin ; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Valentin; 1600, 
James Blanchard; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur; 
1619, Charles le Brun; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien 
1667, Nicholas Bertin; 1667, Antb. Rivallv; 1684, Ant Watteau; 1688, Francis Le Moine; 1692 
Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire; 1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Vi»» ■ 

1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet. 



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